SWM Merged

BITS Pilani
K K Birla Goa Campus
EEZG621/SSTMZG526: Solid Waste Management

Lecture - 1
Dr. Jayita Chopra
Email: jayitachopra@wilp.bits-pilani.ac.in
Module No Module Title Objectives
1 Introduction This chapter gives an introduction to modern waste
management, including issues as waste definition, problems
associated with waste, waste management criteria and
approaches to waste management.
2 Waste Generation and This chapter describes common approaches and methods in
Composition waste characterization including common terms, sampling,
characterization methods and data evaluation. The focus is on
the characterization of waste as it is generated or collected,
while specific issues on characterization related to individual
treatment processes and waste products are dealt with in the
following chapters: Characteristic data on residential waste ,
commercial and institutional waste, industrial waste and
construction and demolition waste.
3 Collection and Transport This chapter describes the material, equipment and vehicles
used in waste collection with primary focus on the collection
of residential waste in industrialized countries, but also treats the
collection of commercial and industrial waste as well as special
aspects related to waste collection in developing countries. The
chapter presents the basic principles and technology used in the
collection of waste and recyclables
4 Recycling This chapter describes briefly how paper , cardboard, glass,
plastic, metals, construction and demolition waste are produced
and how they are recycled in the industry.
Quality requirements and use of recycled products are
discussed, as are the resource and environmental issues of
recycling.
5 Biological treatment This chapter presents the basic aspects of the composting process
with a view to utilization in technologies for composting of solid
organic waste. This chapter addresses microbial activities in
aerobically degrading waste, the temperature profile of composting
waste, the factors affecting composting rates and the fate of
pathogens during composting. The various composting technologies
available will be discussed and mass balances and compost quality
will also be discussed
6 Incineration This chapter describes the basic issues of the incineration process
and the technologies. It also deals with flue gas cleaning , mass
balances, solid residues, utilization of residues, co-combustion of
waste in industrial kilns and the use of refuse-derived fuel (RDF;
Chapter 8.7). Thermal conversion of waste with a lack or deficit of
air as is the case of pyrolysis and gasification
7 Mechanical Biological Waste This chapter offers an introduction to the two technologies. As the
Treatment name suggests the technology combines mechanical
treatment technologies (screens, sieves, magnets, etc.) with
biological technologies (composting, anaerobic digestion).
Two main technologies are available: Mechanical biological
pretreatment (MBP), which first removes an RDF fraction
and then biologically treats the remaining waste before most of it is
landfilled, and mechanical biological stabilization
(MBS), which first composts the waste for drying prior to extraction
of a large RDF fraction.
8 Landfilling This chapter describes the main conceptual aspects of landfilling.
The historical development will be presented and key issues of
time frames, mass balances and technical approaches will be
discussed.
9 SPECIAL AND Healthcare risk waste is also known as clinical waste, infectious
HAZARDOUS WASTE waste, medical waste or hospital waste. This waste must be
handled with caution, as it can cause the spread of diseases and
even deadly epidemics. Most countries define healthcare risk
waste as a hazardous or special waste, that is to say a waste
stream that is unsuited for treatment together with municipal solid
waste. This chapter describes the healthcare risk waste and its
handling and treatment.
Books
Textbook:
TEACHING AND TRAINING MODULES FOR HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE WASTE MANAGEMENT
SECTOR
e-book SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN ASIA Published by the TUHH, Hamburg University of
Technology, Institute of Waste Resource Management, Germany
Reference Book(s):
1. Solid Waste Technology & Management THOMAS H. CHRISTENSEN
2. Frank Kreith, George Tchobanoglous - Handbook of Solid Waste Management, 2nd Edition (2002)
3. William A. Worrell, P. Aarne Vesilind - Solid Waste Engineering , Second Edition -CL-Engineering
(2011)
Evaluation Scheme:
No Name Type Duration Weight Day, Date, Session, Time
EC-1 Assignment Online - 15% Will be announced
EC-2 Mid-Semester Test Open Book 2 hours 35%

Friday, 10/3/2023 (FN)
10 AM - 12 Noon
EC-3 Comprehensive Exam Open Book 3 hours 50%

Friday, 19/5/2023 (FN)
10 AM - 12 Noon
Contents
Introduction to waste management
Waste definition
Problems associated with waste
Waste management criteria
Approaches to waste management
Introduction to waste engineering
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Waste
‘Waste is a left-over, a redundant product or material of no or marginal

value for the owner and which the owner wants to discard.’
Becoming ‘waste’ may depend on many factors, for example:

 Time
 Location
 State
 Income level
 Personal preferences
Solid Waste
‘a waste in a solid state’
Solid waste may be solid, or liquid as a sludge or as a free chemical

phase. This originates from defining solid waste as waste that is not
water (wastewater) or air borne (flue gasses).
Solid waste is mostly in a solid state, but also sludge from wastewater
treatment and liquid chemical waste are included
As per the Municipal solid waste (Management & Handling ) Rule, 2000
garbage is defined as municipal solid waste which includes commercial and
residential wastes generated in a municipal or notified areas in either solid or
semi-solid form excluding industrial hazardous wastes but including treated
biological wastes
History of solid waste
Uncontrolled dumping has been the cause of many problems in society over the
centuries
A good example is the bubonic plague:
 Zoonotic disease (passed from animal to human) caused by Yersenia pestis
 Transferred mainly between small rodents and their fleas, but can be transmitted
to humans when they come in contact with the fleas
In the middle ages there were uncontrolled piles of garbage in and around cities
This provided a great environment for rats and other disease carrying animals to
prosper, providing ideal conditions for a variety of diseases to flourish
Leptospirosis, Salmonellonis, toxoplasmosis
Present day
A big component of waste management is the 3Rs

Reduce- at the source
To make something smaller or use less
Through education and enforcement
Reuse- “re-use” materials in their original form instead of throwing away
Recycle- divert part of the waste stream back into production
Life cycle assessment has been suggested as a way to help solve waste
problems
Assess the environmental impact associated with all stages of a product’s life
cycle from “cradle-to-grave”
Hazardous Waste
Hazardous waste is more dangerous to the environment and to those handling

the waste and must be technically managed with more strict controls than
nonhazardous waste.
The hazardousness of a waste is assessed according to criteria as (simplified

after CEC, 2008):
 Explosive under the effect of flame, shock or friction.
 Oxidizing in contact with other materials resulting in highly exothermic
reactions.
 Flammable in contact with air having flashpoint less than 55◦C (highly
flammable, with a flashpoint less than 21◦C).
 Irritant: causing inflammation through contact with skin or mucous membrane.
 Harmful: causing limited health risks through inhalation, ingestion or
penetration of skin.
 Toxic: causing serious, acute or chronic health risks and even death through
inhalation, ingestion or penetration of skin.
 Carcinogenic: inducing cancer or increasing cancer incidence through
inhalation, ingestion or penetration of skin.
 Corrosive by destroying living tissue on contacts.
 Infectious due to viable microorganism or their toxins known or reliably
believed to cause disease in man or other living organisms.
 ‘Toxic for reproduction’: substances and preparations which, if they are
inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the skin, may induce nonhereditary
congenital malformations or increase their incidence.
 Mutagenic: inducing hereditary genetic defects or increasing their incidence
through inhalation, ingestion or penetration of skin.
 Releasing toxic gases in contact with water, air or an acid.
 ‘Sensitizing’: substances and preparations which, if they are inhaled or if
they penetrate the skin, are capable of eliciting a reaction of
hypersensitization such that on further exposure to the substance or
preparation, characteristic adverse effects are produced.
 Ecotoxic: presenting any immediate or delayed risks for any sector of the
environment.
 Substances capable by any means after disposal of yielding another
substance which possesses any of the characteristics listed above.
Material Flow and Waste Generation
Schematic material flow in society showing extraction of resources, production, use, waste management and
disposal into the environment
Problems Associated with Solid Waste
Volume/space
Public health Contamination of
issues the environment
Nuisances
Economy
What is Solid waste management?
It is a comprehensive program of waste prevention, recycling, composting

and disposal
This includes management of :

 Waste generation
 Storage
 Collection
 Transportation
 Processing
 Disposal
Waste Management Systems
In-house waste handling
Littering/unmanaged waste handling
Return system
Municipal waste management system
Industrial waste management system
Hazardous waste management system

Integrated waste management (IWM)
Defined as the selection and application of suitable techniques, technologies, and

management programs to achieve specific waste management objectives and
goals
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has identified four basic
management options (strategies) for IWM:
(1) source reduction,
(2) recycling and composting,
(3) Combustion (waste-to-energy facilities), and
(4) landfills
Relationships between the management options comprising integrated
waste management: (a) interactive, and (b) hierarchical
Waste Management Criteria
The following criteria should be considered in all waste management planning:

 Provide a customized and robust handling of all waste with a minimum of
effort for the customer and the citizen.
 Ensure the lowest possible load on the environment in terms of noise and
contamination of air, water and soil.
 Provide a maximum of resource recovery from the waste while
minimizing use of resources in the waste handling.
 Be a safe and healthy occupation for the workers offering non
monotonous work and achievable challenges.
Provide only little impact on the city with respect to traffic, vehicle exhaust,
noise, traffic accidents and spill of waste.
 Include aesthetic and architectural considerations in establishing waste
collection and treatment facilities.
 Respect as a minimum current laws, regulations and code of practice.
 Be economically acceptable and fair.
Waste Management Approaches
Waste management decisions take place on many levels, but are

characterized by a dominance of local decisions.
Local conditions, criteria and preferences play an important role in defining
the waste management system.
1. Common Sense Approach

2. Waste hierarchy
The Western world and parts of Asia have since the early 1980s used
the waste hierarchy as the main approach to waste management the
approach is called 3R, for reduce, reuse and recover
1. Waste prevention and cleaner technology

2. Reuse
3. Recycling of materials
4. Recovery in terms of material utilization and energy recovery
5. Disposal including landfilling and mass burning without recovery.
Alternatives to landfill
1. Incineration
Positives:
• Large volume reduction
• Potential energy recovery
Negatives:
• Still troubled by air pollution
• Some materials don’t burn
• Ash plus these non-combustibles require subsequent landfill disposal
• Siting problems are equivalent to those of landfills
2. Recovery of reusable products, compost, refuse derived- fuels
Markets are limited,
Short term costs> landfill
Residue still remains a problem for disposal
Zero waste concept
The conservation of all resources by means of responsible production,

consumption, reuse and recovery of all products, packaging, and materials,
without burning them, and without discharges to land, water or air that
threaten the environment or human health.
Aims/ objectives:
 To see a reduction in the amount of waste send to landfill
 Encourage people to avoid generating waste and to reuse and recycle
more
Zero waste plan was launched in Scotland by Scottish Government on 2010

 The zero waste concept includes the concept of producing less waste,
known in the industrial sector as cleaner production.
 At the municipality level, the zero waste concept is a catchy message used
to improve recycling, composting and other means to utilize waste at the
expense of landfill and mass incineration.
 In practice the zero waste goal is a goal of avoiding the landfilling of waste
 It is a political message focusing on waste minimization and recycling of
waste
based on Zero Waste Alliance, 2001
3. Sustainability
Sustainability- Development that meets the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs
Fostered a way of thinking suggesting that long-term issues should

receive more attention, that each generation should solve its own
problems and that local solutions should be sought
4. Life cycle assessment
 Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a common tool used to evaluate and

minimize the environmental impact of industrial products
 It accounts for all mass flows and emissions, as well as energy use and
production within the waste management system and any upstream
and downstream processes
 LCA is a comprehensive accounting system that makes it possible to
evaluate alternatives according to defined environmental criteria
5. Environmental Economics
 Prices are estimated for all environmental emissions from a system and
added to the traditional economical data for the system
 The external cost are said to be internalized, i.e. brought into the system by
putting a price on them
 Thereby all aspects of importance in principle are ascribed an economical
value and alternative systems can be assessed in terms of cost as a single
parameter
International Conventions and Protocols
The Basel Convention (22 March 1989; UNEP, 1989) provides an

international regulation on hazardous waste export and transport,
especially putting a ban on exports of hazardous waste from OECD
countries to non- OECD
countries.
The Montreal Protocol (16 January 1987) limits the use of chlorinated and
fluorinated compounds in consumer products and restricts the emission of
these compounds because of their ability to deplete stratospheric ozone.
This convention has significantly affected the way that refrigerators and
freezers are dismantled today.
The Kyoto Protocol (11 December 1997) commits countries that ratify the
protocol to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases or engage in
emission trading.
The Aarhus Convention (25 June 1998) focusses on public participation,

human rights and links government accountability by environmental
protection.
Waste engineering
Waste engineering means the skills and ability to understand quantitatively

how a waste management system works in such a detail that waste
management can be planned, facilities can be designed and sited and
systems can be operated in a way that is
• environmentally sound
• technically feasible
• economically efficient
• socially acceptable
The waste management system is defined as having four phases:
1. Waste generation: Waste categories, waste types, waste quantities
and composition.
2. Collection and transport: Source separation, waste collection stations
and centers (eventually called recycling centers), collection, transport
and bulk transfer.
3. Treatment: Separation of waste in material recovery facilities,
incineration, biological treatment and other operations or processes
changing the characteristics of the waste.
4. Recycling, utilization and landfilling (RUL): Here the waste leaves the
waste system permanently and is recycled, utilized on land (e.g.
compost) or in construction (e.g. bottom ash from incineration), or is
disposed of in a landfill.
1. Waste Generation
The starting point of the waste system and defines the waste in terms of
waste categories, waste types, quantities, material fractions and
substances
The following terms characterize the waste:
 Waste categories
 Waste types
 Waste quantities
 Material fractions
 Substances
Source: Purkayastha, Debasree, Chakrabarti, S. PY - 2014/06/18

Risk Assessment of Hapania Dumping Yard Using Integrated Risk Based Approach
2. Collection and Transport
 Waste collection is the organized storage of waste at source and its

collection and transport to a waste treatment facility
 The purpose of waste collection and transport is to remove the waste
from the source of generation and collect sufficient quantities for a
rational management system.
The following terms defines waste collection and transport
• Source segregation • Collection
• In-house collection • Transport
• Waste collection centers or stations • Transfer stations
3. Treatment
 Treatment may involve mechanical, thermal or biological treatment or

combinations hereof.
 The purpose of waste treatment is to recover recyclables, extract energy
from the waste or improve the characteristics of waste before further
handling
 Treatment processes may be combined into treatment trains and systems.
4. Recycling, Utilization and Landfilling
 It is the final step in the waste management system.

