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Abstract
Purpose – This study aims to propose an electronic waste collection and classification system to enhance
social, environmental and economic sustainability by integrating data-driven technologies in emerging
economies.
Design/methodology/approach – GM (1, 1) model under grey prediction is used in this study in order to
estimate the trend of the amount of collected electronic waste in emerging economies.
Findings – It is revealed that the amount of collected electronic waste is increasing day by day, and within the
framework of sustainability in the process of collecting and classification of electronic waste, digital
technologies were found to be lacking. It has been determined that this deficiency, together with the increasing
amount of electronic waste, has caused environmental, social and economic damage to emerging economies.
Originality/value – The main originality of this study is integrating electronic waste collection and
classification processes with data-driven technologies and sustainability, which is a relatively new subject.
Keywords Digitalization, Data-driven technologies, Sustainability, Waste management, Electronic waste,
Forecasting, Grey method
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
Digitalization within the supply chain aims to create a fully optimized supply chain by
integrating digital data with processes (Lopez Alvarez et al., 2008), and it helps in reducing
waste and increasing productivity in supply chain management (Rovetta et al., 2009). Digital
supply chains include features such as integrated application, logistics visibility, smart
warehousing and autonomous logistics (Osburg and Lohrmann, 2017) as well as the
digitalization of supply chain management directly related to waste management processes
(Rada et al., 2013; Barata et al., 2018).
As one of the global problems under waste management, electronic waste (e-waste) is a
significant issue, and it gains more attention (Schumacher and Agbemabiese, 2019) due to
sustainability concerns, including all dimensions: environmental, economic and social.
According to Global E-Waste Monitor Report (2017), almost 45 million tons of e-waste were
produced in 2016, and only 20% of these wastes could be collected. E-waste is the fastest
growing type of waste in terms of environmental effect on the world (Islam and Huda, 2020).
Journal of Enterprise Information
There are many valuable materials that can be gained from recycling activities of e-waste; Management
however, the harmful substances in the e-waste need to be treated before the e-waste is Vol. 34 No. 1, 2021
pp. 267-291
destroyed (Kumar and Holuszko, 2017; Althaf et al., 2019; Islam and Huda, 2020). Moreover, © Emerald Publishing Limited
1741-0398
sustainability should be integrated with the supply chain management which includes end- DOI 10.1108/JEIM-02-2020-0043
JEIM of-life (EoL) products and recycling operations (Linton et al., 2007; Luthra and
34,1 Mangla, 2018).
Especially in emerging countries, e-waste is a residual problem (Garlapati, 2016; Ikhlayel,
2018) due to poor treatment processes and lack of knowledge (Kumar and Holuszko, 2017).
Due to the lack of safety considerations within recycling process of hazardous electronic
waste and lack of relevant protocol about classification of wastes in emerging countries, lots
of EoL products are recycled without classification or are thrown away (Frazzoli et al., 2010;
268 Garlapati, 2016). Moreover, as a result of the lack of regular and effective legislation,
emerging countries can be vulnerable to health risks arising from chemicals in electronic
waste (Frazzoli et al., 2010). In emerging countries, there is no adequate and appropriate
infrastructure for safe recycling activities for electronic wastes, and therefore, e-waste is
usually kept at home (hibernation) or disposed directly in landfills.
In order to understand the severeness of e-waste in emerging countries, it is essential to
develop a systematic approach to determine further applications for managing e-waste in
emerging countries. In that manner, reverse logistics may contribute to managing e-waste
collection. Hence, in order to manage the reverse logistics activities, proper roadmaps are
essential. Thus, to comprehend the current state and to anticipate the future, the initial step of
roadmaps should be forecasting. From this point of view, the first research question is
structured as:
RQ1. What shall be the anticipated e-waste collection figures in the long run within
emerging economy context?
