4 gene pool and genetic diversity

Number of times a particular allele expresses itself in a given population

Speciation is the formation of a new species

When does a new species arrive?

Isolating mechanism

Any mechanism that prevent breeding between populations and eventually leading to speciation

5 types of mechanism

Geographical: - any physical barrier that doesn’t allow the animals to mate

Ecological: -

Temporal

Behavioral
UNIT 2 REVISION CLASS

Conservation:-

Insitu and exsitu conservation

Insitu:-

Exsitu:-

Why do we have to conserve the organisms

Loosing an organism affects food chain

It increases the aesthetic value

They have medicinal value

Endangered those organism that are at the verge of extinction

Inbreeding and outbreeding

Inbreeding increases homozygosity

Outbreeding increases heterozygosity

Explain the role of zoos in maintaining high genetic diversity

They perform captive breeding programs they carry out artificial insemination Ivf

They carry out animal exchange programs

They maintain stud box

Protect from hunting and proaching

they are introduce the captive bred individual into the wild they carryout study about organisms physiology and
behaviou

they involve the local people in conservation programs

…..why captive breeding programs are not successful:

not much choice of mates

no longer in their natural habitat

conditions are dif

problems faced by organisms that are captive bred

having been in captivity the animals might not move around the habitat

not fond food

not know to socialize

steps to reintroduce
try to introduce wild behavior

minimise the human interaction

ssed banks:-

how to process the seed

x ray the seed before storing(reason)

after storage check ofr viability(how)

put them in opaque container

-20 temp to retart the not to all

Low moisture content

Low o2 as seeds might germinate use vaccumised containers

Advatnges of seeds banks over botanical gardens:-

Store large number in small space whereas need large space to grow plants

Low maintanence

High genetic diversity can be maintained

Why it is advantageous to store seeds from several plants rather than one plant

To create variation

SpeciationL- formation of a new species

How a new species araises isolation

Isolation:_

Geographical:-

Ecological:-

Mutation

Seasonal

Temporal

Behavioral

Mechanical

Allopetric speciation geographical isolation

Any barrier gene flow btw pop

is restricted
each set organisms might be exposed environmental pressure selection pressure

Symapatric speciation (no barrier)

Cx mutation occur In ancestor pop changing the color, this change is advantageous for them, there for it is selected
for them

Population bottle neck:-

How it occurs

Founder effect: loss of genetic variation as a cause of

Hardy winberg equation:-

Adaptations:-

Any featres or any structures that allow them to survive better in a given condition

Three types of adaptation

Anatomical:

anything related to structure

physiological

anything related to functions and function systems

behavioral

anything that involve actions

diversity index:

heterzygosity index:-

number of het individual/ tot indiv

biodiversity:-

genetic diversity:-

species richness:-

diff btw genetic diversity and spcies richnes

endemism:-

biodiversity hotspot:- anyplace that contains at least

use quadrant

taxonomy;-

based on morphology and phylogeny

molecular phylogeny

first came two spc cllssf

second came five

present is three domains

bacteria

archaea

eukaryote

:- systematic arrangement of organisms based on dna structure

How to publisg work

Pear review journal

Publishing article

Online

Binomial systems:-

Species:-

William withering :-

Three phase testing

Preclinical:-

Why tested on differentiated stem cells

Why animal

Human life is more precios than humans

Physiology is similar to humans

Ethical issues

Clinical trail phase 1

Role;- to find the drug is harmful or not sideeffects

Use a small group of healthy volunteers

They are appried of the experiment

Role:- work out the dosage

Phase 2

Phase 3

Similarities and dif William withering and modern

Use of plant:

Sustainability

Carbon neutral

Importance of water and minerals

Nitrate important constituent

defficiency

magnesium

megnesuim pectate

defficiency

calcium

deficiency

‘’’’

