Topic 3

MEMBRANES, PROTEINS, DNA AND GENE EXPRESSION

 Structure of cell
membrane

– Why phospholipid molecules form a bilayer?

The phospholipid molecule consists of hydrophilic phosphate head and hydrophobic

fatty acid tails. Since the cell is an aqueous medium, the hydrophobic fatty acid tails orient
themselves away from water, thereby bringing the head towards the surface forming the
bilayer.
The structure of the membrane:-
The membrane is composed of mainly two types of molecules- phospholipids and proteins
in a very specific way.
– The phospholipid bilayer:-
– The lipids in the membrane are called polar lipids
– These are lipid molecules with one end joined to a polar group.
– Phosphate group forms the polar part of the molecule.
– Fatty acid chains of a phospholipid are neutral and insoluble in water
– The phosphate head carries a negative charge and is soluble in water
– The polar phosphate part is hydrophilic (water loving) dissolves easily in
water. The lipid tails are hydrophobic (water-hating) & insoluble in water
– If the molecules are tightly packed in water they form either a monolayer,
with the hydrophilic lipid tails in the air, or clusters which are called micelles.
– A simple phospholipid bilayer, allows fat-soluble organic molecules to pass
through it, but many vital molecules needed in cell are iconic
– As these dissolve in water, they cannot dissolve in, or pass through lipids, or
even polar lipids.
– They can enter cells because the membranes consists not only of lipids but also
of proteins & other molecules.
The Fluid Mosaic Model Of The Cell
Membrane
– Fluid:- the molecules in the phospholipid bilayer changes its position within the membrane.
– Mosaic:- means the protein are randomly embedded in the phosphate bilayer.
– Components
1)Phospholipid(molecule and bilayer)
2) Proteins(channel and carrier): may act as a specific receptor molecules and are active carrier
systems, using energy to move molecules & others are simply gaps in the lipid bilayer which allow
ionic substance to move through the membrane in both directions.
3) Cholesterol to decrease fluidity and increase stability
4) Glycolipid for cell recognition
5) Glycoprotein
Cell Transport & Diffusion

– Substances that cross cell membrane

 Water
 Ionic substances such as mg, ca, k, Na
 Digested food materials such as amino acids, fatty acids, glucose, glycerol
 Gases such as oxygen &carbon dioxide
 Metabolic wastes (urea, uric acid, etc…)
– Properties of the membrane that affect the transport of substances into and out of the
cell
 Size of the molecule
 Concentration gradient
 Solubility in lipid & water
 The presence or absence of charges on a molecule
 DIFUSSION FACILITATED DIFFUSION ACTIVE TRANSPORT OSMOSIS

Net movement of free Net movement of polar Movement of ions from Net movement of free
molecules from a region molecules from a region a lower concentration water molecules from a
of higher concentration of higher concentration to a higher region of higher water
to a region of lower to a region of lower concentration through potential to a region of
concentration until an concentration through transmembrane protein lower water potential
uniform concentration transmembrane protein using atp until an through partial
is reached without using atp until uniform concentration permeable membrane
an uniform is reached until a uniform
concentration is concentration is
reached reached

Even after reaching Each type of channel Energy is needed to The water potential of a
uniform distribution, protein allows one change the solution measures the
molecules do not stop particular type of configuration of protein concentration of free
moving, but the molecules to pass so that ions can move water molecules-in
movement no longer through, depending on from a region of lower other words the water
causes a net change in the molecules shape concentration to a molecules that are not
concentration because and charge. region of higher associated with solute
equal numbers are concentration. molecules.
moving in all directions

Isotonic: equal Hypotonic:conc of solute is lower Hypertonic: conc of solute is higher

