CE433:Spring2020

Review:FlowMeasurementwithBroadͲCrestedWeirs

3/ 2
§2 ·
Q Cd b g ¨ H ¸
©3 ¹

2
yc H
3
• Howdotheywork?
0.65
Cd
• Whatisthedisadvantage? (1  H / H w )1/ 2

FlowControlSections
• Weir:acontrolsection • Flume:acontrolsection
wherethechannel wherethechannelis
bottomisraised narrowed(andraised)
– Usedtoraisewater – Avoidssediment
surfacetoacertain deposition
height – Reducedheadloss
– Usedtoquantifyflow
– DA
• largeheadloss
Contraction
• sedimentdeposition

Contraction
 Figure5.6.7(p.133)
GenerallayoutofaflowͲmeasuringstructure(fromBosetal.(1984)).
Water Resource Engineering, 2005 Edition by Larry W. Mays
Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Parshall Flume
– Convergingsection:subcriticalflowisacceleratedand
guidedintothroat,inducescriticaldepth
– Throat:inducessupercriticalflow
– Divergingsection:flowvelocityreducedtosubcritical
flow;potentialenergyisrecovered

Parshall Flume,cont…

• Two key depths:

Ha – flow depth at 1/3 of the distance into the converging section
Hb – flow depth in throat section
• Submergence: when tailwater is high, the hydraulic jump can be located
under very slow moving, pooled water
• When the jump is not submerged, computing flow rate is simple:

Flow Equations
SubmergedJumpinParshall Parshall Flume Submergence Criteria

Flume Throat Width Hb / Ha

2.5 cm, 5.1 cm, 7.6 cm 0.5
• IfHb /Ha exceeds 15.2 cm, 22.9 cm 0.6
submergencecriteriaї 30 cm – 2.4 m 0.7
2.4 m – 15.2 m 0.8
– thencorrectionfactors
mustbeapplied
Correction factors
relative to 0.30 m
Parshall Flumes
Throat Correction
Width (m) Factor
0.30 1.0
Parshall flume correction for
submerged flow, W = 0.30 m
0.46 1.4
0.61 1.8
0.91 2.4
1.22 3.1
¨Q = correction (m3/s) x correction factor 1.83 4.3

Parshall FlumeExample
• Parshallflume,throatwidth
of0.61m.Depthin
convergingsectionis45cm.
Depthinthethroatis39cm.
– Isthehydraulicjump
“submerged”?
– Whatistheflowrate
throughtheflume?

0.372W 3.281H a 
1.570W 0.026
Q

Culverts

• Passwaterunderroadsandhighways

• Flowratecandependon
– Entrancediameter
– Culvertlength
– Culvertslope
– Culvertmaterial&inletconfiguration
– Backwaterconditions
 Whatisaculvert?
• Ametal,concrete,plastic,orwoodenconduit
throughwhichsurfacewatercanflowunder
roads

Whyareculvertsused?
• They’recheaperthanbridges
– Generallyusedforlowerflowrates.
 Howareculvertssized?
• Hydrologydataisusedtoidentifytheflow
ratethatwilloccuroveracertainrecurrence
intervals.
– i.e.:the“25Ͳyear”flowwillbe25m3/s

• Dependingonculvertslope,roughness,size,
shape,andupstream/downstream
conditions,theflowrateisdictatedbyoneof
SIXconditions.

Figure16.2.1(p.651)
Fourstandardinlettypes
(schematic)(fromNormannetal.
(1985)).

Whathappensifthe
culvertissizedwrong?
 Inlet Control
High velocity, shallow flow.
Supercritical. Q by weir /
orifice equation.

Submerged orifice…
2
HW ª Q º
C« Y  Z
¬ AD »¼
0.5
D

for
2
ª Q º
«¬ AD 0.5 »¼ t 4.0

D:interiorheight(ft)
Q:discharge(cfs)
A:crossͲsectionalarea(ft2)
Z:slopecorrectionfactor
=Ͳ0.5S0
C,Y:empiricalconstants
(Table16.2.1)

Outlet Control
Subcritical or full-culvert flow. Find Q by
energy balance.

