Introduction

1.1 Introduction

Availability of clear drinking water and adequate

sanitation of sewerage water are key factors for a
prosperous society. Development of society started
at points where these boundaries are met in a natural
way for instance alongside a river. The river provides
drinking water and is a natural channel to waste the
used water. Within the large hydrological water cycle
a smaller cycle can be recognised: the urban water
cycle.
With growing of population and economical activities, Fig. 1.1 - Hydrological water cycle
the sources for drinking water are threatened and
the waste run off pollutes the river for downstream
settlements. The self-cleaning capacity of the river The hydrological water cycle can be schematically
is too small to digest al the wastewater. To sustain drawn, as is figure 1.1. The urban water cycle is part
the economical development of settlements, alter- of this major cycle.
natives for drinking water and waste disposal have
to be found. In other words: the natural urban water The urban cycle starts with the abstraction of surface
cycle has to be controlled. Often this meant trans- or ground water for drinking water purposes.
portation of water over longer distances, both drinking One of the most well known uses of gravity flow
water and wastewater. Transport of large quantities through rivers are the Roman aquaducts (fig. 1.2).
of water is cheapest and most effective by piped and This was the transport of water, using only gravity as
pressurised systems. the energy source that drives the transport. These
In this curriculum we will consider the artificial urban very impressive systems transported water over
water cycle and especially the way water is trans- kilometres from the natural source to the point of
ported through this cycle using pumps and pipes. use.

1.2 The urban water cycle

In the large hydrological water cycle water is ‘pumped’

round with the sun as energy source. The system
follows the simple law of gravity: water flows from a
high level to a lower level. The energy level difference
between the high and lower level is also the driver
for the hydrological water cycle.

The sun is the ultimate energy source that starts the

circle. Energy is used to evaporate the water and
transport it to mountains, the high level. The natural
flow to the lower level through rivers is the transport
of the water in open channels. Alongside these rivers
the urban water cycles started with the development
of settlements. The urban water cycle is a kind of
small hydrological cycle with artificial means of ener-
gy input and flow channels. Historically only level
differences could be used to transport water like with
the Roman Aquaducts. Water is drawn from the river
and used as drinking water or irrigation water.
Fig. 1.2 - Roman aquaduct
Collection and transport of sewerage water is the
second stage in the urban water cycle. The sewerage
water is mainly colleted using gravity flow for a long
time as shown by the Roman Cloaca Maxima: again
a very sophisticated sewerage system of the old
Rome (fig. 1.3).

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Fig. 1.3 - Cloaca Maxima
The sewerage water system is also used for the
discharge of rain and storm water (fig. 1.4). In areas
as the Netherlands: lower than the surrounding rivers
and seas, the rainwater has to be pumped out.
Gravity flow is not possible, because water does not
‘flow up the hill’.
Fig. 1.4 - Combined system of sewerage and rain water
Especially wind energy was used in the Netherlands
to regulate the water levels in land below sea level:
the polders. Windmills are one of the typical elements
of the Dutch scenery and an important source for
Fig. 1.5 - Windmills
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the development for the western part of the Nether-
lands (fig. 1.5).
With windmills an external energy input was realised,
opening other possibilities to transport water over
large distances and to overcome level differences.
1.3 Development of water transport
Water transport through pipes, which needs a larger
energy input than gravity flow through open channels,
became possible on a large scale when auxiliary
power came available for instance by steam engines
and later combustion engines (fig. 1.6).
Fig. 1.6 - Steam machine
Also the possibility to industrially manufacture pipes
enhanced the development of networks and pumping
stations greatly. The early drinking water networks in
England were commercial activities of pipe manu-
facturers seeking for a market for their pipes.
Amongst the founders of the Amsterdam drinking
water network was an English pipe manufacturer that
supprted the development of the Amsterdam drinking
water network in the 1850’s (fig. 1.7).
Fig. 1.7 - Old Amsterdam pumping station
 Introduction

Fig. 1.8 - Large sewerage treatment plant

The need for a good sanitation, especially a good

discharge of waste water and sewage water, is
obvious from the point of view of public health.
Fig. 1.9 - Busy underground