Role of water :-

Plant tissues:-

Collen chymaThick cellulose and confined around corners

Scelerenchyma:- some have pits:- reson

Identify tissues from cascular bundle:-

Structural similarties and dif btw xylem and sclerenchyma

Btw xylem and phloem
 As biology unit 1 topic 1
Topics thorough with Topics needed to revise Topics to cramp up Doubts after revision
structure of how the effect of caffeine
monosaccharides and on heart rate in daphnia
disaccharides can be investigated
practically, ethical issues
importance of water as in the use of
a solvent and dipolar invertebrates
nature

structure and role of Analyse and interpret

polysaccharides data on the possible
significance for health of
blood cholesterol levels
Condensation reaction and levels of high-density
of monosaccharides and lipoproteins. Describe
hydrolysis reaction of the evidence for a causal
disaccharides relationship between
blood cholesterol levels
synthesis of a scientific knowledge about
triglyceride by the the effects of diet, exercise
and smoking to reduce their
condensation reaction formation of ester risk of CHD
of amylose and bonds during
amylopectin condensation

cardiac cycle (AS,VS,D differences btw Vitamin c content of food

and relate to the saturated and and drink
structure and operation unsaturated fats
of the mammalian heart
to its function, major
blood vessels

Role of blood clotting Energy budgets and diet

structure of blood so as to be able to discuss
process in CVD
vessels and relate to the consequences of
function energy imbalance,
including weight loss and
weight gain, and obesity
Atherosclerosis Quantitative data on
illness and mortality rates
Blood clotting process to determine health risks
Benefits and risks of Explain why people’s
treatments for CVD perceptions of risks are
often different from the
actual risks (including
underestimating and
overestimating the risks
due to diet and other
Why animals have a lifestyle factors in the
heart and circulatory development of heart
system disease
Distinguish between
correlation and
Factors that increase causation and
the risk of CVD recognizing evidence

Topics thorough with Topics needed to revise Topics to cramp up Doubts after revision
 Explain what is meant by How membrane structure
passive transport can be investigated
(diffusion, facilitated practically, the effect of
diffusion), active transport( alcohol concentration or
role of atp), endocytosis temperature on membrane
and exocytosis and the permeability
involvement of carrier and
channel proteins in
Fluid mosaic model membrane transport
explain the significance of How enzymes can affect the
proteins primary structure rate of reactions and how
in determining its three this can be investigated
Explain in terms of the dimensional structure and practically by measuring the
movement of free water properties of (globular and initial rate of reaction
molecules through a fibrous proteins and types
partially permeable of bonds involved in the
membrane three dimensional structure
Describe the structure of DNA replication and
mononucleotide and the explain how Meselson and
structure of DNA and RNA stalh’s classic experiment
and describe how provided new data that
Properties of gas exchange complementary base supported the accepted
surfaces in living pairing and the hydrogen theory of replication
organisms and explain how bonding between two
the structure of the complementary strands are
mammalian lung is adapted involved in the formation
for rapid gaseous exchange of the dna double helix
Explain how errors in Principles of gene therapy
DNA replication can give and distinguish between
rise to mutations and somatic and germ line
explain how cystic fibrosis therapy
Basic structure of amino results from one of a
acid and the formation of number of possible gene
polypeptides and proteins mutations
Explain the mechanism of Term gene, allele,
action and specificity of genotype, phenotype,
enzymes in terms of their recessive, dominant,
3-d structure and explain homozygote and
that enzymes are biological heterozygote and explain
catalysts that reduce monohybrid inheritance
activation energy,
catalyzing a wide range of
intracellular and
extracellular reactions
Explain how the
expression of a gene
mutation in people with
cystic fibrosis impairs the
following functioning of
the gaseous exchange,
Process of protein digestive and reproductive
synthesis systems
Use of genetic screening:
identification of carriers,
preimplantation genetic
diagnosis and prenatal
testing(amniocentesis and
chronic villus sampling)
and implications of
prenatal genetic screening
Social and ethical issues
related to genetic screening

How The Effect Of Caffeine On Heart Rate In Daphnia Can Be Investigated Practically
And State The Ethical Issues In The Use Of Invertebrates?
Equipment used:-
Daphnia Cotton wool
Cavity slides Test tubes
Dropping pipette Stop clock
Distilled water Filter paper
Caffeine solution Optical microscope
Procedure: -
Dilute the caffeine solution using distilled water in test tubes to make different
concentrations
Place some cotton wool to restrict the movement on a cavity slide. Then place one
large water flea and using filter paper absorb the water around the flea.
Then using the dropper pipette add a few drops of distilled water to the slide. Do not
use a coverslip to prevent the conditions from becoming anoxic.
Then use the stop clock to time 5 minutes and record the number of heartbeats by
observing using the optical microscope
Repeat the experiment replacing water with caffeine solution of different
concentrations and then compare the results with the one done with water
Plot a graph of heart of daphnia/ beats per min against caffeine concentration/mol
cm-3
Conclusions: - the heart rate of daphnia increases with the increase in caffeine
concentration as caffeine increases the levels of epinephrine that leads to a slight raise
in heartbeat rate.
Safety precautions: - keep glass away from edges and rinse hands with soap after
handling daphnia as it could cause contamination and use disinfectant