Headwater Depth Nomograph

 AnEasyWaytoSizeCulverts

• FreesoftwarefromUSFederalHighways
Administration
– Hasbeenusedforalongtimeandisverywell
respected
– GraphicalInterface
– Allowsformultipleculvertstobespecifiedatavariety
oflocationsonamap

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/software/hy8/
 Example:TopView
• RectangularChannel,
– Designflow:25m3/sMaximumFlow:30m3/s
– n=0.05

5m S0 = 0.0025
Roadway station: 5+35

Roadway station: 5+00

CrossͲSectionalView
• Circularconcretepipe,conventionaloutlet

Example 1
24-inch dia
culvert ok?
307 m

Inlet Invert Elevation = 300 m Outlet Invert Elevation = 299.95 m

CulvertExample2:Analysis

h
HW = 2 m
Flow ĺ

Invert S = 0.007 Invert

– Culvert:1.5mx1.5m,n=0.013,So =0.007,L=40m
– Channel:n=0.05
• Find:
a) QthatwillcausetheHWdepthtobe2m,withchannelwidth=
5.0m
b) RectangularchannelwidththatwillcauseTWdepthtobe2m,
fortheQfoundinPartA
• Key:
– iterationofTWratingcurvewithvariouschannelwidthvalues
– RepeatedanalysisofculverttofindatwhatQtheHW=2m
 CulvertExample3:Design
Culvert Length = 40 m (‘top width’ § 40 m)

8m
Flow ĺ

Invert S = 0.007 Invert

• Atrapezoidalnaturalchannel(b=3m,n=0.025,
1:1sideslopes)carries10m3/s.
– DesignaculvertsothatthemaximumHW=7m
– Designaculvertthatallowsupto1m3/sovertopping

StormwaterControl:Sewers&Detention
• stormwater management– thecontroland
utilizationofwaterindifferentformswithinthe
hydrologiccycle

Drainagesystems:
1. Removestormwater fromstreets(safety&pavement
longevity)
2. Controlsrateandvelocityofwateringutters(safety&
pavementlongevity)
3. Conveysrunofftonaturalormanmadedrainageways
4. Controlsthemassofpollutantsenteringreceivingwaters
5. Detentionfacilitiescanhavemultipleuses(parks,etc)
Storm HuntingtonWV– CombinedSewer
Sewer

Wastewater Wastewater Stormwater

Stormwater

DataNeededforStormSewerDesign
• Localdesignstandards/drainagecriteria
• Topographicmapsofsystemarea
• Infoonexistingstormsewers&channels
• Utility(existing&proposed)information
• Layoutofdesignarea(e.g.,streetprofilesand
grades)
• Soildata(tohelpselectpipematerial)
• Watertablelevels(&seasonalvariations)
• IDFcurveforprojectarea
• Pipeproperties(&listofpipesallowedbylocal
authorities)

DesignAssumptionsandConstraints
• Gravityflow(slopingdownward)
• Circularpipe,commerciallyavailable
• Smallestpipediameterthatwillconveyflow
• Depth:avoidfrost,minimumcover(loads),drain
basements(optionally)
• Minimumvelocityspecifiedtoavoidsediment
deposition
• Maximumvelocityspecifiedtoavoidscour&erosion
• Pipesonlygetbigger,notsmaller.
• Dendritic networkconvergingtowardsdownstream
– noclosedloops
 Storm Sewer – Typical Constraints
Parameter Constraint
Velocity (min) 2 - 3 ft/s
Velocity (max) 15 - 21 ft/s (rigid)
10 - 15 ft/s (flexible)
Manhole spacing (max) 400 – 600 ft
Pipe size (min) 12 – 24 in
Vertical alignment at manholes Match crown (different size
pipe)
0.1 – 0.2 ft drop (same size
pipe)
Soil cover (min) 12 – 24 in
Inlet location Governed by gutter capacity
Final hydraulic design Check for surcharge (pressure
flow) and junction losses

Peak Rainfall Intensity for This Watershed = I

Wastewater

RationalMethod
Q CiA
• Simplestpeakdischargemethod
• OverͲestimatespeakdischarge Q [=] ft3/s or m3/hr
• Bestforcatchmentslessthan80ha C [=] unitless
• Minimumtimeofconcentrationis5 i [=] in/hr or m/hr
min. A [=] acres or m2

Assumptions:

Method:
• Calculate time of concentration, tc
• Determine rainfall intensity corresponding to
that time of concentration (use IDF curve)
• Determine C, including composite information
for the catchment, if needed
• Solve for Q
 RationalMethodExample

• Duringa5year,24hourstorm,thepeak
rainfallintensityis95mm/hr.Acertain
catchmentconsistsof4haofparking,12haof
“fair”lawnsona4%slope,a4harailyard,
and18haofsingleͲfamilyhousing.
– Estimatethepeakrunoffflowrate,Q.