In particular, collection of e-waste is a growing problem in emerging economies since there is
a lack of systematic approaches and improper technologies. Especially, the most significant
problem is caused by the lack of classification and collection process of e-waste in emerging
economies. In contrast to developed countries, in emerging economies, e-wastes are collected
and recycled without any classification (Kumar and Holuszko, 2017; Leader et al., 2018), and
thus the useful and valuable parts, components and even products are either incinerated or
landfilled (Needhidasan et al., 2014). Therefore, it can be said that there is a need for a
systematic collection and classification mechanism, which is the crucial part of reverse
logistics, to manage environmental, economic and social concerns.
With this view, the second research question is presented as:
Based on the previous research question, digitalization should also be integrated to e-
waste management practices in emerging economies in order to deal with the environmental
and technological challenges. By considering literature, it can be seen that there is a gap in
electrical and electronic waste sectors, especially in the collection process based on track-and-
trace technologies and smart collection systems (Lopez Alvarez et al., 2008; Rada et al., 2013;
Keim, 2017; Martin and Leurent, 2017). Furthermore, in the collection process, digitization
should be designed to leverage support and synchronize transformations toward
sustainability (Keim, 2017). Therefore, in order to create innovations in the world of waste
management and to enter the digital age, adopting innovations and using appropriate
technology have become very important under the triple bottom line (TBL) concept (Osburg,
and Lohrmann, 2017).
RQ2. How shall the current state of e-waste collection system be improved by
digitalization to enhance sustainability within emerging economy context?
Based on these research questions, implementation of this study was done in one of the
emerging economies, Turkey, which struggles with the e-waste classification and collection
problem. Thus, firstly, the amount of e-waste collection in Turkey is predicted for the next
four years by using the grey prediction method. Secondly, a proposed sustainable and digital
collection and classification center model to manage e-waste in emerging economies is
developed according to the results of the implementation, and the data-driven technologies Manage
and TBL-based benefits of the proposed sustainable collection and classification center are e-waste in
identified.
Following the introduction, the background related to e-waste collection problem in
emerging
emerging economies and e-waste collection problem in Turkey is discussed. In section 3, the economies
need for forecasting in e-waste collection is explained. In sections 4 and 5, methodology and
implementation of the study are explained, respectively. In section 6, an analysis of the
current state of e-waste collection in Turkey is presented. In section 7, a sustainable collection 269
and classification center model based on digitalization benefits for e-waste is proposed.
Finally, in section 8, concluding remarks are summarized.
Furthermore, since the grey prediction model is suitable when there are chaotic, complex and
uncertain data sets, it is suitable to use the method (Zhang et al., 2011). In Turkey, there is a
chaotic situation due to the turbulence effect of the regulation, and in addition to that, limited
data sets exist to make prediction of the amount of e-waste. Therefore, the grey prediction
model is practical when there is an ambiguous system (Chen and Chang, 2000).
Moreover, the prediction methods have to be applied while considering “saturated or
emerging market” conditions for a study (Ikhlayel, 2016). The grey prediction method has
been mainly used for chaotic environment in emerging economies having limited data.
The GM (1,1) model works as the core system and hence is the most crucial part of the grey
prediction method(Yang et al., 2018). Furthermore, the GM (1,1) model is useful for limited
data sets and can work for small amount of data (Bao et al., 2015). It has several advantages
when it is an uncertain system and when less statistical analysis is required, which refers to
the normal distribution (Liu and Yang, 2015). Therefore, in this study, the GM (1,1) model is
used to predict the amount of e-waste in Turkey taking into consideration Turkey’s condition.
In the following section, grey prediction is explained in detail.
The presented sequence is subjected to the accumulating generation operation (AGO), which
refers to the cumulative sum of x0 series, wherein the following sequence x1 is found.
Step 2: x0 series changes monotonically to increasing x1 series by using AGO in the
second step. Sigma is utilized in the equation, which is shown below, in order to calculate
x1.