 The purpose of RUL is to recover and utilize materials in the waste for a
purpose or to dispose it safely into a landfill, where it is intended to
remain for centuries.
 Recycling is the use of the materials in the production of the same or

similar products that were the origin of the waste material.
 Recycling uses the original material characteristics of the waste. In
recycling, waste substitutes for virgin production of the same material.
 Typical materials are paper, glass, plastic, iron, aluminium and asphalt.
Utilization is the use of waste fractions or treated waste in a way that is
different from the origin of the waste.
Utilization is often driven by secondary characteristics of the waste
material: Utilization covers both material utilization and energy utilization
Landfilling is the dedicated use of land for disposing waste in an

engineered facility.
It may also have the form of land reclamation where filling takes place at
the shore of water bodies with the intention to reclaim new land.
BITS Pilani
EE ZG621/SSTM ZG526: Solid Waste Management
Lecture - 2 Dr. Jayita Chopra
Contents
 Material flow analysis

 Introduction to waste economics
 Economic factors in waste management
 Economic assessment methods
 Waste legislation and Regulation
 Waste generation & composition
 Municipal Solid waste
 Waste characterization- Physical and chemical
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

2. Waste hierarchy
The Western world and parts of Asia have since the early 1980s used
the waste hierarchy as the main approach to waste management the
approach is called 3R, for reduce, reuse and recover
1. Waste prevention and cleaner technology

2. Reuse
3. Recycling of materials
4. Recovery in terms of material utilization and energy recovery
5. Disposal including landfilling and mass burning without recovery.
Zero waste concept
The conservation of all resources by means of responsible production,

consumption, reuse and recovery of all products, packaging, and materials,
without burning them, and without discharges to land, water or air that
threaten the environment or human health.
Aims/ objectives:
 To see a reduction in the amount of waste send to landfill
 Encourage people to avoid generating waste and to reuse and recycle
more
Zero waste plan was launched in Scotland by Scottish Government on 2010

International Conventions and Protocols
The Basel Convention (22 March 1989; UNEP, 1989) provides an

international regulation on hazardous waste export and transport,
especially putting a ban on exports of hazardous waste from OECD
countries to non- OECD
countries.
The Montreal Protocol (16 January 1987) limits the use of chlorinated and
fluorinated compounds in consumer products and restricts the emission of
these compounds because of their ability to deplete stratospheric ozone.
This convention has significantly affected the way that refrigerators and
freezers are dismantled today.
The Kyoto Protocol (11 December 1997) commits countries that ratify the
protocol to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases or engage in
emission trading.
The Aarhus Convention (25 June 1998) focusses on public participation,

human rights and links government accountability by environmental
protection.
Waste engineering
Waste engineering means the skills and ability to understand quantitatively

how a waste management system works in such a detail that waste
management can be planned, facilities can be designed and sited and
systems can be operated in a way that is
• environmentally sound
• technically feasible
• economically efficient
• socially acceptable
The waste management system is defined as having four phases:
1. Waste generation: Waste categories, waste types, waste quantities
and composition.
2. Collection and transport: Source separation, waste collection stations
and centers (eventually called recycling centers), collection, transport
and bulk transfer.
3. Treatment: Separation of waste in material recovery facilities,
incineration, biological treatment and other operations or processes
changing the characteristics of the waste.
4. Recycling, utilization and landfilling (RUL): Here the waste leaves the
waste system permanently and is recycled, utilized on land (e.g.
compost) or in construction (e.g. bottom ash from incineration), or is
disposed of in a landfill.
1. Waste Generation
The starting point of the waste system and defines the waste in terms of
waste categories, waste types, quantities, material fractions and
substances
The following terms characterize the waste:
 Waste categories
 Waste types
 Waste quantities
 Material fractions
 Substances
Source: Purkayastha, Debasree, Chakrabarti, S. PY - 2014/06/18

Risk Assessment of Hapania Dumping Yard Using Integrated Risk Based Approach
2. Collection and Transport
 Waste collection is the organized storage of waste at source and its

collection and transport to a waste treatment facility
 The purpose of waste collection and transport is to remove the waste
from the source of generation and collect sufficient quantities for a
rational management system.
The following terms defines waste collection and transport
• Source segregation • Collection
• In-house collection • Transport
• Waste collection centers or stations • Transfer stations
3. Treatment
 Treatment may involve mechanical, thermal or biological treatment or

combinations hereof.
 The purpose of waste treatment is to recover recyclables, extract energy
from the waste or improve the characteristics of waste before further
handling
 Treatment processes may be combined into treatment trains and systems.
4. Recycling, Utilization and Landfilling
 It is the final step in the waste management system.

 The purpose of RUL is to recover and utilize materials in the waste for a
purpose or to dispose it safely into a landfill, where it is intended to
remain for centuries.
 Recycling is the use of the materials in the production of the same or

similar products that were the origin of the waste material.
 Recycling uses the original material characteristics of the waste. In
recycling, waste substitutes for virgin production of the same material.
 Typical materials are paper, glass, plastic, iron, aluminium and asphalt.
Utilization is the use of waste fractions or treated waste in a way that is
different from the origin of the waste.
Utilization is often driven by secondary characteristics of the waste
material: Utilization covers both material utilization and energy utilization
Landfilling is the dedicated use of land for disposing waste in an

engineered facility.
It may also have the form of land reclamation where filling takes place at
the shore of water bodies with the intention to reclaim new land.
An Example of Clean Technology Regarding
Organic Solvents
 Organic solvents, which are usually chlorinated, have traditionally been

used to degrease metals
 An environmental impact occurs not from the use of organic solvents but
from their release or escape into the environment.
 The solvent should not be sold to the consumer but rather leased.
 The used solvent is returned and reprocessed so that it can be reused.
 The user has to pay a high price for any material loss.
 Only the service or use is traded, not the commodity.
Source: Clift and Longley, 1995
Waste Prevention versus Recycling
a) waste is
disposed of
exclusively,
b) waste is
recycled and
c) in addition
waste is
prevented
Material Flow Analysis and Mass Balances
 Material flow analysis (MFA) is a widely used assessment tool to evaluate

policies and their impact on anthropogenic material cycles
 The fundamental basis for managing waste in a consistent,
environmentally sound and efficient way is the understanding of the flow of
waste through the system and the exchanges that the waste management
system has with the surrounding society and the environment.
 Material flow analysis (MFA) delivers a complete and consistent set of
information about all flows, processes and stocks of mass (e.g. solid
waste), material (e.g. paper) or substance (e.g. cadmium) within a system.
 A system is defined in space and time.
Energy Budgets
 Energy is used to make the waste management system work and the
waste management system itself may generate or save energy
 Energy may be generated in terms of electricity, heat, gas and
eventually fuel depending on the technologies used or the waste
management system
 may recycle materials as iron, aluminum and glass, avoiding that
these materials be produced from virgin resources, which usually is
much more energy-demanding than using secondary raw material as
recyclables.
Emission Accounts
The major GHG emissions from the waste sector are landfill CH4 and, secondarily,
wastewater CH4 and N2O.
Post-consumer waste is a significant renewable energy resource whose energy
value can be exploited through thermal processes (incineration and industrial co-
combustion), landfill gas utilization and the use of anaerobic digester biogas
GHG mitigation aspects:

1. Landfill CH4 recovery and utilization
2. optimizing methanotrophic CH4 oxidation in landfill cover soils
3. alternative strategies (composting; incineration and other thermal processes
4. Mechanical and biological treatment (MBT));
5. waste reduction through recycling, and expanded wastewater management
Source: Bogner et al., Waste Management, In Climate
Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group
III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B. Metz,
O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)],
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom
and New York, NY, USA.
Landfill Methane mass balance
Simplified landfill CH4 mass

balance:
pathways for CH4 generated
in landfilled waste, including
CH4 emitted, recovered and
oxidized
Emissions from wastewater
transport & treatment
Introduction to Waste Economics
Private Economic Factors in Waste Management
Collection
Recycling Costs Other costs:
• Capital costs or fixed costs
• Variable costs or running costs
Composting Transportation (operation and maintenance)
• Revenues (income from sale of
products)
Incineration Treatment
• Taxes
Landfilling
Concept of circular economy
What is a circular economy?
 A circular economy is an alternative to a traditional linear economy(make, use,

dispose) in which we keep resources in use for as long as possible, extract the
maximum value from them whilst in use, then recover and regenerate products
and materials at the end of each service life
 A circular economy is restorative and regenerative by design. This means that
materials constantly flow around a ‘closed loop’ system, rather than being used
once and then discarded. As a result, the value of materials is not lost by being
thrown away.
 Circularity offers the potential to ‘build back better’, bringing new jobs, healthy
lifestyles, and green growth. In a circular economy we reduce our impacts on
nature and climate, while ensuring that economies thrive, and citizens lead
healthy, sustainable lifestyles.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Why is circular economy important?
 Reduce waste
 Drive greater resource productivity
 Deliver a more competitive economy
 Position the world to better address emerging resource security/ scarcity
issues in the future
 Help reduce the environmental impacts of our production and
consumption in the world

Unilever- Steps towards a circular economy
Rethinking how they design their packaging

 Reducing the use of materials
 Using more recycled content
 Ensuring the packaging recyclable or compostable

Unilever- Steps towards a circular economy
Driving systematic change in circular thinking at an industry level

They are also supporting the creation of a global plastics protocol- a plastics protocol
for the industry setting commonly agreed definitions and industry standards on what
materials are put into the marketplace, to ensure their packaging is compatible with
existing and cost-effective recycling structures
Focusing on three themes of recycling, reuse and recyclability

Extended producer responsibility (EPR)
 In the field of waste management, EPR is a

strategy to add all of the environmental
costs associated with a product throughout
the product life cycle to the market price of
that product.
 Extended producer responsibility
legislation is a driving force behind the
adoption of remanufacturing initiatives
because it “focuses on the end-of-use
treatment of consumer products and has
the primary aim to increase the amount and
degree of product recovery and to minimize
the environmental impact of waste
materials”
Examples of circular economy solutions
Biopolus, a high-tech startup in Hungary, helps cities close the linear water,
energy and food loops
With its patented wastewater treatment technology - Biopolus created a
modular system for circular water treatment and management by recovering
energy, nutrients and minerals from organic waste
CTL (Closing the loop), a startup firm in the Netherlands, created the first
service which empowers companies and municipalities to implement circular
economy and green procurement objectives through recycling of mobile
phones
Economic assessment methods
• Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) includes all costs and all benefits
associated with a project and calculates the total value of performing this
specific project.
• The project that gives the highest net benefits is the project that is the
most advantageous to perform.
• Cost Effectiveness Analysis (CEA) determines how a certain goal can
be reached at the lowest cost.
• Life Cycle Costing (LCC) accounts for all the relevant costs through a
product’s or a system’s lifecycle. This includes everything from the
extraction of raw materials to the disposal
Introduction to Waste Legislation and
Regulation
• Prior to the 1960s, the only federal legislation that addressed solid waste was
the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Act, which prohibited the dumping of large
objects into navigable waterways.
• The first federal legislation intended to assist in the management of solid
waste was the 1965 Solid Waste Disposal Act.
• The emphasis in this legislation was the development of more efficient
methods of disposal and not the protection of human health.
• On January 1, 1970, President Nixon signed the National Environmental
Policy Act (NEPA), which led to the creation of the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA).
• It requires all federal to write environmental impact statements (EISs)
whenever there is significant effect on the environment
• In 1976, the Congress of the United States passed the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).
• RCRA is a strong piece of legislation that mainly addresses the problem
with hazardous waste but also specifies guidelines for nonhazardous solid
waste disposal.
• The combustion of solid waste is controlled by the 1970 Clean Air Act
• With this legislation began the process of closing burning dumps and
uncontrolled incinerators
EU Regulations on Waste
Unlike the United States, the European Union has addressed

waste diversion.
An April 26, 1999 Landfill Directive stated that municipal waste
must be treated prior to being landfilled.
The intent was to prevent or reduce the adverse effects of the
landfill of waste on the environment.
The European Union Directive passed in 2008 has the
goal to reduce the landfilling by applying the following
waste hierarchy:
(a) Prevention
(b) Preparing for reuse
(c) Recycling
(d) Other recovery (e.g., energy recovery)
(e) Disposal
BREF Notes- Best available technique reference notes
 The basic principle of the EU IPPC directive is to ensure that only the best
available technique should be permitted when new installations are to be
introduced – or to be correct: that the technology chosen from an
environmental point of view should perform at least at the same level as the
best available technology (BAT) known for the time being
 It describes what is found to be BAT and the emission level associated with
such technologies.
 The authorities are in principle only allowed to permit installations using the
technologies described in the BREF notes or similar technology meeting
the emission levels associated with these technologies
Some important conventions
Module Title:
Waste Generation and Composition
Solid waste can be classified based on partly on content and partly on
moisture and heating value
Garbage: refers to the putrescible solid waste constituents produced

during the preparation or storage of meat, fruit, vegetables, etc.
These wastes have a moisture content of about 70% and a heating
value of around 6X 106 J/kg
Rubbish: refers to non-putrescible solid waste constituents, either

combustible or non-combustible
Combustible wastes- paper wood, scrap, rubber, leather
Non-combustible- metals, glass, ceramics.
Pathological wastes: Dead animals, human waste, etc.
Moisture content 85%, non-combustible solids 5%
HHV- 2.5 X 106 J/kg
Industrial wastes: Chemicals, paints, sand, metal ore processing, fly ash,
sewage treatment sludge, etc.
Agricultural wastes: Farm animal manure, crop residues, etc.