Q CiA

RationalMethodDesign:
DeterminingRequiredPipeSize
Q=CiA
• FindtheCAforeachsubͲ
basin
• Computetimeof
concentrationforeach C

junctionandcorresponding
rainfallintensityateach B
junction
• Calculaterequiredpipe A
diameterbasedonresulting
flowrate
– Flowvelocityusedin 3/8
§ m D Qn ·
downstreamtc calculations Dr ¨ ¸
¨ S0 ¸
© ¹
Rational Method Example: Handout
 OverlandFlow
• Hortonian overlandflow:whenrainfallrate
exceedsinfiltrationcapacity– sufficientwater
pondsonthesurfacetoovercomesurfacetension
effectsandfillsmalldepressions.
– Overlandflow:surfacerunoff,sheetflowonlandsurface
withoutconcentrationinclearlydefinedchannels

TimeofConcentration:KinematicWave
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
for overland flow
i = rainfall intensity (mm/hr)

nL 
L = length of travel (m)
0.6
So = ground slope
tc 6.99 0.3
i 0.4 S o tc = time of concentration (min)

• Limitedtodistancesof~100m
• Atrialanderrorapproach
1. Assumeatrialrainfallintensity
2. Findoverlandtraveltime,tc
3. Findactualrainfallintensityforstormwithdurationoftc
4. Compareintensities,andifnotequal,repeat
 NRCS TimeofConcentrationMethod
• Differentiatesbetweensheetflowand
shallowconcentratedflow
– Sheetflow(~100m): tf = travel time (hours)
n = Manning’s number

tf 0.0288
nL 0.8 L = length (meters)
0.5 0.4 P2 = rainfall, two-year 24-hour
P2 S o storm (cm)
So = slope
– ShallowConcentratedFlow

Lsc
t sc Using Manning’s equation to find
Vsc flow velocity.

TimeofConcentration:Kirpich

• Kirpich:BestfornaturalbasinswithwellͲdefined
channels,bareͲearthoverlandflow,orflowin
mowedchannels.Lessthan80ha.
– Overlandflowonconcreteorasphalt,x0.4
– Concretechannels,x0.2
– Generaloverlandflow,flowinnaturalgrasschannels,x2

L0.77 tc [=] min

tc 0.019 0.385 L [=] m
So So = slope

TimeofConcentration:Izzard
• Izzard:Derivedfrompavement&turfexperiments
whereoverlandflowdominant.
530 KL1/ 3 when:
tc 2/3 ieL<3.9 m2/h
ie tc [=] min
L [=] m (overland flow dist.)
Surface cr
So = slope
Very smooth asphalt 0.007
cr = retardence coefficient
Tar and sand pavement 0.0075
ie= effective rainfall intensity, mm/hr
Crushed-slate roof 0.0082
Concrete 0.012
Tar and gravel pavement 0.017 2.8 u 10 6 ie  cr
K 1/ 3
Closely clipped sod 0.046 So
Dense bluegrass 0.060
 TimeofConcentration:Kerby

• KerbyEquation:forcatchmentslessthan4ha,
slopeslessthan1%,L<365m
0.5 0.467
tc 1.44( LrS o )

Surface r
Smooth pavements 0.02
Smooth bare packed soil, free of stones 0.10
Poor grass, bare sod 0.30
Average grass 0.40
Deciduous timberland 0.06
Conifer timberland, dense grass 0.80