Collection and wasting was the original main goal,

but with increasing pollution of receiving surface
waters, the sewerage water was treated more and
more. Treatment demands a centralised location, so
also here pressurised systems were introduced.
1.4 The network situation in 2000
The piped transport of water (drinking water, sewe-
rage and rain water) is the connection between the
points of use in the urban water cycle. The networks
are important!
Today the underground infrastructure is an immense
large network that delivers all kinds of services to
customers, from supplying drinking water, collecting
sewerage water, connection to telephone and inter-
net, providing energy in gas and electricity, cable
television, etc. In figures:
for a longer time has tremendous consequences as
well. An office building without water has to be closed
within a few hours, because toilets cannot be flushed
anymore (and coffee cannot be made). The aware-
ness of the services provided by the infrastructures
are so obvious that only the absence of them draw
attention. This can be in the self-sought situation of
camping or in the situation that pipes burst.
Apart from primary function of supplying drinking
water the network is also used as primary source for
fire fighting water.

o 110.000 km drinking water pipe

o 82.000 km sewerage system
o 100.000 km gas pipe system
o 120.000 km electricity pipe system
o 330.000 km cable
This al makes that the underground is crowded (fig.
1.9).

All infrastructures have an important role in modern

society, which becomes clear if any of them fail.
Power cuts on a large scale, telephone disruption,
etcetera have large impact on society. If we limit this
to the urban water cycle the cut off of drinking water Fig. 1.10 - Picture of failure

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The function of supplying fire-fighting water is a very
dominant item in designing of distribution networks.
The amounts of water necessary for fire fighting are
much larger than the drinking water requirements.
This results in a large network, overdimensioned as
far as the drinking water supply is concerned. The
effects on the lay out of the network will be discussed
later.
1.5 The urban water cycle: drinking
water and wastewater
1.5.2 Abstraction and treatment
The cycle starts with the abstraction of raw water,
either from surface water or from ground water.
Groundwater is abstracted from boreholes, using
multiply stage pumps (see paragraph XX). Surface
water is abstracted from open water. In both cases
water will be treated to drinking water. This treatment
process is hydraulically driven and will consume
energy.
An example of a hydraulic grade line is given in figure
1.11).

The urban water cycle differs from the natural hydro-

logical cycle, because the urban cycle is almost all
‘artificial’ in modern society. To start the cycle energy
has to be put in by pumps. In this paragraph the
elements of the urban water cycle will be described
and an estimation of the amount of energy consumed
analysed.
A schematised picture of the urban water cycle is
given in figure 1.1 (earlier in the text)

1.5.1 Energy consumption Fig 1.11 - Hydraulic grade line ground water treatment
Energy consumption can be roughly calculated by
using a rule of thumb. The energy needed to increase
the static energy of one cubic meter of water by one Conventional treatment of water does not consume
meter is 2,7 W/m3 as is explained in the text box. very much energy. In general only one of two pump
phases are used to pump the water to a filter or other
treatment facility. The energy consumption of a
conventional treatment amounts to 5 to 10 meters
water column. This means that the water has to be
pumped up to a level of 5 to 10 meters above the
level of clear water storage. As conventional treat-
Energy consumption per cubic meter
ment is mostly driven by gravity flow the energy level
determines the highest point in the treatment plant.
Pumps feed energy to the water in the form of
potential energy. Water is lifted (or pressurised)
to a certain level, from which the energy can be
transformed in kinetic energy.
E=mgh
In which
E : Energy level (potential)
m : mass of water
g : gravity
h : height water is lifted

To lift 1 cubic meter of water (1000 kg) 1 meter

the energy needed is:
E = 1000*9,81*1 = 9810 Ws = 2,7 Wh.
Fig. 1.12 - Hydraulic grade line surface water treatment

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 Introduction

Fig. 1.14 - Energy grade line transport and distribution

the distance water is transported. As a rule of thumb

the allowable energy slope is 1 to 2 mWc per
kilometre (a slope of 0.01 to 0.02 m/m)

The energy loss over a pipe is linear and dependent

of the length, diameter and roughness. In a flat
country as the Netherlands the pressure in the
network is relatively low, not exceeding 50 mWc. In
more hilly areas, the pressure in the network can be
much higher, especially in lower areas that are
connected to higher areas (fig. 1.15).
Fig 1.13 - Membrane installatie