Classification of waste
Municipal Solid Waste and its Definition
Waste arising from private households and that managed by or on behalf of local
authorities from any source.
MSW includes a proportion of commercial, nonhazardous industrial waste and
potentially also demolition waste and sewage sludge
• Household waste
• Household hazardous waste
• Bulky waste from households
• Street sweepings and litter
• Park and garden waste
• Waste from institutions, commercial establishments & offices
• Construction and demolition waste
• Sewage sludge
Composition of MSW
Thank you!
BITS Pilani
Recap of last class
• MFA and mass balance

• Energy budget
• Emission accounts
• Circular economy
• BAT
• Important conventions
Topics to be covered
• MSW- definition
• Refuse derived fuel (RDF)
• MSW characteristics
• Commercial & Institutional waste
• Agricultural waste
Introduction to Waste Legislation and
Regulation
• Prior to the 1960s, the only federal legislation that addressed solid waste was
the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Act, which prohibited the dumping of large
objects into navigable waterways.
• The first federal legislation intended to assist in the management of solid
waste was the 1965 Solid Waste Disposal Act.
• The emphasis in this legislation was the development of more efficient
methods of disposal and not the protection of human health.
• On January 1, 1970, President Nixon signed the National Environmental
Policy Act (NEPA), which led to the creation of the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA).
• It requires all federal to write environmental impact statements (EISs)
whenever there is significant effect on the environment
• In 1976, the Congress of the United States passed the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).
• RCRA is a strong piece of legislation that mainly addresses the problem
with hazardous waste but also specifies guidelines for nonhazardous solid
waste disposal.
• The combustion of solid waste is controlled by the 1970 Clean Air Act
• With this legislation began the process of closing burning dumps and
uncontrolled incinerators
EU Regulations on Waste
Unlike the United States, the European Union has addressed

waste diversion.
An April 26, 1999 Landfill Directive stated that municipal waste
must be treated prior to being landfilled.
The intent was to prevent or reduce the adverse effects of the
landfill of waste on the environment.
The European Union Directive passed in 2008 has the
goal to reduce the landfilling by applying the following
waste hierarchy:
(a) Prevention
(b) Preparing for reuse
(c) Recycling
(d) Other recovery (e.g., energy recovery)
(e) Disposal
BREF Notes- Best available technique reference notes
 The basic principle of the EU IPPC directive is to ensure that only the best
available technique should be permitted when new installations are to be
introduced – or to be correct: that the technology chosen from an
environmental point of view should perform at least at the same level as the
best available technology (BAT) known for the time being
 It describes what is found to be BAT and the emission level associated with
such technologies.
 The authorities are in principle only allowed to permit installations using the
technologies described in the BREF notes or similar technology meeting
the emission levels associated with these technologies
Some important conventions
Module Title:
Waste Generation and Composition
Solid waste can be classified based on partly on content and partly on
moisture and heating value
Garbage: refers to the putrescible solid waste constituents produced

during the preparation or storage of meat, fruit, vegetables, etc.
These wastes have a moisture content of about 70% and a heating
value of around 6X 106 J/kg
Rubbish: refers to non-putrescible solid waste constituents, either

combustible or non-combustible
Combustible wastes- paper wood, scrap, rubber, leather
Non-combustible- metals, glass, ceramics.
Pathological wastes: Dead animals, human waste, etc.
Moisture content 85%, non-combustible solids 5%
HHV- 2.5 X 106 J/kg
Industrial wastes: Chemicals, paints, sand, metal ore processing, fly ash,
sewage treatment sludge, etc.
Agricultural wastes: Farm animal manure, crop residues, etc.

Classification of waste
Municipal Solid Waste- definition
• The term MSW is normally assumed to include all the waste generated in a
community, with the exception of waste generated by municipal services,
treatment plants, and industrial and agricultural processes
• The term refers to all the wastage collected and controlled by the
municipality and comprises of most diverse categories of wastes.
It comprises waste from several different sources such as:
1. Domestic waste- single family house, apartments, etc.
2. Commercial waste- office buildings, shopping malls, hotels, airports,
restaurants
3. Institutional waste- colleges, schools, medical facilities, etc.
4. Construction & demolition waste- debris
MSW composition
• The average Asian MSW composition has a biodegradable composition

of above 40% and a moisture content of more than 40%
• Organic content is anticipated to be as high as 60% by 2025
• The residential wastes have a higher moisture content owing to the

organic fraction, while the commercial wastes have a comparatively
lower moisture content and hence a correspondingly higher calorific
value making suitable for incineration.
• The composition makes the waste suitable for composting, anaerobic
digestion and use as a refuse derived fuel (RDF) for incineration.
• The composition also shows that waste processing is an indispensable
stage prior to disposal
Composition of MSW
Refuse
• Solid waste generated by households, including mixed non-sorted waste
• Recyclables (whether or not they are collected separately)
• Household hazardous wastes if these are not collected separately
• Yard (or green) waste originating with individual households
• Litter and community trash, because the material is produced by individuals
• Commercial waste, because it often contains many of the same items as
household
Refuse canwaste
be defined in terms of as-generated and as-collected solid waste.
The refuse generated includes all of the wastes produced by a household—
whatever is no longer wanted and is to be gotten rid of.
By our definition, refuse does not include
• Construction and demolition debris
• Water and wastewater treatment plant sludges
• Leaves and other green waste collected from community streets and parks in
the fall
• Bulky items such as large appliances, hulks of old cars, tree limbs, and other
large objects that often require special handling
(MSW) = (refuse) + (C & D waste) + (leaves) + (bulky items)

Refuse-derived fuel
• Refuse can be burned as is (the so-called mass burn combustors) or

processed to produce a refuse-derived fuel
• The more the solid waste is processed prior to its combustion, the better is its
heat value and usefulness as a substitute for a fossil fuel.
• Such processing removes much of the noncombustible materials (such as
glass and metals) and reduces the size of the paper and plastic particles so
they burn more evenly.
• Refuse that has been so processed to produce a fuel is called a refuse-
derived fuel (RDF).
MSW characteristics
Some of the characteristics of interest are

• Composition by identifiable items (steel cans, office paper, etc.)
• Moisture content
• Particle size
• Chemical composition (carbon, hydrogen, etc.)
• Heat value
• Density
• Mechanical properties
• Biodegradability
Waste composition
The typical composition of MSW is as follows:

 Important constituents are paper and decomposable organic matter
 Metal, glass, ceramics, textile, dust, dirt and wood are generally present and
their relative proportion depends on the local factors
 The composition of the waste is the description of the contents of waste
 In addition to providing important information about the way to handle the
waste, the composition tells us about the people who generated the waste
 Composition varies from place to place, specially country to country
Relative composition of household waste
Parameters Low income Medium High income

countries income countries
countries
Organic (%) 40-85 20-65 20-30
Paper (%) 1-10 15-30 15-40
Plastics (%) 1-5 2-6 2-10
Metals (%) 1-5 1-5 3-13
Glass (%) 1-10 1-10 4-10
Rubber, leather, 1-5 1-5 2-10
etc. (%)
Others (%) 15-60 15-50 2-10
Physical and chemical properties of household waste:
Medium
Low income High income
Parameters income
countries countries
countries
Moisture
40-80 40-60 5-20
content (%)
Specific weight
250-500 170-330 100-170
(kg/m3)
Calorific value
800-1100 1000-1300 1500-2700
(Kcal/kg)
Factors influencing waste composition
1. Socio-economic status
2. Geographic location
3. Seasons
4. Collection frequency
5. Population diversity
6. Salvaging and recycling
7. Public attitude
Proximate analysis: This is important in evaluating the combustion properties
of wastes or a waste or refuse derived fuel.
The fractions of interest are:
• Moisture content, which adds weight to the waste without increasing its
heating value, and the evaporation of water reduces the heat released from
the fuel;
• Ash, which adds weight without generating any heat during combustion;
• Volatile matter, i.e., that portion of the waste that is converted to gases
before and during combustion;
• Fixed carbon, which represents the carbon remaining on the surface grates
as charcoal. A waste or fuel with a high proportion of fixed carbon requires a
longer retention time on the furnace grates to achieve complete combustion
than a waste or fuel with a low proportion of fixed carbon.
Moisture
• A transfer of moisture takes place in the garbage can and truck, and thus, the
moisture content of various components changes with time
• The moisture content becomes important when the refuse is processed into
fuel or when it is fired directly.
• The usual expression for calculating moisture content is
M moisture content, wet basis, %
𝑤−𝑑 w initial (wet) weight of sample
M= X100 d final (dry) weight of sample
𝑤
• Drying is usually done in an oven at 77ºC (170ºF) for 24 h to ensure complete

dehydration and yet avoid undue vaporization of volatile material.
• Temperatures above this will melt some plastics
Particle size
The best way is to describe the mixture by means of a curve showing percents
of particles (by either number or weight) versus the particle size.
Heating Value
• The heat values of refuse are of some importance in resource recovery

• Heat value is expressed as Btu/lb of refuse, SI unit is kJ/kg.
• The heat values of refuse and other heterogeneous materials are
measured with a calorimeter, a device in which a sample is combusted
and the temperature rise is recorded
• Knowing the mass of the sample and the heat generated by the
combustion, the Btu/lb is calculated
• An important aspect of calorimetric heat values is the distinction between
higher heat value and lower heat value. The higher heat value (HHV) is
also called the gross calorific energy, while the lower heat value (LHV) is
also known as the net calorific energy.
Bomb Calorimeter
The heat generated from combustion in a calorimeter is:
U is the heat value of the unknown material (cal/g),

ΔT is the rise in temperature from thermogram (℃),
M is the mass of the unknown material,
Cv is the heat capacity of the calorimeter.
Example: A 15 g sample of mixed MSW is combusted in a calorimeter having

a heat capacity of 8750 cal/℃. The temperature increase on combustion is
2.75℃. Calculate the heat value of the sample.
Example:
A sample of refuse is analyzed and found to contain 10% water (measured as

weight loss on evaporation). The Btu of the entire mixture is measured in a
calorimeter and is found to be 4000 Btu/lb. A 1.0 g sample is placed in the
calorimeter, and 0.2 g ash remains in the sample cup after combustion. What
is the moisture free and the moisture- and ash-free heat value?
Bulk and Material Density
• Municipal solid waste has a highly variable bulk

density, depending on the pressure exerted
• Loose, as it might be placed into a garbage can
by the homeowner, the bulk density of MSW
might be between 150-250 lb/yd3 (90 and 150
kg/m3)
• Pushed into the can, it might be at 300 lb/yd3
(180 kg/m3).
In a collection truck that compacts the refuse, the bulk density is normally between
600-700 lb/yd3.
Once deposited in a landfill and compacted with machinery, it can achieve bulk
densities of even higher
Chemical composition
• The economic recovery of materials and/or energy often depends on the

chemical composition of the refuse—the individual chemicals as well as
the heat value.
• Two common means of defining the chemical composition of refuse are
the proximate analysis and the ultimate analysis.
• The proximate analysis is an attempt to define the fraction of volatile
organics and fixed carbon in the fuel,
• ultimate analysis is based on elemental compositions, mainly, carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and present. The oxygen value is
calculated by subtracting the other components, including ash and
moisture, from 100%.
Chemical characteristics
1. Lipids: This class of compounds includes fats, oils and grease, and the
principal sources of lipids are garbage, cooking oils and fats. Lipids have
high heating values, about 38,000 kJ/kg, which makes waste with high lipid
content suitable for energy recovery
2. Carbohydrates: These are found primarily in food and yard wastes, which
encompass sugar and polymer of sugars (e.g., starch, cellulose, etc.) with
general formula (CH2O)x. Carbohydrates are readily biodegraded to
products such as carbon dioxide, water and methane.
3. Proteins: These are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen, and consist of an organic acid with a substituted amine group
(NH2). They are mainly found in food and garden wastes.
4. Natural fibres: These are found in paper products, food and yard wastes
and include the natural compounds, cellulose and lignin, that are resistant
to biodegradation.
5. Synthetic organic material (Plastics): Accounts for 1- 10 %
They are highly resistant to biodegradation and, therefore, are objectionable
and of special concern in SWM.
6. Non-combustibles: This class includes glass, ceramics, metals, dust and
ashes, and accounts for 12 – 25% of dry solids
Case Study: Bangalore
The waste generation and composition details of Bangalore are as follows:

(i) Waste generation: Bangalore produces over 2500 MT of solid waste per day
and the Municipal Corporation has miserably inadequate infrastructure in
managing the disposal of solid wastes generated. It is estimated that the per
capita generation of solid waste works out to 0.59 kg/day.
Table: Different Sources of

Solid Waste Generation in
Bangalore
Solid waste
MSW Agricultural Industrial Hazardous

waste waste waste
(Pesticides, crop residue, (Industrial effluent) (Radioactive waste)
Domestic agricultural run-off)
Commercial
Institutional
Commercial & institutional waste
• Commercial and institutional waste is primarily from retail (stores), hotels,
restaurants, health care (except health risk waste), banks, insurance
companies, education, retirement homes, public services and transport.
• An important part of commercial and institutional waste is packaging waste,
and enterprises with large quantities of clean paper, cardboard and plastic
waste have their own facilities for storing their waste, which then can be sold
to wholesale companies within the secondary raw material sector.
• The unit generation rate for commercial and institutional waste is
tonnes/employee/year or tonnes/100 000 € of sales/year, or tonnes/m2 of
facility/year.
Commercial and institutional waste composition (%)
Residential waste
Residential waste is here considered to constitute
1. Household waste
2. Bulky waste
3. Garden waste
4. Household hazardous waste
Residential waste in most countries arises to 500 kg/person/year.