TimeofConcentration:Example

• Agrassyareahasanaverageslopeof1.5%,
andthedistancefromcatchmentboundaryto
outletis75m.Fora20Ͳminutestormwith
effectiverainfallrateof45mm/hr,findtc.
– Kinematicwave
– NRCSmethod
– Kirpich equation
– Izzardequation
– Kerby equation

RationalMethod–
UnitsExample

Q CiA

• Area,A=10acres=40,469m2
• StormIntensity,i =4in/hr =0.1016m/hr
• RunoffCoefficient,C=0.70

Whatisthepeakrunoff,intermsofft3/sandm3/hr?
• Japan’ssolution:
http://edition.cnn.com/2012/10/31/world/asia/japanͲfloodͲtunnel/index.html
 StormCAD
• SolvepreviousUrban
Hydrologyexampleusing
StormCAD
– Handoutofexample
solution
– Units
– Inputstormdata
– Catchments– howto
drawthem
– Networkannotation

SpecifyingElevationsinStormCAD

Ground Elev = 101.0 ft

Ground Elev = 100.5 ft

Crown Elev = 97.0 ft

Catch Basin Crown Elev = 96.5 ft
Invert Elev =
96.0 ft Catch Basin
Invert Elev =
94.0 ft

Conduit Diameter = 12 in

UrbanizationEffects:Runoff&Infiltration

• Reduced infiltration
depth / volume
• Increases the flow rate
of runoff
• Decreases the time of
concentration
Porous Concrete Video:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ScsQYHMfabU
 StormwaterPonds
Purpose:Mitigatetheeffectsof
urbanizationonstormwater drainage:
• Increasedtotalvolumeofrunoff
• Higherpeakflowrates
• Pollutants
– Inorganic(salts,heavymetals)
– Organic(gas,oil,decayingleaves&grasses)
– Particulates(sand,grit,etc.)
• Trytomakethe“afterurbanization”hydrographlookmore
likethe“beforeurbanization”hydrograph

ControlMeasures
• Sourcecontrol:localdisposal,inletcontrol,onsitedetention
• Downstreamcontrol:inͲlinedetention,offͲlinedetention,
detentionatWWTP
 ExtendedDetentionBasin

• Mostefficientfor24+hr.detentiontimes
• Settleparticulatepollutants(passessolublepollutants)
• Moderatemaintenance
• Riskofmosquitobreeding
• Suitableforserviceofupto100– 200acres

RetentionPond

• Pollutantremoval:settling&biochemically
• Requiresoccasionalmajorcleanouts
• Effectiveevenforsmallstorms
• Riskofanoxicconditionsatpondbottom

PondStorageVolume,Vs

• Idealsizingmethod
– Inflowhydrographdataathighresolution(smalltime
increments)
– Computevolumeinduringtimeincrement
– Calculatetheaccumulatedvolume
– Determinepondheightbasedonvolumein
– Computeflowrateoutforthispondheight
– Nexttimeincrement:previousvolumestored+
additionalvolumein– previousvolumeout
 StormwaterDetentionPondExample
a) Whatwillbethepeakflowrateoutofthepond?
b) Howlongwillittaketodrainthepond
Time
Inflow
(cms)

to10%ofitspeakvolume? 0:00
1:00
0
0.3
2:00 0.67
3:00 0.81
4:00 0.67
5:00 0.22
6:00 0
7:00 0
8:00 0
9:00 0
10:00 0
11:00 0

Outlet: 250 mm
pipe (Cd = 0.59)

Inlet: Flow as
65 m described by
hydrograph
V = (2gH)0.5
65 m

PermanentPoolOutletStructures

AASHTOStorageVolumeEstimate

Vs 0.5tb Q p  QA 

Qp =peakinflowrate
QA =allowablepeakoutflowrate
tb =basetime(doublethetimetopeak)
 Abt andGrigg StorageVolumeEstimate

2
§ Q ·
Vs Vr ¨1  A ¸
¨ Q ¸
© p ¹
tb

• Vr =totalrunoffvolume=½ Â tbÂQp

Example:ComparingAASHTOandAbt andGrigg

• Comparetheestimatedpondvolumerequired
forastormwithpeakrunoffflowrateof450
L/s,anallowabledischargeof80L/s,anda
inflowdischargedurationof90minutes.

StormwaterStorageOptions
Howtoreduceorstorerunoff?