Effect of temperature on heart rate of daphnia

Temperature increases the metabolism, increasing temperature causes
an increase in kinetic energy that leads to more and effective collisions
between enzymes and substrates therefore more ESCs formed, so heart
rate increases to supply more oxygen and glucose
Reasons why daphnia are suitable organisms to use in this investigation
They are transparent and have visible organs such as heart
They are simple organisms that don’t feel pain
They are easy to obtain as they are abundant

Analyse and interpret data on the possible significance for health of blood
cholesterol levels and levels of high-density lipoproteins. Describe the
evidence for a causal relationship between blood cholesterol levels
We need a small amount of blood cholesterol because the body uses it to: build the
structure of cell membranes. make hormones like oestrogen, testosterone and
adrenal hormones. help your metabolism work efficiently, for example, cholesterol is
essential for your body to produce vitamin D. however high level of cholesterol leads
to plague formation in the blood vessels as LDL carries cholesterol and deposit them
into the blood vessels. This plague is called atherosclerotic plague. Due the formation
of atherosclerotic plague the blood vessels becomes narrower and the arteries tend to
lose its elastic nature. Therefore, the pressure of blood pumped by heart increases
which causes more damage to endothelial cell lining. Also, the narrowed blood vessels
have chances of being blocked by embolus eventually to a stroke or myocardial
infarction.

There is an inverse relationship between the serum high- density lipoprotein

cholesterol concentrations and the risk for coronary heart diseases (CHD). Higher
HDL-C levels are always beneficial, while lower HDL-C levels are always detrimental
as the HDL functionality plays a much more important role in atheroprotection than
circulating HDL_C levels.
HDL plays a major role in reverse cholesterol transport (RCT), by which excess
cholesterol is removed from the peripheral vessel and is transported back into the
liver for disposal. Also it has other beneficial properties such as antioxidative, anti-
inflammatory endothelial and antithrombotic. Also decreases the recruitment of
blood monocytes into the atrial wall by inhibiting the expression of adhesion
molecules in the endothelial cells. increases the production of the atheroprotective
signaling molecule.

scientific knowledge about the effects of diet, exercise and smoking to reduce their
risk of CHD

How To Investigate The Vitamin C Content Of Food And Drink

Equipment used: -

1%DCPIP solution 5cm3and 1 cm3syringes

Small beakers Test tubes and test tube rack

Pipette A selection of fruit juices

1% vitamin C solution Eye protection

Procedure: -

use the pipette to transfer 1 cm3 of the DCPIP solution to a test tube.

Then using a clean 5cm3 syringe draw up 5 cm3 of vitamin C solution.

Add the vitamin c solution from the syringe one drop at a time to the test tube containing the
DCPIP, being sure to gently shake the test tube after each addition.

Stop adding the vitamin C once the blue DCPIP has turned colorless. Record the volume of
the solution that has been added to cause the color change.

Repeat the above steps to obtain 2 further results of vitamin c solution and then calculate the
mean volume added, first discarding any anomalous results.

Then repeat the above procedures for the juices in place of the vitamin C

Risk assessment:

DCPIP could irritate skin so avoid skin contact and wear eye protection

Fruit juices could be kept in the lab for a longer period so don’t drink

Keep glassware away from edges

Avoid spillage of any liquid in case of spillage wipe it off immediately as it causes the floor to
be slippery

Drink used Volume1 Volume2 Volume3 Mean volume needed to decolourise

(cm3) (cm3) (cm3) DCPIP(cm3)

Vitamin C solution
Fruit juice 1
 Fruit juice 2
Fruit juice 3
Conclusion

This experiment can be used to estimate the concentration of Vitamin C in fruit juices since vitamin C is an
antioxidant and DCPIP is an oxidising agent. When vitamin C is added to DCPIP the DCPIP is reduced which eventually
causes a colour change from blue to colourless. Since the volume and concentration of both the vitamin C solution
and DCPIP are known, the concentration of vitamin C in each fruit juice can be calculated by comparing it to the
standard solution.