Household hazardous waste constitutes only 1–5 kg/person/year.
Industrial waste
Other waste categories
• Industrial waste is the waste produced by industrial activity

which includes any material that is rendered useless during a
manufacturing process such as that of factories, mills, and
mining operations.
• Types of industrial waste include dirt and gravel, masonry and
concrete, scrap metal, oil, solvents, chemicals, scrap lumber,
even vegetable matter from restaurants.
• Industrial waste may be solid, semi-solid or liquid in form.
• It may be hazardous waste (some types of which are toxic) or
non-hazardous waste.
The forms of wastes:
 acids, alkalis, caustics,
 leachate,
 petroleum (and its derivatives)
 sludges which are semi-solid substances resulting from process or treatment
operations or residues from storage or use of liquids;
 solidified chemicals, paints or pigments; and
 dredge spoil generated by manufacturing or industrial processes,
 foundry sand
 the end or by-products of incineration or other forms of combustion
Agricultural Wastes
Management of Agricultural Wastes:
1. Waste to energy:
(i) Gasification:
• It is the process in which chemical decomposition of biomass takes place in
the presence of controlled amounts of oxygen, producing a gas.
• This gas is cleaned and used in an internal combustion engine to produce
electric power.
(ii) Pyrolysis:
• It is similar to gasification except that the chemical decomposition of biomass
wastes takes place in the absence or reduced presence of O2 at high temp.
• Mixtures of gases result from decomposition including H2, NH4, CO,
CO2 depending on the organic nature of waste matter.
• This gas used for power generation.
2. Biogas production:
• Animal wastes, food processing wastes and other organic matter are
decomposed anaerobically to produce a gas called biogas.
• It contains methane and CO2.
• The methane can provides gas for domestic use.
• The byproduct of this technology is slurry, settled out the bottom of the
digester. This can be used as manure.
3. Agricultural waste like corn cobs, paddy husk, bagasse of sugarcane, waste of
wheat, rice and other cereals, cotton stalks, coconut wastes, jute waste etc. can
be used in making of paper and hard board.
Green waste
• Green waste, also known as "biological waste", is

any organic waste that can be composted.
• It is biodegradable waste, composed of garden or park
waste such as grass or flower cuttings and hedge
trimmings as well as domestic and commercial food waste.
• Generally rich in nitrogen, as opposed to brown waste
which is rich in carbon.
• Green waste can be used to increase the efficiency of
many composting operations and can be added to soil to
sustain local nutrient cycling
Green waste can be used to improve the quality and sustainability of
industrially manufactured top soils and the sanitariness and efficiency
of sewage disposal
Uses:
• Manufactured top soils- nutrients for plants

• Sewage disposals- co-composting
• Renewable energy- biofuels like ethanol
• Soil health- suppression of soil borne diseases
Brown waste
 Brown waste is any biodegradable waste that is

predominantly carbon based.
 The term includes such items as grass cuttings, dry
leaves, twigs, hay, paper, sawdust, corn cobs, cardboard,
pine needles or cones, etc.[1]
 Carbon is necessary to composting, which uses a
combination of green waste and brown waste to promote
the microbial processes involved in the decomposition
process.[2]
 The composting of brown waste sustainably returns the
carbon to the carbon cycle.
Possible chemical & biological conversions of crop
straw & livestock manure to value added products
Source: Liheng Ren,

Xiaoliang Kong, Jian Su,
Danyang Zhao , Wenjian
Dong , Chunmiao Liu , Chao
Liu , Lin Luo , Binghua Yan.
Bioresource Technology.
Oriented conversion of
agricultural bio-waste to
value-added products – A
schematic review towards
key nutrient circulation
Construction & Demolition waste
Characteristics
This category of waste is complex due to the different types of building

materials being used but in general may comprise the following materials :
Major components Minor components

· Cement concrete • Conduits (iron, plastic)
· Bricks • Pipes (GI, iron, plastic)
· Cement plaster • Electrical fixtures
· Steel (from RCC, door/window frames, (copper/aluminium wiring,
roofing support, railings of staircase etc.) wooden baton, bakelite/ plastic
· Rubble switches, wire insulation)
· Stone (marble, granite, sand stone) • Panels (wooden, laminated)
· Timber/wood (especially demolition of old • Others (glazed tiles, glass
buildings) panes)
STORAGE OF CONSTRUCTION AND
DEMOLITION WASTE
• All construction/demolition waste should be stored within the site itself.

• A proper screen should be provided so that the waste does not get scattered
and does not become an eyesore.
• Attempts should be made to keep the waste segregated into different heaps
as far as possible so that their further gradation and reuse is facilitated.
• Material, which can be reused at the same site for the purpose of
construction, levelling, making road/pavement etc. should also be kept in
separate heaps from those, which are to be sold or landfilled.
RECYCLING AND REUSE
• Reuse (at site) of bricks, stone slabs, timber, conduits, piping railings etc. to the
extent possible and depending upon their condition.
• Sale / auction of material which can not be used at the site due to design
constraint or change in design.
• Plastics, broken glass, scrap metal etc. can be used by recycling industries.
• Rubble, brick bats, broken plaster/concrete pieces etc. can be used for building
activity, such as, leveling, under coat of lanes where the traffic does not
constitute of heavy moving loads.
• Larger unusable pieces can be sent for filling up low-lying areas.
• Fine material, such as, sand, dust etc. can be used as cover material over
sanitary landfill.
DISPOSAL
• Being predominantly inert in nature, construction and demolition waste

does not create chemical or biochemical pollution.
• Hence maximum effort should be made to reuse and recycle them
• The material can be used for filling/leveling of low-lying areas.
• In the industrialised countries, special landfills are sometimes created for
inert waste, which are normally located in abandoned mines and quarries.
BITS Pilani
Recap of last class
• MSW- definition
• Refuse derived fuel (RDF)
• MSW composition & characteristics
• Commercial & Institutional waste
Module 3: Collection and transport
• Manually handled receptacles
• Receptacles for recyclable materials, biodegradable waste
• Compaction of waste
• Pune, India Case study: Recycling of plastics
• Waste collection vehicles
• Waste collection system and organizations

Industrial waste
Other waste categories
• Industrial waste is the waste produced by industrial activity

which includes any material that is rendered useless during a
manufacturing process such as that of factories, mills, and
mining operations.
• Types of industrial waste include dirt and gravel, masonry and
concrete, scrap metal, oil, solvents, chemicals, scrap lumber,
even vegetable matter from restaurants.
• Industrial waste may be solid, semi-solid or liquid in form.
• It may be hazardous waste (some types of which are toxic) or
non-hazardous waste.
The forms of wastes:
 acids, alkalis, caustics,
 leachate,
 petroleum (and its derivatives)
 sludges which are semi-solid substances resulting from process or treatment
operations or residues from storage or use of liquids;
 solidified chemicals, paints or pigments; and
 dredge spoil generated by manufacturing or industrial processes,
 foundry sand
 the end or by-products of incineration or other forms of combustion
Agricultural Wastes
Management of Agricultural Wastes:
1. Waste to energy:
(i) Gasification:
• It is the process in which chemical decomposition of biomass takes place in
the presence of controlled amounts of oxygen, producing a gas.
• This gas is cleaned and used in an internal combustion engine to produce
electric power.
(ii) Pyrolysis:
• It is similar to gasification except that the chemical decomposition of biomass
wastes takes place in the absence or reduced presence of O2 at high temp.
• Mixtures of gases result from decomposition including H2, NH4, CO,
CO2 depending on the organic nature of waste matter.
• This gas used for power generation.
2. Biogas production:
• Animal wastes, food processing wastes and other organic matter are
decomposed anaerobically to produce a gas called biogas.
• It contains methane and CO2.
• The methane can provides gas for domestic use.
• The byproduct of this technology is slurry, settled out the bottom of the
digester. This can be used as manure.
3. Agricultural waste like corn cobs, paddy husk, bagasse of sugarcane, waste of
wheat, rice and other cereals, cotton stalks, coconut wastes, jute waste etc. can
be used in making of paper and hard board.
Green waste
• Green waste, also known as "biological waste", is

any organic waste that can be composted.
• It is biodegradable waste, composed of garden or park
waste such as grass or flower cuttings and hedge
trimmings as well as domestic and commercial food waste.
• Generally rich in nitrogen, as opposed to brown waste
which is rich in carbon.
• Green waste can be used to increase the efficiency of
many composting operations and can be added to soil to
sustain local nutrient cycling
Green waste can be used to improve the quality and sustainability of
industrially manufactured top soils and the sanitariness and efficiency
of sewage disposal
Uses:
• Manufactured top soils- nutrients for plants

• Sewage disposals- co-composting
• Renewable energy- biofuels like ethanol
• Soil health- suppression of soil borne diseases
Brown waste
 Brown waste is any biodegradable waste that is

predominantly carbon based.
 The term includes such items as grass cuttings, dry
leaves, twigs, hay, paper, sawdust, corn cobs, cardboard,
pine needles or cones, etc.[1]
 Carbon is necessary to composting, which uses a
combination of green waste and brown waste to promote
the microbial processes involved in the decomposition
process.[2]
 The composting of brown waste sustainably returns the
carbon to the carbon cycle.
Possible chemical & biological conversions of crop
straw & livestock manure to value added products
Source: Liheng Ren,

Xiaoliang Kong, Jian Su,
Danyang Zhao , Wenjian
Dong , Chunmiao Liu , Chao
Liu , Lin Luo , Binghua Yan.
Bioresource Technology.
Oriented conversion of
agricultural bio-waste to
value-added products – A
schematic review towards
key nutrient circulation
Construction & Demolition waste
Characteristics
This category of waste is complex due to the different types of building

materials being used but in general may comprise the following materials :
Major components Minor components

· Cement concrete • Conduits (iron, plastic)
· Bricks • Pipes (GI, iron, plastic)
· Cement plaster • Electrical fixtures
· Steel (from RCC, door/window frames, (copper/aluminium wiring,
roofing support, railings of staircase etc.) wooden baton, bakelite/ plastic
· Rubble switches, wire insulation)
· Stone (marble, granite, sand stone) • Panels (wooden, laminated)
· Timber/wood (especially demolition of old • Others (glazed tiles, glass
buildings) panes)
STORAGE OF CONSTRUCTION AND
DEMOLITION WASTE
• All construction/demolition waste should be stored within the site itself.

• A proper screen should be provided so that the waste does not get scattered
and does not become an eyesore.
• Attempts should be made to keep the waste segregated into different heaps
as far as possible so that their further gradation and reuse is facilitated.
• Material, which can be reused at the same site for the purpose of
construction, levelling, making road/pavement etc. should also be kept in
separate heaps from those, which are to be sold or landfilled.
RECYCLING AND REUSE
• Reuse (at site) of bricks, stone slabs, timber, conduits, piping railings etc. to the
extent possible and depending upon their condition.
• Sale / auction of material which can not be used at the site due to design
constraint or change in design.
• Plastics, broken glass, scrap metal etc. can be used by recycling industries.
• Rubble, brick bats, broken plaster/concrete pieces etc. can be used for building
activity, such as, leveling, under coat of lanes where the traffic does not
constitute of heavy moving loads.
• Larger unusable pieces can be sent for filling up low-lying areas.
• Fine material, such as, sand, dust etc. can be used as cover material over
sanitary landfill.
DISPOSAL
• Being predominantly inert in nature, construction and demolition waste

does not create chemical or biochemical pollution.
• Hence maximum effort should be made to reuse and recycle them
• The material can be used for filling/leveling of low-lying areas.
• In the industrialised countries, special landfills are sometimes created for
inert waste, which are normally located in abandoned mines and quarries.
Module 3
Collection and Transport
Waste collection: Equipment and vehicles
The collection and transport of waste is a very important part of the waste
management system for many reasons:
• Waste collection constitutes the organizational interface between those
generating the waste and the waste management system and as such
determines the success of the system in accommodating the waste generated
and avoiding uncontrolled dumping of the waste.
• Waste collection constitutes the technical interface between the waste
generated and the treatment and disposal system and hence waste collection
may determine which technologies may be feasible and successful in the further
processing of the waste.
• Waste collection often accounts for two-thirds of all the costs involved in
waste management and thus has to be cost-effective.
Source: Manual of Municipal Solid Waste Management
Basic principles and technology used in the collection of waste and
recyclables
 Receptacles for waste: Sacks, bins and containers.