ĸ Reduce runoff volume (lower C value)

ĸ Detain stormwater at the area where

precipitation occurs

ĸ Drainage from a single development,

larger in area than local or inlet.
 LocalDisposal
ReducerunoffvolumeanddecreaseC

InletControl
Detainstormwater wheretheprecipitationoccurs.

InͲLineDetention
Undergroundstormwater vaultbetweensourceanddestination.
DetentionatWWTP
Flowequalizationbasin.

Hydrology is important in “wet” climates!

homeonfire,whileitfloatsdownstream.
 Howimportantishydrologyinanaridregion?

Hydrology ĺ Hydraulic Engineering

Hydrology
• Surface: amount and distribution of rainfall
• Sub-surface: water flow through the soil

Open Channel Flow Pipe Flow

• Flow of water in rivers and
canals; from runoff to lake,
from lake to irrigation
(e.g.: size the channel or
culvert based on Q)
• Flow of water from
treatment plant to homes
and businesses (e.g.: size
the pipe based on Q)
 RelativeQuantitiesofWaterTransport

WaterQualityandQuantityintheHydrologicCycle

• Drainagebasin,catchment,watershed:
topographicareathatcollectsanddischarges
surfacestreamflow throughoneoutlet.
– Googleearthdemoof“watershed”usingterrainmodeling(DEM)

Where does a watershed end?

• Nestedhierarchy:runofffrom
smallerbasinscombinetoformlarger
basins
• Runoffquantitydependson
– Sizeofwatershed
• Upstreamcontributinglandarea
– Landuse
• e.g.,asphaltpavementvs.forestlitter
– Soiltype
– Terrainconditions
– Rainfallintensity,
amount,distribution

• Airmovementdependson:
– temperaturedifferencesatdifferentaltitudes
– Heat/pressuredifferencesatair:water
interfaces
– Earth’srotation
Hadley circulation: warmer Coriolis force: decreasing radius (increasing
equatorial air rises, cool air at velocity) as air moves towards poles.
poles descends Westerly flow at poles, easterly flow at
equator.

GeneralCirculationofAtmosphere

Miller et al. (1984)

 WaterTransport–
EvaporationandPrecipitation

Black cell: location of evaporation

Grey cells: location of precipitation

PrecipitationFormation

1. Cooling ofairtodewͲpointtemperature
– Minorcooling:radiation,mixing,conduction,
horizontalmovementfromhightolowpressure
regions
– Hydrologically significantprecipitation:verticaluplift
2. Condensation onnuclei
3. Growth ofdroplets
4. Importation ofwater
vaportocontinueprocess

AdiabaticCoolingbyVerticalUplift

As air rises, it cools,

and the relative
humidity increases…
until saturation.

Causesofuplift:
1. Convergence
2. Orography
3. Convection
 Moisture
Movement&Air
Lifting
• Airrisesandcools
– dryadiabaticlapse
rate:9.8°C/km
– saturatedadiabatic
lapserate:6.5°C/km

Convergence:
Frontal Lifting ĺ

What is going on here?

Uplift (and cooling) due to Orography

 Convective Lifting

CondensationandDropletGrowth
• Snow,hail,sleet,rainfall.
• Condensationnuclei:dust,salt,10Ͳ3 ʅm– 10ʅm
• Droplets
– Remainsuspended&Repel
• Negativecharge
– Evaporate
– Impact&aggregate
 PrecipitationGagesintheRegion

• Rainfallhyetograph:
plotofrainfalldepth
/intensityasa
functionoftime

Cumulative Rainfall for

the same two storms (and
others)
 IDFCurves
• Intensity – rainfall
intensity(depthper
unittime)
• Duration – rainfall
duration;thetotal
lengthofthestorm
frombeginningto
end
• Frequency – return
period;expected
valueofthe
recurrenceinterval
(timebetween
occurrences)

IDFCurveCalculationProcedure
FromRawStormData

• Rainfalldatacollectedformanyyears
1. Forsomeduration(i.e.– 5minutes)gothroughdatasetandfind
maximumrainfallamountineachyear
2. Rankordertheprecipitationamountsandcalculatereturnperiodusing
Weibull:

n 1 T = return period [years]