 COMPARE
– Simple Diffusion And Facilitated Diffusion
+ Simple diffusion & facilitated diffusion is the movement of substances from region of
higher concentration gradient to a region of lower concentration gradient
- Simple diffusion involves the movement of non-polar substances while facilitated
diffusion involves the movement of polar substances
- Facilitated diffusion uses the transmembrane protein in the passage of substances
whereas simple diffusion don’t use the trans-membrane protein in the passage of
substances
– Facilitated diffusion and active diffusion
+ both involves transmembrane protein
+Both moves polar substances
- Facilitated diffusion moves substances from high concentration gradient to lower
concentration while active transport moves substances from lower concentration to
higher concentration gradient
- Active transport uses adenosine triphosphate (ATP) whereas facilitated diffusion don’t
– Osmosis and diffusion
+ Both involve in movement of substances across membrane
+ Both involve respective molecules from a region of higher concentration gradient to a region of
lower concentration gradient
- Osmosis involves the movement of water molecules while diffusion involves other substances too
- Osmosis involves movement of molecules through a partially permeable membrane while diffusion
don’t involve the usage of any membrane
– Simple diffusion and active transport
+ Both involves the movement of molecules
- In active transport molecules are moved from a lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration while in simple diffusion involves the movement of substances from a region of high
concentration to a region of lower concentration.
- In active transport the polar substances are moved across the membrane while nonpolar
molecules are moved by diffusion
- Active transport involves the usage of energy to move the substances while simple diffusion
doesn’t
Cytosis:- bulk transport involving vesicles
Types:
Exocytosis:- transport of materials out of a cell by using vesicles
Endocytosis:- transport of materials into a cells by forming vesicles. There are two
types namely
Pinocytosis:- fluid is taken into a cell by forming vesicles
Phagocytosis:- solid or large particles are taken into cell by forming vesicles.
– Polar substances move in by either active transport of facilitated diffusion through
transmembrane protein
– Nonpolar substances move in by diffusion
– How mammalian lung is adapted for efficient gas exchange
 It consists of millions of tiny alveoli that increases the surface area
 The alveolar wall is made up of single layer of epithelial cells and capillary wall is made up of single
layer of endothelium cells decreasing the diffusion distance
 The air flow in the alveoli and blood flow in the capillaries maintain a steep concentration gradient
 Pulmonary surfactant
 Surfactant is a monolayer of phospholipid molecules lining in the inner wall of the alveoli
 They prevent the collapsing of the alveolar walls due to cohesive forces between water molecules
 Children born with respiratory distress syndrome lack this surfactant layer in alveoli
– Modifications found in amoeba to carry out diffusion
 Amoeba is a unicellular and microscopic therefore the surface area is greater than its volume
 The diffusion distance is short as there is a single membrane between the surrounding medium
and the cytoplasm
 A high concentration gradient is maintained continuously as the oxygen is used up during
respiration producing co2, which makes oxygen diffuse in and co2 to diffuse out
– Modifications found in plant leave to carry out diffusion effectively
– The leaf is thin and flat decreasing the diffusion distance
– Large numbers of irregularly shaped closely packed mesophyll cells increase th
surface area enormously
– A high concentration of gases is maintained as co2 enter into leaf during
photosynthesis is used producing o2.therefore, co2 moves in continuously wh
o2 gets accumulated in the sub stomatal space moves out.
 Enzymes

– Enzymes break the chemical bonds that holds them together lowering the activation
energy
– Enzymes form enzyme substrate complex (es complex )
– Within the globular protein has a very specific shape of active site and it gives each
enzyme its specificity
– Induced-fit hypothesis
– Active site still has a distinctive shape and arrangement, but it is a flexible one
– After the substrate enter the active site, the shape of the site is modified around it
to form the active complex
– Once the products have left the complex, the enzyme returns to its inactive, relaxed
form until another substrate molecule binds
– It is made up of polypeptide chain composed of amino acids repeatedly joined by peptide bond
during condensation
– The complex 3d globular shape attained by this polypeptide chain is by twisting and folding around
itself.
– This shape is maintained by the bonding between the r groups namely hydrogen, disulfide and ionic
bond and the folding due to hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions and it has specific shape of
active site.
– Factors affecting the rate of reaction
 Concentration of enzyme
 Specific temperatures and pressure
 ph
The structure of DNA and RNA

– Mononucleotides
– Provides the energy currency of cells in the form of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP)
– Provide the building blocks for the mechanism of inheritance in the form of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) & ribonucleic acid(RNA)
Genetic code

Characteristics of genetic code:

The genetic code is a triplet code: the sequence of three bases that code for one
amino acid
It is degenerate or redundant: several codons can code for one amino acid
It is non-overlapping: each nucleotide is a part of only one codon.
– Helicase enzyme starts unwinding and unzipping breaking the hydrogen bonds
and then opening the two strands like a zipper
– The exposed bases on leading strand template, attract the complementary
bases in such a way that A-T, G-C , T-A, C-G, catalyzed by DNA polymerase to
form the leading strand
– OKAZAKI fragments are attracted by phosphodiester bonds catalyzed by DNA
ligase to form the lagging strand
– At the end two daughter DNA molecules are produced each consisting of one
old parental strand and one new strand.
– MRNA is formed in the nucleus
– The sense strand of the DNA strand carries the code for the protein to be
formed, but the messenger RNA forms the antisense strand of the DNA, also
called the template strand
– Part of the DNA unravels and unzips , exposing the bases which act as a
template strand
– Beginning at a start codon
– RNA nucleotides align along the exposed sequence of DNA bases in the normal
complementary fashion
– RNA polymerase joins the RNA nucleotides together .
– The process ends when chain reaches a stop codon and the mRNA chain
separated from the DNA template , allowing the DNA chains of the double helix
to re-join.
– The mRNA moves into cytoplasm
Protein synthesis

– The genetic code of the DNA of the nucleus is transcribed onto messenger
mRNA . This mRNA moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm and becomes
attached to ribosomes. Molecules of transfer RNA carry individual amino acids
to the surface of the ribosome. The tRNA anticodon lines up besides a
complementary codon in the mRNA held by hydrogen binds, wgile enzymes link
the amino acids together. The tRNA then breaks away & returns to the
cytoplasm to pick up amino acid. Ribosomes move along the molecules of
mRNA until it reaches the stop codon at the end, leaving a completed
polypeptide chain.
 Mutations

– Mutation is a sudden heritable changed that occur in the base sequence of

DNA.

CHANGE IN BASE CHANGE IN BASE CHANGE IN AMINO

CHANGE IN mRNA codon ACID SEQUENCE
SEQUENCE ON DNA SEQUENCE ON mRNA

CHANGE IN CELL CHANGE IN BONDING

CHANGE IN PROTEIN
FUNCTION & FOLDING OF
FUNCTION
PROTEIN STRUCTURE
Types of mutation

– Substitution
– Occur where one letter is substituted for another. Can be often neutral
– Inversion
– An entire section is reversed .
– Insertion or deletion
– One or more bases are added or deleted from the DNA code.
 Terminologies

– Homologous chromosomes: The chromosomes that look alike are homologous chromosome
– Gene: A sequence of bases on DNA that codes for a sequence of amino acid in a polypeptide
chain
– Allele: Alternative form of a gene found on the same locus of the homologous chromosomes
– Genotype : The combination of allele found at the same gene locus of homologous chromosomes
– Phenotype: The observable features of an organism that is produces the interaction of the
genotype and the environment
– Homozygote :A genotype consisting of similar alleles
– Heterozygotes : A genotype consisting of two different alleles
– Recessive allele: which express itself in the phenotypes, only in homozygous condition
– Codominance: when both alleles are expressed in the phenotype during heterozygous condition
– Why phospholipid molecules form a bilayer?
The phospholipid molecule consists of hydrophilic phosphate head and hydrophobic fatty
acid tails. Since the cell is an aqueous medium, the hydrophobic fatty acid tails orient
themselves away from water, thereby bringing the head towards the surface forming the bilayer.
– Fluid:- the molecules in the phospholipid bilayer changes its position within the membrane.
– Mosaic:- means the protein are randomly embedded in the phosphate bilayer.

What is the bond between phospholipid molecules?

Ester bond
– Cholestrol decreases fluidity and increases stability
– Glycocalix is for cell recognition
– Polar substances move through the transmembrane protein
– Carbohydrate and glycolipid and glycoprotein
– How non polar substances move By diffusion
– Energy is needed to change the configuration of protein so that ions can move from a region
of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration.
– How the mammalian lung is adapted for efficient gas exchange
– It is made up millions of tiny alveoli, it increases surface are
– Alveolar wall is made up single layer of epithelial cell and capillary is made up of
single layer endothelial decreases the diffusion distance
– The blood flow in the capillary and the air flow in the alveoli maintains a steep
concentration gradient

– About the amoeba

How the mammalian lung is adapted for efficient gas exchange

It is made up millions of tiny alveoli, it increases surface are
Alveolar wall is made up single layer of epithelial cell and
capillary is made up of single layer endothelial decreases the
diffusion distance
The blood flow in the capillary and the air flow in the alveoli
maintains a steep concentration gradient

About the amoeba