 Compaction of waste
 Collection vehicles
 Special collection technology (pipes/sewers)
Receptacles for waste
Receptacles for the organized collection of waste can be categorized according to

their main features
1. Manually handled receptacles for waste.
2. Large containers (mechanically handled) for waste.
3. Receptacles for recyclables.
4. Receptacles for biodegradable organics.
5. Underground receptacles.
Manually Handled Receptacles
Sacks
Bins for Lifting and Carrying
Bins with Wheels

Large Containers
Larger containers include containers with a volume of 2–12m3 that are emptied
into a collection vehicle as well as containers >10m3, which are transported
individually to the treatment or disposal facility.
• Stationary Containers
• Containers for Individual Transport
Fig: Roll off containers

Receptacles for Recyclable Materials
Receptacles for recyclables must provide easy identification of the material

fraction to be collected and limit the access of other fractions in order to keep the
recyclable fraction clean and valuable.
• Modified Waste Bins and Containers

• Divided Bins and Containers
• Containers for Glass etc.
Divided two-wheeled 400 l bin. The compartments are

suitable for paper, packaging materials, glass etc
Receptacles for Source-Segregated
Biodegradable Waste
• Bags and Sacks for Biowaste
• Bins for Biowaste

Underground Receptacles
• Container Systems
• The MOLOK System
Fig: The MOLOK system

Compaction of Waste
Wastes must be compacted to increase their specific weight for

ease of transportation and handling
Municipal solid waste management in Pune city
Waste Collection Vehicles
Rear-Loading Collection Trucks Satellite Vehicles
Side-loading Collection Trucks Roll-off Container Trucks
Front-loading Collection Trucks Crane Trucks

Roll-off Container Trucks

Side-loading Collection Trucks
Crane Trucks
Front-loading Collection Trucks

Pneumatic waste collection
Fig: Scheme of the pneumatic

waste collection system
Source: Rossetti and Cossu, 2005
Waste collection in historic city centres is often hampered by:
• Antiquated infrastructures • Little space for waste bins, limiting the
• Narrow winding streets, not possibilities for waste separation
suitable for heavy waste collection • High aesthetic and hygienic demands
vehicles
The pneumatic waste collection system in Palma di Mallorca (Spain) is

located in the historic centre of the city.
The system was installed in 1999, and has been in operation since 2002. 345
inlet points are located along the old streets of the city, and more than 9,000
flats are served.
The system consists of a complex underground pipe network with a total
length of 12000 m.
Smart waste management system at GIFT city
 Swiss technology- minimum human interference

 Waste recycled to generate organic manure and generate power
 Solid waste from towers sent to waste collection centers, 2 km from source
using vacuum suction pipes
 Waste transported at a speed of 110-140 km per hour
 Speed and direction fully computerized
 Solid waste segregated into organic and non-organic
 Organic waste sent to vermicomposting to generate manure
 Inorganic waste incinerated using plasma technology
Special Collection Technologies
Central Vacuum System
Mobile Vacuum System
Kitchen Grinders
The central vacuum system (Envac, Sweden). Reprinted

with permission from Envac © (2010)
Envac Danmark A/S.
The mobile vacuum system

(Envac, Sweden).
Waste Collection: Systems and Organization
 Waste collection systems.

 Environmental aspects of waste collection
 The role of public authority and private sector in waste collection.
 Organizing collection of residential waste.
 Fee schemes.
 Public awareness programs.
The main factors determining a system are:
 Waste types at each source

 Amount of waste at each source and its distribution over the year
 Source-segregation systems
 Single-source versus multi-source receptacles
 Physical placement of the receptacles.
 The degree of involvement of the waste producer in the waste collection.
 Collection schedule
Waste collection systems
 Household containers / Pavement collection

 Neighbourhood containers
 Zone containers
 Green points
Fig: Influence of two different
collection systems on waste
destination in Italy (Consortium
of municipalites in the province
of Padua, Italy, 2003)
Collection systems and its area of application
1. individual homeowner must transfer whatever is considered waste to the
refuse can, which may be inside or outside the home.
2. the movement of the refuse can to the truck, which is usually done by the
collection crew, called backyard collection.
If the can is moved to the street by the waste generator or the home occupant,
the system is called curbside collection.
More and more separated materials (commonly called recyclables) and yard
wastes are collected separately, either in separate compartments of the same
trucks as the mixed refuse or in separate vehicles.
Environmental Aspects of Waste Collection
Waste collection uses resources, causes environmental emissions, has social

impacts and involves important occupational health aspects.
The main resource issues are likely to be the use of

disposable bags (particularly plastic bags) for collection of
Resources the waste and the use of fuel for the vehicles.
The fuel consumption of the collection trucks is, however,
usually the most important resource use in waste collection,
because the amount of fuel used in collection and transport
may be as high as 2–3wt% of the amount of waste
collected.
Fuel consumption in different waste collection system
• The environmental emissions are primarily related to the combustion of fuel in
the collection vehicles.
• The most important emissions are CO2, CO, NOx, unburned hydrocarbons and
fine particles
Table: Emission standards (g/l)* for diesel trucks in Europe.
• The social impacts are primarily related to the contribution of
the collection vehicles to the traffic burden in cities
Social • the noise generated by the collection activity.
impacts • This is due to the handling of bins and containers and the
frequent stops, accelerations and waste compaction made
by the vehicles.
• In warm climates, odors, flies and the like may also readily
develop from organic waste
The occupational health aspects of waste collection are

Health
related to injuries from sharp objects and chemicals,
impacts
ergonomic damages and infectious diseases
Collection of waste may have serious occupational health aspects for the workers
if proper precautions are not implemented. The potential occupational health
problems are:
Physical injury by direct contact with sharp items as needles, nails, glass and
metal pieces.
Chemical injury by accidental exposure to leaking containers with acid, alkaline
material or volatile organic chemicals.
Ergonomic damages from physically demanding and monotonic work, in
particular repeated heavy burdens from lifting and pushing. The ergonomic
damage may take many years to develop but it is irreversible.
Sickness causes by infections by pathogenic material as bacteria, viruses
etc. Allergic skin or respiratory reactions caused by fungal spores or bacterial
toxins
Important means in limiting the occupational health problems in waste
collection are:
• Use of protective gloves, jackets and footwear.
• Well designed equipment and vehicles.
• Easy and well lit access to the waste.
• Personnel facility allowing for changing clothes and washing.
• Educational programs for the workers.
• Proper supervision of the waste collection
Organizing the Collection of Residential Waste
The main issues in the waste collection system to be organized are:
 Frequency of collection.
 Route planning for the collection vehicles.
 Crew size and truck capacity.
 Quality management and customer relations
BITS Pilani
Recap of last class
• Module 3: Collection and transport
• Manually handled receptacles
• Receptacles for recyclable materials, biodegradable waste
• Compaction of waste
• Pune, India Case study: Recycling of plastics

• Environmental aspect of waste collection

• Fee Scheme
• Unit Pricing of Residential Municipal Solid Waste
• Case study- USA
• Source segregation
• Segregation potential
• Segregation efficiency
Roll-off Container Trucks

Side-loading Collection Trucks
Crane Trucks
Front-loading Collection Trucks

Pneumatic waste collection
Fig: Scheme of the pneumatic

waste collection system
Source: Rossetti and Cossu, 2005
Waste collection in historic city centres is often hampered by:
• Antiquated infrastructures • Little space for waste bins, limiting the
• Narrow winding streets, not possibilities for waste separation
suitable for heavy waste collection • High aesthetic and hygienic demands
vehicles
The pneumatic waste collection system in Palma di Mallorca (Spain) is

located in the historic centre of the city.
The system was installed in 1999, and has been in operation since 2002. 345
inlet points are located along the old streets of the city, and more than 9,000
flats are served.
The system consists of a complex underground pipe network with a total
length of 12000 m.
Smart waste management system at GIFT city
❑ Swiss technology- minimum human interference

❑ Waste recycled to generate organic manure and generate power
❑ Solid waste from towers sent to waste collection centers, 2 km from source
using vacuum suction pipes
❑ Waste transported at a speed of 110-140 km per hour
❑ Speed and direction fully computerized
❑ Solid waste segregated into organic and non-organic
❑ Organic waste sent to vermicomposting to generate manure
❑ Inorganic waste incinerated using plasma technology
Special Collection Technologies
Central Vacuum System
Mobile Vacuum System
Kitchen Grinders
The central vacuum system (Envac, Sweden). Reprinted with

permission from Envac © (2010)
Envac Danmark A/S.
The mobile vacuum system (Envac,

Sweden).
Waste Collection: Systems and Organization
✓ Waste collection systems.

✓ Environmental aspects of waste collection
✓ The role of public authority and private sector in waste collection.
✓ Organizing collection of residential waste.
✓ Fee schemes.
✓ Public awareness programs.
The main factors determining a system are:
❑ Waste types at each source

❑ Amount of waste at each source and its distribution over the year
❑ Source-segregation systems
❑ Single-source versus multi-source receptacles
❑ Physical placement of the receptacles.
❑ The degree of involvement of the waste producer in the waste collection.
❑ Collection schedule
Waste collection systems
❑ Household containers / Pavement collection

❑ Neighbourhood containers
❑ Zone containers
❑ Green points
Fig: Influence of two different
collection systems on waste
destination in Italy (Consortium
of municipalites in the province
of Padua, Italy, 2003)
Collection systems and its area of application
1. individual homeowner must transfer whatever is considered waste to the
refuse can, which may be inside or outside the home.
2. the movement of the refuse can to the truck, which is usually done by the
collection crew, called backyard collection.
If the can is moved to the street by the waste generator or the home occupant,
the system is called curbside collection.
More and more separated materials (commonly called recyclables) and yard
wastes are collected separately, either in separate compartments of the same
trucks as the mixed refuse or in separate vehicles.
Environmental Aspects of Waste Collection
Waste collection uses resources, causes environmental emissions, has social

impacts and involves important occupational health aspects.
The main resource issues are likely to be the use of

disposable bags (particularly plastic bags) for collection of
Resources the waste and the use of fuel for the vehicles.
The fuel consumption of the collection trucks is, however,
usually the most important resource use in waste collection,
because the amount of fuel used in collection and transport
may be as high as 2–3wt% of the amount of waste
collected.
Fuel consumption in different waste collection system
• The environmental emissions are primarily related to the combustion of fuel in
the collection vehicles.
• The most important emissions are CO2, CO, NOx, unburned hydrocarbons and
fine particles
Table: Emission standards (g/l)* for diesel trucks in Europe.
• The social impacts are primarily related to the contribution of
the collection vehicles to the traffic burden in cities
Social • the noise generated by the collection activity.
impacts • This is due to the handling of bins and containers and the
frequent stops, accelerations and waste compaction made
by the vehicles.
• In warm climates, odors, flies and the like may also readily
develop from organic waste
The occupational health aspects of waste collection are

Health
related to injuries from sharp objects and chemicals,
impacts
ergonomic damages and infectious diseases
Collection of waste may have serious occupational health aspects for the workers
if proper precautions are not implemented. The potential occupational health
problems are:
❑Physical injury by direct contact with sharp items as needles, nails, glass and
metal pieces.
❑Chemical injury by accidental exposure to leaking containers with acid, alkaline
material or volatile organic chemicals.
❑Ergonomic damages from physically demanding and monotonic work, in
particular repeated heavy burdens from lifting and pushing. The ergonomic
damage may take many years to develop but it is irreversible.
❑Sickness causes by infections by pathogenic material as bacteria, viruses
etc. Allergic skin or respiratory reactions caused by fungal spores or bacterial
toxins
Important means in limiting the occupational health problems in waste
collection are:
• Use of protective gloves, jackets and footwear.
• Well designed equipment and vehicles.
• Easy and well lit access to the waste.
• Personnel facility allowing for changing clothes and washing.
• Educational programs for the workers.
• Proper supervision of the waste collection
Organizing the Collection of Residential Waste
The main issues in the waste collection system to be organized are:
Frequency of collection
Route planning for the collection vehicles
Crew size and truck capacity
Quality management and customer relations