T n = total number of years of data
m
m = year rank of particular data point

3. Repeat1&2forotherdurations,throughmaximumneededduration
(i.e.– 2hr)
4. Interpolate(ifneeded)forreturnfrequencyofinterest.
5. Convertamountsintointensities(usingknownduration)andplotdata:
xͲaxisisduration(min),yͲaxisisintensity(mm/hr),additionalcurvesfor
eachdesiredreturnfrequency
 IDFCurveExample

Return ǻ t in minutes
Rank
Period, T 5 10 15 20 25 30
1 12.1 18.5 24.2 28.3 29.5 31.5
2 11.0 17.9 22.1 26.0 28.4 30.2
3 10.7 17.5 21.9 25.2 27.6 29.9

• 32yearsofrainfalldataisavailable,recordedin5minute
intervals.Forthedataset,the#1stormineachyear(annual
maximum)hasbeensingledout– orallofthedataisranked
(partialduration),andthetopthreeyearsareshownabove.
FindtheIDFcurveforareturnperiodof20years.

– Inotherwords,findthecurveforthe“20yearstorm”

IDFCurveExample

Return ǻ t in minutes
Rank
Period, T 5 10 15 20 25 30
33 1 12.1 18.5 24.2 28.3 29.5 31.5
16.5 2 11.0 17.9 22.1 26.0 28.4 30.2
11 3 10.7 17.5 21.9 25.2 27.6 29.9

• Step1:Findmaximumrainfallamountforeachduration,each
year.
• Step2:RankorderdataandcalculateT.
T = return period [years]
n 1 32  1
T n = total number of years of data T
m 1
m = year rank of particular data point

IDFCurveExample
Return ǻ t in minutes
Rank
Period, T 5 10 15 20 25 30
33 1 12.1 18.5 24.2 28.3 29.5 31.5
16.5 2 11.0 17.9 22.1 26.0 28.4 30.2
11 3 10.7 17.5 21.9 25.2 27.6 29.9

• Step3:Repeatforotherdurations(alreadydone)
• Step4:Linearlyinterpolatetofinddesiredreturnperiod.
– 5minuteduration,between16.5and33years
– 1.1mmincreasein16.5years(0.0667mmperyear)
– 20year,5Ͳminutestormwillbe:11.0+3.5(0.0667)=11.2mm

20 year storm
Duration (min) 5 10 15 20 25 30
Rainfall (mm) 11.2 18.0 22.5 26.5 28.6 30.5
 PrecipitationDataͲ Demonstration

• PRISMͲ http://www.prism.oregonstate.edu/

• PFDSͲ http://dipper.nws.noaa.gov/hdsc/pfds/

• NCDCͲ http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cdoͲweb/
– (Firefoxbrowsermayyielderrors)
– Datatools,FindaStation,DailySummaries
– Precip:mmorinches(inchestohundredths)

SpatialVariationͲ LocalRainfallData

Otherconsiderations
• InͲsplashingfromareaaroundtheraingage
• Obstructions
• Evaporation&wettinglosses
• Instrumenterrors&observererrors
• Occultprecipitation
• LowͲintensityprecipitation
Arealaverage:arithmeticmean

Arealaverage:Theissen method

Example / Activity

Isohyetal Method
 Spatial Distribution in
Precipitation

Temporal
Distributionin
Precipitation

Avg. # of days with

thunderstorms

MaximumPrecipitation

• ProbableMaximumPrecipitation(PMP)– theoreticallythe
greatestdepthofprecipitationforagivendurationthatis
physicallypossibleoveragivensizeofstormareaataparticular
geographicallocationatacertaintimeofyear.
 ProbableMaximumPrecipitation(PMP)
• Studyofindividual,extremestorms,their
precipitation,andtheareacoveredduringthe
storm.