X
k
x1k ¼ x0 i ; i ¼ 1; 2; . . . ; n (4)
i¼1
Step 3: After obtaining x1k series, z1k should be calculated. The generated mean sequence z1k
of x1k is calculated as follows.
z1k ¼ 0:5x1k þ 0:5x1ðk1Þ ; k ¼ 1; 2; . . . ; n (6)
x0ð2Þ ¼ aZ21 þ b
x0ð3Þ ¼ aZ31 þ b
JEIM x0ðnÞ ¼ aZn1 þ b (9)
34,1
In order to find a and b, below matrices should be structured by using the given formula:
x02 z12 1
x03 z13 1 (10)
276 Y ¼ x0n B¼ −z1n 1
After that, the matrix method is used to find a and b parameters by Equation (11).
−1 T
α ¼ ½a; bT ¼ BT B B :Y (11)
Step 5: Grey differential equation is needed to calculate the predicted value of the initial
data at time ðk þ 1Þ.
b b
x1ðkþ1Þ ¼ x01 e−ak þ (12)
a a
Inverse AGO is essential in order to control the calculated data by using Equation (13)
(Kayacan et al., 2010).
Step 6: For the 6th step of the GM (1, 1) model, future values of the initial data set are found.
x0ðkþ1Þ ¼ x1ðkþ1Þ x1k ; k ¼ 1; 2; 3; 4 (13)
b
x0ðkþ1Þ ¼ ð1 ea Þ x0 ð1Þ eak ; k ¼ 1; 2; 3; 4
a
The new X (1) series is calculated from the cumulative sum of series (0) which is AGO.
X ð1Þ ¼ ð9500; 31500; 59500; 114500; 172500; 252500Þ
In the following sequence z1k of x1k is found as
ð1Þ
ZðkÞ ¼ ð20500; 45500; 87000; 143500; 212500Þ
The least square method is obtained to find a and b values by using Equation (11). In the
following step, by using Equation (10), X, Y and B matrices are calculated.
22000 20500 1
28000 45500 1
Y ¼ 55000 B ¼ 87000 1
58000 143500 1
80000 212500 1
Equation (11) is calculated to find a and b values and the results are as below:
a ¼ 0:30
90000
80000
70000
60000
50000
Ton
40000 Figure 1.
30000 The amount of e-waste
20000 collected in Turkey
10000 (ton) (Ministry of
Environment and
0 Urbanization, 2017
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018*
(National Waste
E-Waste 8000 6000 9500 22000 28000 55000 58000 80000 Management and
Action Plan,
Note(s): 2018* approximate data of the amount of collected e-waste in Turkey 2016–2023)
(Ministry of Environment and Urbanization, 2017)
JEIM b ¼ 18492; 54
34,1
e ¼ 2:7183
After calculations, the predicted values, which are calculated by Equation (13), are shown in
Table 2. As shown in Table 2, it is expected that the amount of collected e-waste increases
further.
278 Table 3 shows actual and predicted values of the amount of e-waste collected in Turkey in
2011–2020, and the error analysis for these years.
As represented in Table 3, the amount of e-waste collected in Turkey continues to increase
until 2021. While the approximate amount of e-waste in 2017 was 58,000 and in 2018 was
80,000 tons, it is expected that the amount of e-waste in 2021 will reach 196,485 tons.
Especially after 2018, this increase will accelerate from 80,000 tons to 108,753 tons in 2019.
In addition, another expected fraction will be from 108,753 tons in 2019 to 196,485 tons
in 2021.
In addition, as stated in Table 3, error analysis shows the error rate between the actual
values and predicted values when the prediction is made by the grey prediction model.
In the following part, Table 4 shows the traditional error results and defined as
Equation (14).
After calculating traditional error analysis for 2013–2018, average relative error is found
as 18%. Moreover, Figure 2 shows the comparison between actual and predicted data for
2013–2021.
As stated in Figure 2, the amount of e-waste collected in Turkey is increasing year by year.
The increase accelerated after the regulation in 2012. While the amount of e-waste collected
was 58,000 tons in 2017 and approximately 80,000 tons in 2018, it is expected to be 108,753
tons in 2019. It is expected to be 146,179 tons in 2020, and 196,485 tons in 2021. Therefore, to
Table 2.