The calculation

1 cm³ of 1% vitamin C solution contains 10 mg of vitamin C. Using this information you can calculate the mass of
vitamin C needed to decolourise a given volume of DCPIP (for instance if 1.6 cm³ were needed that would be 16 mg).
From there you can calculate the concentrations of the fruit juices.

Describe a method that can be used to study the antimicrobial properties of a plant extract.

 Prepare the culture medium using nutrient agar, then solidify it.
 Choose a specific strand of bacteria such as E.coli and inoculate and steak it onto the
petri dishes using a sterile glass rod.
 Afterwards prepare the plant extracts by standard procedures
 Cut out equal size disk from filter paper and dip in the plant extract and some disks in
water (control) for 20s, time using a stopwatch.
 Then place 5 disks from the extract on the petri dishes and apply tape crisscross and
place in the incubator at 25oc inverted for 24 hrs.
 After that measure the zone of inhibition using Vernier caliper. Repeat the experiment
for different strands of bacteria

Describe how seeds are treated and then stored in a seed bank.
 X-ray the seeds and discard the seeds infested by insects as the ones that don’t
have the embryo
 Sun dry them to lower the moisture content to prevent the growth of bacteria and
fungi also to prevent the germination of the seeds.
  Let them cool and then freeze them by decreasing their temperature to a -20oc to
ensure that germination of the seed don’t occur during storage period also to slow
down the enzyme reactions
 Then store them opaque and vacuumized containers to block any sunlight and ox
 oxygen from reaching the seeds that can result in germination of the light sensitive
seeds and to prevent the growth of microbes.

Described how the mitotic index of roots can be determined

 Add 1 cm3 of 1 mol per dm-3 of HCL into a test tube and place it the water bath at
55oc for 15 min
 Then dip the onion root tip in the acid for 5 min. then take the root and rinse the
acid off the roots and then cut about 5mm to 10 mm from root tip, the region that
contains the meristematic cells into disks.
 After that place them a on slide and macerate them using a mounting needle and
add a few drops of acetic orcein then place it in water bath at 55oc to darken the
stain
 Then observe and note the number of cells in the field of vision that’s undergoing
mitosis as well the total number of cells.
 Then using the formula :- number of cells undergoing mitosis /total number of cells

Describe a safe method to prepare and examine the structure of human cheek cells

 Wear gloves to prevent contact with methylene blue as it might cause allergic
reaction. Take a cavity slide and a clean toothpick them obtain cheek cells by
scrubbing the toothpick on the cheeks, while smearing be careful not to take any
tissues causing an injury and also be aware of the condition of the person from
whom the cheek cells are obtained from, then smear it on the slide and then let it
dry so the cells wont be washed of while rinsing off the excess stain
 Add a few methylene blue and keep for 5 min and rinse the stain so that stain wont
be too much dark
 Then observe the cells under microscope
Devise an experiment, which will produce valid data, to investigate the deficiency of a
named inorganic ion on the growth of the plant.
 Obtain seedlings and measure the length and mass of the seedlings and record
it.
 Then prepare a mineral ion solution of 15 cm3 with 0 mole dm-3 of N but other
minerals in optimal concentration and use it as a control.
 Then prepare five test tubes with different concentrations of N and the other
mineral ions in optimal concentration.
 Then place the shoot in the test tube, the root dipped in the ion solution then
place cotton wool on the opening of the test tube.
 then keep them in incubation at 25oc for a week then measure the mass and the
length and mass of the seedlings and compare with the control
 repeat the experiment for the same concentration and find average also with
different concentrations.
  Measure the mass for more accurate results as it would be difficult to measure
length since plants grow in all dimensions.

Variable to be controlled:
 Light intensity  Volume of mineral ion solution
 PH using a buffer solution  Source of the seedlings
 Temperature using AC  Duration of incubation