When more than a 5 meter level is needed, mostly

the water is pumped up in two stages.
Modern membrane installations (fig. 1.13) demand
more energy, because of the higher losses over the
membranes resulting in higher pressures in the
system. This energy loss can go up as high as 30 to
60 mWc. A membrane installation is a pressurised
system, so does not put any restrictions to the level
of the building, making compact installations
possible.
Fig. 1.15 - Two hills with town in the valley and hydraulic
grade line
1.5.3.Energy consumption abstraction and
treatment
Consider a conventional system that abstracts water In those situations the flow is merely gravity flow and
from a level of about 10 meters below surface level no pumps are necessary to pressurise the system.
and a treatment process that demands another 10 In the valley pressure reduction can be applied by
meters of energy. The total process asks 20 meters using pressure reduction valves (PRV fig. 1.16). A
of energy and thus about + 55 W/m3. PRV throttles the flow fluid introducing a high local
A membrane system will demand more energy friction loss and thus reducing the pressure.
because of the energy consumption of the membrane If the water is to be transported through the valley to
passage. If this is another 30 mWc, the energy another part up on the next hill, pressure reduction
consumption will be enhanced by 81 W/m3. can only be applied at designated areas. Generally
distribution areas are separated from the transpor-
tation lines. The feeds to the distribution area is
1.5.4 Transport and distribution isolated and equipped with a PRV.
The treated water will be transported to the customers
using pumps, pipes and storages (fig. 1.14). The
energy loss or energy consumption is dependant of

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Fig 1.16 - Pressure reduction valves
1.5.5 Energy consumption transport and
distribution
In a flat country like the Netherlands the energy will
be mostly consumed to overcome the friction losses
in the pipes. On average this will be 40 mWc. The
energy consumption in the transport and distribution
is than about 108 W/m3.
1.5.6 Drinking water turns into sewerage
water
Almost all water that is pumped to a consumption
point has to be collected as sewerage water. This
goes for all the household connections, but also for
almost all the other connections. Only the water that
is used for irrigation of gardens will not return in the
sewerage system.
The sewerage is transported with gravity flow and
collected on district or neighbourhood level. The avai-
lable difference in level between the collection points
in a house and the storage tank in a district is in a
Fig. 1.17 - Sewerage systems under construction
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flat country like the Netherlands very limited. This
results in pumping almost all the sewerage to the
treatment plants.
1.5.7 Energy consumption collection,
transport and treatment
The energy consumption of the wastewater part of
the urban water cycle is almost the same as the
energy consumption of the drinking water part: the
water is transported to central treatment plants over
distances that equal the distances the drinking water
is transported under almost the same pressures. The
efficiency of the wastewater pumps is less, because
of the less tight fittings of the weirs in the pump (see
paragraph XX). Overall the energy consumption of
the wastewater part is considered to be the same as
that for the drinking water part.
Energy consumption urban drinking and
wastewater cycle
As calculated in the previous paragraphs the total
energy consumption of a cubic meter in the total
cycle is:
o Abstraction and treatment : 55 W/m3
o Membrane filtration : 193 W/m3
o Transport drinking water : 108 W/m3
o Transport sewerage water : 108 W/m3
o Treatment : 20 W/m3
Total consumption is 429 J/m3 at maximum, when
membrane filtration as treatment process is used.
One person uses about 50 cubic meter per year in
the Netherlands, consuming 21,5 kJ per year for
the total process. This makes the energy consump-
tion for the system very low compared for instance
with the heating of the water when used for
purposed as bathing and showering.
If 20% of the water is used for showering or bath-
ing, heating it up 20 degrees (from 18 tot 38 de-
grees) this will take 0,2*50*20*4000 = 800 kJ, which
is about 40 times as much as production and trans-
port energy.
 Introduction

1.6 The urban water cycle: rain water/
irrigation
The other part of the urban water cycle is the rain
water discharge. Especially in a flat country like the
Netherlands this asks for special attention.
The rain water is collected from the paved surface
area through street cesspits.
area. In the parts of the Netherlands that are below
the sea level, all the rainwater has to be pumped out
of the area. Part of the water will be evaporated or
used by trees etc, but the largest part will have to be
pumped out.
Traditionally this is done by windmills in times
combustion engines and electrical power was not
available, but nowadays electrical pumping stations
with Archimedean screws or axial weir pumps are
used

Fig. 1.18 - Cesspit

The water is transported through sewers with gravity

flow and collected in storage tanks. The transportation
to treatment plants takes a pressurised transport
system. Two different systems are possible: a
combined or separate system. In the combined
system the rainwater and the sewerage water use
one system. The separate system has two piped
systems: one for the wastewater and one for the rain-
water. Not all the collected water will be treated in a
treatment plant. In cases of heavy rainfall the storage
in the system is not enough to hold all the water and
part of it will be discharged to open water without
treatment.

Not only the rainwater that falls within the built area
and paved surfaces has to be transported to a waste

Fig. 1.19 - Heavy rainfall

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