Fee Schemes
Residential Waste: Household Waste

The issue of paying in accordance with the individual use of a collection service
is called the pay as you throw (PAYT) principle
Objectives:
• The fee collected from the users (i.e. households, institutions, shops) covers
the total cost of collection, transportation and disposal.
• The fee is, as far as possible, individually calculated according to the
individual property’s use of the service.
• The pay scheme contains an incentive to source segregation for recycling
and correct handling of hazardous waste
PAYT schemes are based on one of the following principles
❑ Volume-based payment
❑ Weight-based payment
NITI Aayog proposes fee in proportion to quantity of waste to be
disposed off
Nov 30, 2021
“This intervention entails a waste collection fee from the waste generator
in proportion to the total quantity of waste being disposed.
Waste generators will be incentivized to segregate, treat and dispose-off
waste at source, leaving a smaller amount to be handed over to the
municipal system”
Unit Pricing of Residential Municipal Solid Waste:
Lessons from Nine Case Study Communities
Report prepared for:

Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
THE CASE STUDY COMMUNITIES
❑ Unit pricing of residential solid waste, or pay as- you-throw programs, represents
one innovative approach to encourage significant waste reduction and diversion.
❑ Instead of paying a monthly or annual flat fee, a household must pay per unit of
waste generated under a unit pricing program.
The nine case study communities are located in the states of California, Illinois and
Michigan.
1. Downers grove, IL 6. Pasadena, CA
2. Glendale, CA 7. San Jose, CA
3. Grand rapids, MI 8. Santa Monica, CA
4. Hoffman estates, IL 9. Woodstock, IL
5. Lansing, MI
ADOPTING THE SYSTEM
The nine case study communities implemented their unit pricing waste collection
programs to encourage waste diversion and decrease the amount of waste
landfilled and incinerated
❑ The suburban Chicago Management Act of 1989 (Assembly Bill 939). This act set
statewide communities of Downers Grove, Hoffman Estates, and Woodstock
adopted unit pricing programs in reaction to the expected closing of two of the
area’s landfills.
❑ The California cities of Glendale, Pasadena, San Jose, and Santa Monica
implemented unit pricing programs in response to the California Integrated
Waste diversion goals, and required all municipalities to divert 25% of their
garbage from landfills by 1995, and 50% by 2000.
❑ The measure defined diversion as source reduction, recycling, and composting.
❑ The five communities requiring residents to use special refuse bags or refuse
stickers have established unit pricing fees between $0.85 per 30 gallons in Grand
Rapids to $1.56 per 30 gallons in Woodstock in 1994.
❑ The four communities operating a subscription program have established a
schedule of fees based on cart volume
Outcome
• Communities with higher unit fees experience lower annual per household
waste landfilled and incinerated
• A community with a much higher unit pricing fee, such as San Jose ($0.09 to
$0.10 per gallon per week), experienced a significant reduction in its landfilled
waste.
• Pasadena, with a low unit pricing fee, experienced small reductions in
landfilled waste.
• While Santa Monica employs a relatively high unit pricing fee ($0.05 to $0.09
per gallon per week), the large minimum size container negates the
effects of the economic incentives of the fee.
Source Segregation and Collection of
Source-Segregated Waste
• Purpose of source segregation.

• Segregation criteria and guidance.
• Segregation potentials and efficiencies.
• Systems for collecting segregated fraction
When waste is managed at source it becomes a resource
❑ Source Segregation is a concept where the generator of the waste segregates

waste in pre-defined groups to
❑ enable higher resource recovery through recycling.
❑ It should be noted that this is to be done by the generator and not the waste
collector.
❑ Source segregated waste also enables a hygienic environment for handling of
waste by waste workers, thus supporting dignified livelihood opportunities
Purpose of source segregation
✓ Obtaining directly recyclable material fractions of good quality by avoiding

mixing with foreign materials.
✓ Obtaining a defined mixture of material fractions that fairly easily
afterwards can be mechanically sorted for the production of good quality
recyclable materials
✓ Dividing the waste into fractions beneficial for separate treatment and
disposal
✓ Dividing the waste into fractions so that some of the fractions obtain a
different legal status rather than if no segregation had been introduced.
✓ Removing unwanted fractions from the main waste stream
Benefits:
1. to improve the conservation of resources,
2. reduce environmental emissions and
3. save on cost.
This is achieved
• by improving recycling of materials early in the waste management
system since this yields the highest quality of the recyclable materials
limits the amount of waste to be handled later in the waste management
system.
Factors to be considered for waste segregation at source
❑ The waste collection system must have sufficient capacity to handle the
segregated waste
❑ treatment facilities for segregated fractions must be available
❑ reliable markets must be available for the recyclable materials
❑ the waste treatment and disposal facilities should still be able to handle the
remaining waste stream.
Segregation criteria
❑ For recyclables the quality of the recovered material is an important factor

for establishing a successful and cost-effective system
❑ Focus the segregation scheme on a few, significant, easily identified and
easily stored and collected fractions
❑ The schemes for recyclables should be based on waste fractions that
appear regularly to make it cost-effective.
❑ In industry where a specific business may have larger quantities of a
specific material fraction, a segregated collection is easily introduced,
because it usually saves money for the business.
Paper
Dry paper of good quality is a commodity usually with a good price and should be
considered as a major target for a source segregation scheme. Newspapers,
magazines and advertisements
Plastics
Plastic in the form of bottles, containers, foils and other packaging is very voluminous
and costly to collect unless done with other fractions. Many different types combined
Metals
Metals in terms of steel and aluminum cans may easily be separated from a
commingled segregation fraction
Segregation of commingled plastic waste into
respective categories using multi-sensor data
Source: From Trash to Cash: How Blockchain and

Multi-Sensor-Driven Artificial Intelligence Can
Transform Circular Economy of Plastic Waste?
Biowaste- significant fraction of most residential waste
Segregation criteria varies as per its usage
Composting is a more robust technology and thus may include more material fractions
Special Fractions
special fractions, e.g. electronic and electrical appliances, are easy to identify and
setting up the criteria for their segregation is straightforward.
Household hazardous waste

These items may contain high concentrations of heavy metals, toxic organic
compounds, solvents, ozone-depleting compounds, or may be flammable or
explosive.
The items may be segregated from the main residential waste in order not to
compromise the quality and treatability of the main part of the residential waste.
Shortcomings of many published datasets
• Short-term data (months) may overestimate the efficiency of the segregation

system;
• for a certain section of the city or a certain type of housing, not representing
the average demography of the city or municipality
• Long-term data (years) from large-scale segregation systems, do not stay
constant over time.
• Usually only information about the recyclables is available
Segregation Potentials
The segregation potential is the amount of waste that potentially could be

segregated if all generation units, e.g. citizens involved in the program,
participated 100% and followed the sorting guideline 100 %.
Segregation Efficiencies
The segregation efficiency is the ratio (%) of the actually collected separate
materials divided by the segregation potential.
The efficiency of a system for recyclables depends on the following factors:
❑ Technical system: easy access to the receptacles for the collection of the
materials
❑ Information: The level of information and follow-up.
❑ Rewards and penalties: Direct or indirect economical incentives also affect the
efficiencies of the segregation system
❑ Environmental awareness: The higher the general environmental awareness
of the citizens, in combination with clearly defined purposes and benefits of the
source segregation, the higher the efficiency of the segregation program
Table. Segregation efficiencies for household waste
Example of Calculating Segregation System Performance
unit generation rate for household waste is
300 kg/person/year,
the potential for
paper recycling is (0.08+0.08+0.005 %) of
300 kg/person/year = 49.5 kg/person/year
glass recycling is (0.08 %) of 300
kg/person/year= 24 kg/person/year
Residual waste= 226.5 kg/year/person
Assuming, segregation efficiency of

Paper – 85%
Glass- 55%
The amount of recycles in the actual system:
42 kg/person/year paper
13 kg/person/year glass.
The actual residual waste = 245
kg/person/year.
Segregation Purities
The segregated material must be clean to obtain high prices on the market.
Usually only of the order of 1–3% of foreign materials can be accepted.
Important aspects of ensuring high purity of the recyclables are:
1. Precise guidelines leaving little doubt about what can be included in the
fraction and what should not.
2. Clearly marked collection receptacles and bins (shape, colors, signs etc.) in
order to avoid misplacement of waste.
3. Shaping the inlet to public drop-off containers in a way that clearly signals
what the container is meant for and that makes it difficult to drop other types of
waste
Modified Systems for Collecting Segregated Fractions
Bins and Bags for Source-Segregated Waste Fractions

• Recyclables are collected in ordinary bins that are clearly marked in terms of
color, labels or shape
• Divided bins have been introduced to allow the collection of more fractions in the
same bin.
• Small bins have been introduced for special fractions
• Special bags
Collection
• Alternating collection of residual waste and source-segregated fractions is a
common way of organizing the collection.
• Multi-compartment truck or a train
• Recycling stations
Case Study: Gurugram
SOCIAL IMPACT
Segregation at source’ has a big impact on the waste workers
With cleaner waste to work with, the waste worker can sort a
higher number of recyclables, thereby improving the earnings
For every 250 kgs of wet waste composted 1 job is created.
ECONOMIC IMPACT
Better resource recovery from dry waste
Total waste recovery is approximately 9.2 tonnes daily, which means,
a) Diversion of more than 9 tonnes of waste daily from landfill for recycling and
resource recovery
b) Saving of approximately Rs 2.8 lakh per month for the municipality on
account of tipping fee.
c) Benefit to the RWA on account of sale of compost to MCG @ INR 5/- per kg
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Considering approximately 4 percent of MSW is

paper, for every one ton of paper recycled, 7 trees
are saved, thereby the segregated dry waste in
the apartments is contributing to saving an average
of 12.5 trees per day.
In addition, lowering GHG emissions and diversion
of waste from the landfill further increased the
positive impact on the environment
BITS Pilani
Recap of last class
• Environmental aspect of waste collection

• Fee Scheme
• Unit pricing- case study
• Source segregation
• Segregation potential & efficiency
❑ Biomedical waste categories & their disposal

❑ Waste Transfer Stations
❑Purpose
❑Criteria
❑Siting/ Design considerations
❑Economical considerations
❑Recycling
Segregation Potentials
The segregation potential is the amount of waste that potentially could be

segregated if all generation units, e.g. citizens involved in the program,
participated 100% and followed the sorting guideline 100 %.
Segregation Efficiencies
The segregation efficiency is the ratio (%) of the actually collected separate
materials divided by the segregation potential.
The efficiency of a system for recyclables depends on the following factors:
❑ Technical system: easy access to the receptacles for the collection of the
materials
❑ Information: The level of information and follow-up.
❑ Rewards and penalties: Direct or indirect economical incentives also affect the
efficiencies of the segregation system
❑ Environmental awareness: The higher the general environmental awareness
of the citizens, in combination with clearly defined purposes and benefits of the
source segregation, the higher the efficiency of the segregation program
Table. Segregation efficiencies for household waste
Example of Calculating Segregation System Performance
unit generation rate for household waste is
300 kg/person/year,
the potential for
paper recycling is (0.08+0.08+0.005 %) of
300 kg/person/year = 49.5 kg/person/year
glass recycling is (0.08 %) of 300
kg/person/year= 24 kg/person/year
Residual waste= 226.5 kg/year/person
Assuming, segregation efficiency of

Paper – 85%
Glass- 55%
The amount of recycles in the actual system:
42 kg/person/year paper
13 kg/person/year glass.
The actual residual waste = 245
kg/person/year.
Segregation Purities
The segregated material must be clean to obtain high prices on the market.
Usually only of the order of 1–3% of foreign materials can be accepted.
Important aspects of ensuring high purity of the recyclables are:
1. Precise guidelines leaving little doubt about what can be included in the
fraction and what should not.
2. Clearly marked collection receptacles and bins (shape, colors, signs etc.) in
order to avoid misplacement of waste.
3. Shaping the inlet to public drop-off containers in a way that clearly signals
what the container is meant for and that makes it difficult to drop other types of
waste
Modified Systems for Collecting Segregated Fractions
Bins and Bags for Source-Segregated Waste Fractions

• Recyclables are collected in ordinary bins that are clearly marked in terms of
color, labels or shape
• Divided bins have been introduced to allow the collection of more fractions in the
same bin.
• Small bins have been introduced for special fractions
• Special bags
Collection
• Alternating collection of residual waste and source-segregated fractions is a
common way of organizing the collection.
• Multi-compartment truck or a train
• Recycling stations
Case Study: Gurugram
SOCIAL IMPACT
Segregation at source’ has a big impact on the waste workers
With cleaner waste to work with, the waste worker can sort a
higher number of recyclables, thereby improving the earnings
For every 250 kgs of wet waste composted 1 job is created.
ECONOMIC IMPACT
Better resource recovery from dry waste
Total waste recovery is approximately 9.2 tonnes daily, which means,
a) Diversion of more than 9 tonnes of waste daily from landfill for recycling and
resource recovery
b) Saving of approximately Rs 2.8 lakh per month for the municipality on
account of tipping fee.
c) Benefit to the RWA on account of sale of compost to MCG @ INR 5/- per kg
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Considering approximately 4 percent of MSW is

paper, for every one ton of paper recycled, 7 trees
are saved, thereby the segregated dry waste in
the apartments is contributing to saving an average
of 12.5 trees per day.
In addition, lowering GHG emissions and diversion
of waste from the landfill further increased the
positive impact on the environment
THE BIO-MEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016
Biomedical wastes categories and their segregation,
collection, treatment, processing and disposal options
Category Type of waste Treatment and disposal
Yellow Human anatomical waste Incineration or Plasma Pyrolysis or deep