Predicted values of 2019 2020 2021
amount of collected e-
waste in Turkey (tons) 108,753 146,179 196,485
2018 279
2017 Predicted Data
Actual Data
2016
2015
2014 Figure 2.
Comparison between
2013 actual and predicted
data for 2011–2020
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000
cope up with the rapid increase, sustainable solutions which are based on economic,
environmental and social solutions should be taken into consideration.
In the following section, the current situation in e-waste collection in Turkey is explained.
280 Firms/Enterprises
Consumer
Producer
Transshipment Center
Stationary
Collection Points
Secondhand
Markets
Backyard Recycler
Peddlers
Dispose
Raw Material
Figure 3.
Current situation in Not recycled
e-waste collection in
Transshipment
Turkey
Direct Route
firms/enterprises, stationary collection points which include piggy banks, bins or containers,
second-hand markets and peddler/waste collector. As mentioned in the “Theoretical
Background” section, consumers can keep their EoL electronic products, donate them under
some campaigns organized by firms or dispose them directly in rubbish bins. Beside these
activities, e-wastes are collected by sellers under the concept of “old for new,” firms/
enterprises utilize door-to-door operations to collect e-waste accumulated by the consumer
and licensed enterprises and government at specific periods collected it in vehicles (Guptha
and Shekar, 2009). In these methods, the consumer is passive, and the collector predominantly
plays an important role. Moreover, consumers can bring their e-waste to stationary collection
points organized by TUBISAD, ELDAY, the government or civil institutions in Turkey
(Ozturk, 2015). In the operation, people leave the waste in the piggy bank, bins or containers
(Guptha and Shekar, 2009). However, these wastes are sent to transshipment centers without
recycling types of wastes. In addition, firms can export e-waste to Third World countries to
remove or disassemble harmful materials, which is the most detrimental process for people
who are living in the Third World countries. Furthermore, peddlers can collect them from
consumers. E-waste is collected by peddlers and disposed of in informal ways without
considering devastating effects on environment and people. In addition, the process does not
only affect environment and people’s health, but also there is critical loss of value for precious
materials in these electronic products. E-waste which is collected by sellers is sent to
dismantling companies, while that collected by firms/enterprises or stationary collection
points is sent to collection or transshipment centers. These transshipment centers send e-
waste without any classification of recycling process of e-waste. Therefore, e-waste that can
be reused or remanufactured are recycled. Moreover, e-waste collected by peddlers is sent to
backyard recyclers (informal recycling centers) or collection centers. In backyard recycling,
due to lack of recycling process of e-waste, harmful materials that are toxic to human health
and environment are released.
In the following section, the proposed model for e-waste collection in Turkey is explained.
8. Proposed Sustainable Collection and Classification Center Model Manage
The lack of classification in the current situation causes degradation of materials and results e-waste in
in missing opportunity of obtaining value-added products at the final stage. Furthermore,
there are many parties including municipalities, recycling companies and public/private
emerging
organizations that are acting independently from each other in order to satisfy the economies
requirements of the regulation. Therefore, each party tries to manage the whole supply chain,
starting from e-waste collection until recycling. Due to increased and unnecessary number of
trips, unutilized vehicles and excess amount of distance traveled, transportation costs, CO2 281
emissions and traffic congestion increase. In addition, the lack of appropriate collection and
classification practices increases the risk of contamination of hazardous materials during
storage and transportation phases.
According to literature review, e-waste collection and recycling process do not consider
lean management which helps in waste reduction, cost saving and sustainable improvement
in emerging economies (Kurdve et al., 2014; Manzouri et al., 2014). Moreover, lean concept
includes generation and collection of waste which covers e-waste to decrease unnecessary
waste (Kurdve et al., 2014). Therefore, to have sustainability of e-waste collection, the
flowchart of collection process has to be lean (Kayanda, 2017). Furthermore, governments/
organizations can use lean management processes in e-waste activities to increase
environmental, social and economic benefits (Fercoq et al., 2016).