Animal anatomical waste burial
Soiled Waste
Expired or Discarded returned back to the manufacturer or supplier
Medicines for incineration at temperature >1200 °C
Or Encapsulation or Plasma Pyrolysis at
>1200 °C
Chemical Waste incineration or Plasma Pyrolysis or
Encapsulation
Chemical Liquid Waste After resource recovery, the chemical liquid
waste shall be pre-treated before mixing with
other wastewater

Red Contaminated Waste Autoclaving or microwaving/ hydroclaving
(Recyclable) followed by shredding or combination
of sterilization and shredding
White Waste sharps including Autoclaving or Dry Heat Sterilization followed
(Translucent) Metals by shredding or encapsulation in metal
container or cement concrete; combination of
shredding cum autoclaving
Blue Glassware Disinfection (with detergent and Sodium
Metallic body implants Hypochlorite treatment) or through
autoclaving or microwaving and then sent
for recycling.
The ash or vitrified material generated from the ‘Plasma Pyrolysis or Gasification shall be disposed off
in accordance with the Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement)
Rules, 2008
Emission Standards
Waste Transfer Stations
What Are Waste Transfer Stations?
Waste transfer stations play an important
role in a community’s total waste
management system, serving as the link
between a community’s solid waste
collection program and a final waste
disposal facility
Purpose:
• Consolidating waste from multiple collection vehicles into larger, high-volume
transfer vehicles for more economical shipment to distant disposal sites.
• No long-term storage of waste occurs at a transferstation
Difference between waste transfer station and convenience centre
❑ A facility that receives its waste directly from collection vehicles, then
consolidates and reloads the waste onto larger vehicles for delivery to a final
disposal facility, is considered a transfer station.
❑ A convenience center is a designated area where residents manually discard

waste and recyclables into dumpsters or collection containers.
❑ These containers are periodically removed or emptied, and the waste is
transported to the appropriate disposal site
❑ Convenience centers are not suitable for use as transfer stations because they
cannot readily handle the large volume of waste that is discharged by a self-
unloading collection truck
Materials recovery facility (MRF)
A MRF is simply a special type of transfer station that separates, processes, and
consolidates recyclable materials for shipment to one or more recovery facilities
rather than a landfill or other disposal site
Types:
1. Clean
A clean MRF accepts recyclable materials that have already been separated at the
source from municipal solid waste generated by either residential or commercial
sources.
2. Mixed-waste processing facility (MWPF) / Dirty MRF
A mixed-waste processing system, sometimes referred to as a dirty MRF, accepts a
mixed solid waste stream and then proceeds to separate out designated recyclable
materials through a combination of manual and mechanical sorting.
Why Use Waste Transfer Stations?
❑ The primary reason for using a transfer station is to reduce the cost of transporting
waste to disposal facilities.
❑ reduces hauling costs
❑ This also reduces fuel consumption and collection vehicle maintenance costs
❑ Trash, green waste, and recyclable material drop-off location for residents
❑ Reduced traffic congestion in the community by consolidating loads onto larger
vehicles
❑ Reduced total truck traffic and improves safety at the landfill or waste-to-energy
facility.
❑ Removing hazardous waste or recovering recyclables
Waste transfer stations can be categorized according to three main features:
The transportation
The waste delivery The waste transfer of the reloaded
waste
Waste Delivery
The waste delivery is characterized by the type of waste accepted at the transfer
station and those who have access to the station.
A wide range of possibilities exists:
(1)a waste transfer station where mixed residential and commercial waste is only
brought in by authorized collection vehicles
(2)also accepts waste from private vehicles including recyclables, bulky waste
and household hazardous waste
Waste deliveries by authorized vehicles and by small private trucks and cars are
kept separate for reasons:
• Efficiency • Inspection
• Safety • Sorting
Waste Transfer
The main purpose of the transfer is to bring as much waste as possible into the units
of the long-distance transportation system.
The bulk density after compaction into a container may be about 0.6 t/m3 for mixed
waste.
The transfer of the waste may be characterized as:
• Direct transfer by unloading directly into the body of the long-distance
transportation system
• Transfer via a floor, bunker or silo which provides some flexibility with respect to
capacity, possibility of inspecting the waste, homogenization and compaction
• Compaction of the waste during the reloading by means of stationary compactors
compacting into containers
• Mechanical treatment in terms of shredding and baling may be introduced to
increase the bulk density of the waste prior to reloading
Waste Transport
Road Transport
Road transport of waste takes place by truck, container, semitrailer and pull trailer.
Containers are loaded onto trucks while semitrailers are pulled by a truck tractor.
Pull trailers may be pulled after trucks or truck tractors
Railroad Transport
Transport of waste by railroad is used where large quantities of waste are being
transported long distances. A railroad car may easily carry 50 t of waste.
Waterway Transport
Transport by barge is possible where large amounts of waste are transported in
the vicinity of navigable water. A barge may contain 300 t of waste, but moves with
a moderate speed.
Siting and Design Issues
Siting
• Siting of the waste transfer system may be guided by minimizing the cost of
transporting the waste, including transport prior to transfer and transport after
transfer.
• Ideal location- between center of waste mass and final unloading destination
• Many factors control the siting of the transfer station: traffic patterns, distance to
through roads, traffic noise and noise from the operation
Peak Hours
The unloading area must be sufficiently large and organized in such a way that
traffic jams do not develop.
Sizing the station so that it can handle one-third of the daily average of waste within
one hour should limit long waiting for unloading
Noise
The traffic related to a waste transfer station and the operation of the waste
transfer station may be noisy if not properly addressed in the siting, design and
operation of the station
Operational Stability
the design of the transfer station must consider the stability of the system
introduced and its ability to remediate any breakdown.
This relates both to the reception of waste and to the facilities that receive the
transferred waste
Economical Considerations
Assessing the economical consequences of introducing a waste transfer station

the transportation cost is lowest without transfer station at short travel distances, while at long
travel distances, it is more cost-beneficial to have a transfer station. At the critical distance the
costs are identical (Cc = Ct) corresponding to a distance of:
Fig. Demonstrates a representative
“cost versus miles” relationship
between direct hauling waste to
disposal facilities in collection
vehicles versus consolidation,
transfer, and hauling in larger
vehicles
Planning and Siting a Transfer Station
Wastes Commonly Handled at Transfer Stations
Municipal solid waste (MSW)

• Yard waste (green waste)
• Household hazardous waste (HHW)
• Recyclables
Construction and demolition (C&D)
Unacceptable Wastes
Certain wastes might be unacceptable at a transfer station for a variety of reasons,

including:
➢ They are prohibited by state or federal regulations (e.g., PCBs, lead acid batteries,
radioactive materials).
➢ They are difficult or costly to process (e.g., tires).
➢ They might pose a health or fire hazard.
➢ They might be prohibited at the disposal facility to which the transfer station delivers.
➢ They might be prohibited (within a mixed waste load destined for disposal) because
local regulations require they be recycled.
➢ They might be so large that they could damage trucks or equipment during waste
loading operations.
Determining Transfer Station Size and Capacity
The physical size of a planned transfer station is typically determined based on the
following factors:
❑ The definition of the service area.
❑ The amount of waste generated within the service area,
❑ The types of vehicles delivering waste
❑ The types of materials to be transferred (e.g., compacted versus loose MSW, yard
waste, C&D)
❑ Daily and hourly arrival patterns of customers delivering waste
❑ Expected increases in tonnage delivered during the life of the facility
❑ The relationship to other existing and proposed solid waste management facilities
such as landfills, recycling facilities, and waste-to-energy facilities
Siting criteria
1. Exclusionary Siting Criteria
In general, it is best to avoid siting in these areas. Exclusionary criteria

might include areas such as:
• Wetlands and floodplains.
• Endangered and protected flora and fauna habitats.
• Protected sites of historical, archeological, or cultural significance.
• Prime agricultural land.
• Parks and preserves.
2. Technical Siting Criteria
• Central location to collection routes
• Access to major transportation routes
• Site size requirements
• Sufficient space for onsite roadways, queuing, and parking
• Truck and traffic compatibility
• Ability for expansion
• Space for recycling, composting, and public education
• Buffer space
• Topography
• Access to utilities
Developing Community-Specific Criteria
❑Environmental Justice considerations (e.g., clustering, cumulative impacts).
❑Impact on air quality.
❑Impact on the local infrastructure.
❑Adjacent land uses
❑Proximity to schools, churches, recreation sites, and residences.
❑Prevailing winds.
❑ Buffer zones and screening measures.
❑Number of residences impacted.
❑ Traffic compatibility.
❑Presence of natural buffers.
❑ Impact on historic or cultural features.
❑Impacts on existing businesses.
❑ Impact on neighborhood character.
❑Expansion capability.
Module 4
Recycling
RECYCLING:
Nature does it… so should we !!
Defining Recyclable Materials
❑ All of the materials collected at

curbside
❑ Those materials actually sold to
market
❑ All recyclables collected and
processed at an MRF
❑ Only those recyclables that are
sold to market after separation
and processing, with the residues
that are generated at the MRF
subtracted from the total Source: An evaluation of the social dimensions in public participation in
rural domestic waste source-separated collection in Guilin, China
The 3 R’s
Single stream recycling
Raw Make into a

material Use Disposed
product
Reprocess Sort Collection

Recycling Programs
Participation Advantages Disadvantages
Drop-off <10% • Pre sorted • Not convenient
Buy back 15-20% • Incentives for recycling • Not every state

• Boosts local economy participates
• Not convenient
Curbside 80% • Convenient • Most expensive
• Single stream • (Trucks and
manpower)
RECOVERY OF RECYCLABLE MATERIALS FROM
SOLID WASTE
There are three main methods that can be used to recover recyclable
materials from MSW:
1. Collection of source-separated recyclable materials by either the
generator or the collector, with and without subsequent processing
2. Commingled recyclables collection with processing at centralized
materials recovery facilities (MRFs)
3. Mixed MSW collection with processing for recovery of the recyclable
materials from the waste stream at mixed-waste processing or front-end
processing facilities
Measures of Recycling Performance
1. Capture rate or source recovery factor- the weight percent of an eligible

material in the total solid waste stream actually separated out for recycling
2. Participation rate- the percent of households (or businesses) that regularly
set out recyclables
3. Recycling rate- the quantity of recyclables collected per household per unit
of time (e.g., 35 lb/residence ⋅ month).
4. Diversion rate- represents the weight of total solid waste that is not landfilled
Unit Pricing–Based Systems
• The concept of unit pricing, also referred to as pay-as-you-throw or variable

rate, is that residents pay a fee proportional to their waste generation.
• By assessing a fee on material put out for waste collection, residents can be
encouraged to increase their participation and source separation factors.
• Bottle Bill legislation- the consumer pays a deposit on each beverage

container purchased and receives that amount as a refund when the
container is returned for recycling or refilling.
• Drop off and buy back centers- centralized locations where residential
generators voluntarily bring certain recyclable materials
Examples of Recycled Materials and Products Made from Them
BITS Pilani
Recap of last class
Waste Transfer Stations

• Purpose
• Criteria
• Siting/ Design considerations
• Economical considerations
Recycling
❑ Paper and cardboard recycling
❑ Glass recycling
❑ Plastic recycling
THE BIO-MEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016
Yellow Human anatomical waste Incineration or Plasma Pyrolysis or deep

Animal anatomical waste burial
Soiled Waste
Expired or Discarded returned back to the manufacturer or supplier
Medicines for incineration at temperature >1200 °C
Or Encapsulation or Plasma Pyrolysis at
>1200 °C
Chemical Waste incineration or Plasma Pyrolysis or
Encapsulation
Chemical Liquid Waste After resource recovery, the chemical liquid
waste shall be pre-treated before mixing with
other wastewater

Red Contaminated Waste Autoclaving or microwaving/ hydroclaving
(Recyclable) followed by shredding or combination
of sterilization and shredding
White Waste sharps including Autoclaving or Dry Heat Sterilization followed
(Translucent) Metals by shredding or encapsulation in metal
container or cement concrete; combination of
shredding cum autoclaving
Blue Glassware Disinfection (with detergent and Sodium
Metallic body implants Hypochlorite treatment) or through
autoclaving or microwaving and then sent
for recycling.
The ash or vitrified material generated from the ‘Plasma Pyrolysis or Gasification shall be disposed off
in accordance with the Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement)
Rules, 2008
What Are Waste Transfer Stations?
Waste transfer stations play an important
role in a community’s total waste
management system, serving as the link
between a community’s solid waste
collection program and a final waste
disposal facility
Purpose:
• Consolidating waste from multiple collection vehicles into larger, high-volume
transfer vehicles for more economical shipment to distant disposal sites.
• No long-term storage of waste occurs at a transferstation
Economical Considerations
Assessing the economical consequences of introducing a waste transfer station

the transportation cost is lowest without transfer station at short travel distances, while at long
travel distances, it is more cost-beneficial to have a transfer station. At the critical distance the
costs are identical (Cc = Ct) corresponding to a distance of:
Fig. Demonstrates a representative
“cost versus miles” relationship
between direct hauling waste to
disposal facilities in collection
vehicles versus consolidation,
transfer, and hauling in larger
vehicles
Module 4
Recycling
RECYCLING:
Nature does it… so should we !!
The 3 R’s
Measures of Recycling Performance
1. Capture rate or source recovery factor- the weight percent of an eligible

material in the total solid waste stream actually separated out for recycling
2. Participation rate- the percent of households (or businesses) that regularly
set out recyclables
3. Recycling rate- the quantity of recyclables collected per household per unit
of time (e.g., 35 lb/residence ⋅ month).
4. Diversion rate- represents the weight of total solid waste that is not landfilled
Unit Pricing–Based Systems
• The concept of unit pricing, also referred to as pay-as-you-throw or variable

rate, is that residents pay a fee proportional to their waste generation.
• By assessing a fee on material put out for waste collection, residents can be
encouraged to increase their participation and source separation factors.
• Bottle Bill legislation- the consumer pays a deposit on each beverage

container purchased and receives that amount as a refund when the
container is returned for recycling or refilling.
• Drop off and buy back centers- centralized locations where residential
generators voluntarily bring certain recyclable materials
Examples of Recycled Materials and Products Made from Them
Recycling of Paper and Cardboard
17 trees = 1 ton of paper
Paper and Cardboard Production
• The production of virgin pulp is primarily based on softwood logs of

coniferous trees like pine and spruce, and to a lesser extent, hardwoods such
as birch, aspen, eucalyptus and poplar.
• The logs are brought from forests around the world to the pulp mills.
• The wood fiber can be extracted mechanically or chemically
• Reprocessing of waste paper into new paper products uses less energy and
causes fewer emissions than manufacturing of the same quantity of paper
from virgin resources.
Recycling
Steps:
1. Soak in water
2. De-inking
3. Removal of metal
parts
4. Glues
5. Bleach
6. Cellulose fibers
mixed with new pulp
7. Allowed to settle to
form new sheets
Common uses
Shorter chain length
Mechanical pulping
• Mechanical pulping involves mechanical wet grinding or refining of the wood into
fibers.
• High pressure, chemicals and electricity are used in varying degrees.
• Mechanical pulping has a high fiber yield, but is dominated by shorter fibers.
• Mechanical pulp is often bleached as it is used for paper that requires a certain
quality, e.g. newsprint, magazines
• Traditionally this was done with chlorine, but due to environmental concerns
chlorine is now being substituted by other less harmful bleaching chemicals such
as peroxides.
• Benefit of the mechanical pulps is the excellent printing properties, making them
very useful in newsprint and magazines. This is because of their good properties
of absorbing the ink and also their high opacities and low area density
Chemical pulping
• Chemical pulping uses caustic soda along with either sulfate or sulfite to
extract the cellulose fibers from lignin and other impurities during high-
pressure cooking.
• Sulfate is used in the production of Kraft pulp that is used for products such
as lining board and food packaging board, whereas sulfite is used for the
production of lower strength paper such as machine glazed paper with a
high gloss
• Chemical pulping has a lower fiber yield than mechanical pulping, but the
retrieved fibers are longer
Kraft process
Paper Remanufacturing
The re-pulping can be mechanical or chemical mechanical.

Mechanical Re-pulping
• Mechanical re-pulping is used for less demanding paper qualities such as brown
paper, boards, egg containers, etc.
• Consists of following steps:
1. Precleaning (mechanical) removes solid foreign items using centrifuges and
pressure sorters.
2. Refining provides washing, sorting and milling of the pulp.
3. Final cleaning (mechanical) removes items released in the refining step.
4. Thickening reduces the water content and allows for storing.
5. Drying.
Chemical mechanical re-pulping
Chemical mechanical re-pulping is used for higher-quality products requiring the

removal of ink and maybe bleaching.
Consists of following steps:
• Precleaning (mechanical) to remove solid foreign items, using centrifuges and
pressure sorters.
• Feeding and pulping including pH adjustment (caustic soda, aluminum sulfates)
and addition of dispersing agent (e.g. glycol ether).
• Refining to provide washing, sorting and milling of the pulp.
• De-inking and pigment removal by chemical (NaOH, sodium silicate, hydrogen
peroxide, soaps or fatty acids, chelating agents) and mechanical (flotation)
treatment steps
• Final cleaning (mechanical).
• Thickening and bleaching (optional) and storing.
• Drying.
Disadvantages
❑ Lower quality than original or new paper
❑ Expensive to remove inks
❑ Use of harmful chemicals- bleach
❑ More expensive to make than virgin paper
❑ Shaky economic value- changing value of recycled paper

Material flow analysis
Fig. Fibre flows in paper and board production in Europe in

2004 (million tonnes)
Environmental Considerations
Several LCA studies on paper recycling in comparison to incineration and

landfilling and with paper production from virgin raw materials have concluded that
recycling is beneficial from an environmental point of view.
• Reprocessing of waste paper into new paper products uses less energy and
causes fewer emissions than manufacturing of the same quantity of paper
from virgin resources
• The actual savings will depend on the technology used for the reprocessing
of paper and its emissions, source and amount of energy used, etc., as well
as on the technology used for manufacturing of virgin paper which is
assumed to be avoided because of the waste paper reprocessing
• The environmental aspects of incineration of paper are primarily related to
the level of air emission control and the energy recovered by the incinerator
Fig. Comparison of Global warming potentials
Recycling of Glass
❑ Predominantly found in terms of

beverage and food containers with a
relatively short lifetime before ending up
in the waste.
Glass Production
Three types of glass are produced in the glass industry are:

1. Sodalime glass, which is used for bottles, jars, drinking
glasses and window glass, is typically produced from quartz
sand (SiO2, particle size 0.1–0.4 mm), soda (Na2O, Na2CO3),
lime (CaO, CaCO3) and traces of other materials.
2. Crystal glass, which is used for high-quality drinking glasses, vases, art, etc.,
is typically produced from SiO2, PbO, Na2O or K2O and various other oxides.
3. Borosilicate glass (Pyrex glass), which is used for laboratory glassware,
kitchen glassware and high-temperature lamps, is typically produced from SiO2,
B2O3, Na2O or K2O and Al2O3.
Borosilicate glass is corrosion- and temperature-resistant
The sodalime glass is the only one that matters in the waste and also the
only one that can be recycled by remelting.
The process
• The mix of materials is fused at 1500–1600 ◦C, in a continuous process under

high energy expenses. Materials are continuously added at one end of a 10–
40m reactor and the melt is continuously removed at the other end, in sizes
suitable for further processing of the glass involving blowing and molding.
• Water and various gases (CO2, O2 and SO2 from the chemicals used) are
released at the high temperatures and, to avoid the formation of small bobbles
in the glass, additional chemicals generating oxygen at high temperature are
added to help the gasses escape from the melting mass.
• The majority of these gases are in the form of CO2 from decomposition of
carbonates, which can amount to up to 200 kg released per tonne of raw
material.
Glass Remanufacturing
Glass waste is recycled in several ways:

❑ Returnable bottles are returned to shops, collected by companies organized by
the bottle industry, cleaned and refilled. The system uses energy and produces
wastewater from the cleaning. Items broken during the process are recycled as
cullet.
❑ Separately collected intact bottles are cleaned and reused
❑ Broken glass (called cullet) is remelted in the production of new glass bottles and
containers.
❑ Glass cullet is used as the raw material in the production of insulation material
(glasswool)
❑ Glass is used as a substitute for gravel, filler and similar in building materials,
drains, etc.
Unit Processes in Glass Recycling
❑ Manual sorting
❑ Automatic sorting using scanners
❑ Magnetic and eddy-current separation
❑ Size reduction (mill, grinders, sieves)
❑ Washing
❑ Drying
❑ Separation
❑ Optical color sorting
Fig. Sketch of an optical color sorting machine for glass
LCA of glass bottles versus tetrapack
• The purpose of this study is to compare the amount carbon dioxide

equivalent produced from the manufacture of 1 million 1 litre glass bottle and
Tetra Pak.
• The functional unit for this project is defined as manufacture of 1 million 1
litre of packaging
• The scope of this LCA is cradle to cradle.

• This includes all steps from extraction and transportation of raw materials
and fuels, followed by all conversion steps until the product i.e. glass bottle,
is delivered to customer and recycled back to be used as raw material.
Total energy consumed in each process for packing milk in
1 million 1 litre glass bottles
Observed results
• The life cycle of glass bottle has a higher carbon dioxide equivalent output than
the life cycle of Tetra Pak.
• Although glass bottle can be recycled and reused 20 to 30 times unlike the Tetra
Pak container, which could only be used once.
• Still, the GWP of waste incineration for per production of glass bottle is still
higher than that of the total GWP for the life cycle of Tetra Pak.
• Most of the carbon dioxide equivalent amount in the life cycle of glass bottle was
resulted from the thermal energy needed in forming the glass bottle and in the
life cycle of Tetra Pak, the paperboard forming process.
Environmental Considerations
• The virgin raw materials for glass

production are abundant and
accessible in most parts of the world.
• The environmental aspects are thus
more related to the energy savings that
can be obtained from reusing bottles or
remelting cullets.
• The recycling of the glass itself as such is therefore not the issue, but more
important is what processes are avoided by recycling the glass waste.
Plastics
• Synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds with very high molecular

mass
• Organic blends added as additives, plasticizer, fillers, etc.
• Plastic is produced from fossil oil, which is distilled to fractions containing a
mixture of hydrocarbon chains and, subsequently, cracked into repeating
molecular units, ‘monomers’.
• The monomers are synthesized into polymers forming the base material, e.g.
granulate or powder, which can be manufactured to different shapes and
products by several mechanical means, as for example, extruding and
molding.
Plastic recycling
• Plastic is produced from fossil oil.

• Plastic is used for many different products.
• Some plastic products like, for example, wrapping foil, bags and disposable
containers for food and beverage have very short lifetimes and thus constitute
a major fraction of most waste.
• Other plastic products like, for example, gutters, window frames, car parts
and transportation boxes have long lifetimes and thus appear as waste only
many years after they have been introduced on the market.
• Until 2019, the global production of petrochemical plastics amounted for
nearly 359 million tonnes annually, consuming an average of 10% of the
global petroleum resources
• Increasing demands for PPE and single-use plastics due to the ongoing
pandemic have led to increased concerns about the disposal of used PPEs
and packaging plastics
• The material compositions of PPEs include plastics as major constituent,
representing 20–25% by weight, and the plastics used in packaging materials
represent nearly 40% of the total plastic production worldwide
• These trends in plastic consumption are responsible for approximately 150–
200 million tons of annually discarded plastics worldwide
History of plastic production
1862- Alexander Parkes ----- PARKESINE
1907- Dr. Leo Baekeland -------- BAKELITE
1940s------------- PET
Plastic production process

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BITS Pilani

K K Birla Goa Campus

EEZG621/SSTMZG526: Solid Waste Management

No Name Type Duration Weight Day, Date, Session, Time

EC-1 Assignment Online - 15% Will be announced

EC-2 Mid-Semester Test Open Book 2 hours 35%

EC-3 Comprehensive Exam Open Book 3 hours 50%

Introduction to waste management

Problems associated with waste

Waste management criteria

Approaches to waste management

Introduction to waste engineering

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

‘Waste is a left-over, a redundant product or material of no or marginal

Becoming ‘waste’ may depend on many factors, for example:

‘a waste in a solid state’

Solid waste may be solid, or liquid as a sludge or as a free chemical

A big component of waste management is the 3Rs

Hazardous waste is more dangerous to the environment and to those handling

The hazardousness of a waste is assessed according to criteria as (simplified

It is a comprehensive program of waste prevention, recycling, composting

This includes management of :

In-house waste handling

Littering/unmanaged waste handling

Municipal waste management system

Industrial waste management system

Hazardous waste management system

Defined as the selection and application of suitable techniques, technologies, and

The following criteria should be considered in all waste management planning:

Waste management decisions take place on many levels, but are

1. Common Sense Approach

1. Waste prevention and cleaner technology

The conservation of all resources by means of responsible production,

Zero waste plan was launched in Scotland by Scottish Government on 2010

Sustainability- Development that meets the needs of the present

Fostered a way of thinking suggesting that long-term issues should

 Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a common tool used to evaluate and

The Basel Convention (22 March 1989; UNEP, 1989) provides an

The Aarhus Convention (25 June 1998) focusses on public participation,

Waste engineering means the skills and ability to understand quantitatively

Source: Purkayastha, Debasree, Chakrabarti, S. PY - 2014/06/18

 Waste collection is the organized storage of waste at source and its

 Treatment may involve mechanical, thermal or biological treatment or

 It is the final step in the waste management system.

 Recycling is the use of the materials in the production of the same or

Landfilling is the dedicated use of land for disposing waste in an

EE ZG621/SSTM ZG526: Solid Waste Management

Lecture - 2 Dr. Jayita Chopra

 Material flow analysis

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

1. Waste prevention and cleaner technology

The conservation of all resources by means of responsible production,

Zero waste plan was launched in Scotland by Scottish Government on 2010

The Basel Convention (22 March 1989; UNEP, 1989) provides an

The Aarhus Convention (25 June 1998) focusses on public participation,

Waste engineering means the skills and ability to understand quantitatively

Source: Purkayastha, Debasree, Chakrabarti, S. PY - 2014/06/18

 Waste collection is the organized storage of waste at source and its

 Treatment may involve mechanical, thermal or biological treatment or

 It is the final step in the waste management system.

 Recycling is the use of the materials in the production of the same or

Landfilling is the dedicated use of land for disposing waste in an

 Organic solvents, which are usually chlorinated, have traditionally been