Therefore, in order to overcome the problems related to collection centers in emerging
economies that were mentioned in the previous section, as in line with the literature, lean and
sustainable approaches should be implemented. In Figure 4, the proposed model is
implemented by eliminating peddlers, transshipment centers and backyard recyclers and
adding sustainable classification and collection centers for a leaner and sustainable process.
In Figure 4, the proposed model has sustainable collection and classification center, which
classifies e-waste as refurbishable/remanufacturable, reusable and recyclable. The classified
products are sent from the collection and classification center according to their features so
that transport costs and carbon emissions are reduced, and harmful substances that occur
Donation Hibernation
Dismantling
Company
Factories or
industries used
Seller for
refurbishing
Consumer
Producer
Factories or
Secondhand Markets industries used
for recycling
Dispose
Conclusion
E-waste is a globally growing problem due to rapid technological developments and
shortening product life cycles. Especially in emerging economies, regulations are used to
promote proper e-waste treatment modes to gain environmental, social and economic
advantages. This study is conducted in one of an emerging economy, Turkey, where
regulation on control of e-waste items was published in 2012. In order to manage e-waste
problems in the long run and to understand the potential effects of e-waste problems in the
context of digitalization under the sustainability dimensions and to see the impacts of the e-
waste regulations, the grey prediction method is used to forecast the amount of e-waste Manage
collected for the next four years after 2016. Results show that the amount of collected e-waste e-waste in
will increase. However, due to lack of collection and classification practices, and to deal with
the current chaotic and ambiguous situation in e-waste management in Turkey, a new
emerging
sustainable collection and classification center model, based on digital technologies under economies
TBL concept, is proposed for e-waste management in line with the expected increase in the
amount of e-waste. Current practices in Turkey are solely based on recycling without
digitalization; however, with the proposed model, refurbishing / remanufacturing and 285
reusing will be imposed as a tool to deal with adverse impacts of e-waste.
As mentioned before, both the municipalities and electronic product-producing
companies are obliged for the collection and recycling stages. However, technology is
developing rapidly and digitalization is gaining importance. Therefore, digitalization
should result in benefits for waste collection stages. Digitalization benefits not only the
environment, but also the economy and society. This proposed center will provide social,
economic and environmental benefits by implementing data-driven technologies such as
collecting waste in driverless vehicles, reducing transportation cost with smart vehicles,
preventing leakage of harmful chemicals during storage and transportation due to lack of
classification with real-time monitoring systems, ensuring occupational safety (leakage of
harmful chemicals during storage and transportation), prevention of deterioration of
materials that can be renewed or reused during storage and transportation by robotic
systems, reduction of product loss that can be renewed or reused with smart monitoring,
reducing CO2 emissions in transportation with smart guidance, reducing the number of trips
and traffic jams with mobile application and software programs, increasing the usage of
vehicles with an autonomous vehicle and increasing awareness of EoL products using
mobile applications and social media.
Therefore, the proposed digital and TBL-based collection and classification centers can be
co-invested and even managed by municipalities and companies to achieve the efficient use of
resources in a digital and sustainable manner.
The proposed model requires substantial managerial and digital background in terms of
awareness, know-how and accumulation of necessary data. In addition, it also necessitates an
initial investment which can challenge the investors or the government. Furthermore, lack of
knowledge related to data-driven technologies in sustainable solutions can limit the potential
applications in emerging economies. The lack of governmental rules and regulations may
emerge as a barrier for the proposed system; thus, it may require certain time span to modify
and revise these rules and regulations. The proposed model needs to be clearly defined and
promoted among stakeholders in order to show its mutual benefits and to gain their support.
For future studies, the proposed model shall be implemented and disseminated to waste
management practices for various sectors. In addition, the asserted benefits can be validated
with real-life applications. Another research topic would be to integrate circular approaches
with the proposed model in order to embrace closed-loop supply chains. Comparative studies
can be conducted among emerging economies in order to reveal the common and
differentiating issues among them. The tools and techniques of digitization shall be
embedded within the proposed model in future studies.
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Corresponding author
Melisa Ozbiltekin can be contacted at: melisa.ozbiltekin@yasar.edu.tr
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