HMR41

SpatialDistribution
• Principle:
– The“average”rainfallforacatchmentislessthantherainfallat
certainpoints
– Longerstormїmoreaveraging
– SmallercatchmentareaїlessspaƟalvariaƟon

F = areal-reduction factor
(average rainfall : rain at a point)
td = rainfall duration (hrs)
A = catchment area (miles2)

F 1  exp§¨  1.1t d 4 ·¸  exp§¨  1.1td 4  0.01A ·¸

1 1

© ¹ © ¹

SyntheticStormHyetograph:
SCSRainfallDistributions

• TypesIandIA:Pacific
maritimeclimate
– Wetwinter,drysummer
• TypeII:RestofUnited
States
• TypeIII:GulfofMexico
andAtlanticcoastalareas
– Tropicalstormsdominate
 UsingSCSRainfallDistribution
• Multiplytherainfallamountbythefraction
givenintheSCSRainfallDistributionTable

HYDROͲ35
 DesignDepthInterpolation

P10 min 0.41P5 min  0.59 P15 min

For 2 or 100 year
return period.
P30 min 0.51P15 min  0.49 P60 min

PT yr aP2 yr  bP100 yr

HYDRO-35 provides 5- 15- and 60-min

durations and return periods of 2 and 100
years. All other data must be interpolated
using the above equations.

HydrologyConcepts
• Rainfallamount:volume(m3)vs.length(mm)
– Depthofrainfalloveranarea

L
Depth
w

• Rainfallintensityvs.rainfallamount
– Rate(mm/hr)vs.length(mm)

• RecurrenceInterval
– Highintensitystormsarerare,lowprobability
– Sizeofstormcanbedescribedbyhowinfrequentlythey
return
 HuntingtonAirport

• Isthisatableofamount orintensity?
– Lookatthevaluesforincreasingduration:
intensitywilldecrease,amountwillincreaseby
everͲsmallermargins

Why is there more

rain here?
 WhatFactorsInfluenceEvaporationRate?

EvaporationVideos

• TimeLapse:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T5MtQ0H_tiY

• Leidenfrost Effect:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=srAUFqEDvWU

• Canada:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZGjweͲBCfms

• Vacuum:https://youtu.be/0x32Sw5ulVM?t=99

EnergySpectra
&the
Atmosphere

Barry and Chorley (1982) and

Miller et al. (1983)
 AverageGlobalEnergyBalance
(100units=solarconstant,1367WmͲ2

Shuttleworth (1991) and Peixoto and Oort (1992)

SpectraofIncomingandOutgoing
TerrestrialRadiation

Barry and Chorley (1982)

VariationinSolarRadiationIntensity–
AngleofIncidence

Day and Sternes (1970)

 AstronomicalSeasons

Oliver and Hidore (1984)

Humidity
http://www.shorstmeyer.com/wxfaqs/humidity/humidity.html

Watervaporexistsasagaswhenairtemperatureisbelow100°C
becauseithasenoughkineticenergy toexistasagas

– Notall moleculeshavethesamekineticenergyatagiventemperature
• Thereisadistributionofkineticenergies,relatedtomoleculecollisions

– Heat/energyfromthesunkeepswatervaporasagas
• Thereisconstantexchangebetweenliquidandgasphase

Evaporationatthemolecularlevel
• Consider
– Quantityofgas
moleculesaboveliquid
layer
• Howisthismeasured?
– Quantityofwater
molecules,specifically
• Howisthismeasured?
– Whatcausesliquidwater
Temporal, Spatial average: 3 mm / day moleculestovaporize?
Latent heat of vaporization – energy required during vaporization of a liquid
(water: Lv = 2.501 x 106 – 2370 T (J per kg of water. T is in deg C)
 SolarRadiation
Theprimarydrivingforcebehindevaporation

• Whymustincomingradiation=outgoing
radiation?

EvaporationModeling:
EnergyBalanceMethod liquid phase

How much energy is available Storage Transport

to provide the latent heat of
d
U w dV  ¦ U w V ˜ A
dt cv³
 m v
vaporization?

cs
Pan is impermeable

d dh
dt cv³
U w dV Uw A
dt

Thus…

 dh
Control surfaces that enclose an
m v Uw A U w AE
evaporation pan
dt
 Evaporation:EnergyBalanceMethod,cont.
Vapor Phase
d
qv U a dV  ¦ qv U a V ˜ A
dt cv³
m v qv = specific humidity (mass
of water / mass of air)
cs

d
dt cv³
qv U a dVw 0 Steady flow, water vapor in CV is constant

U w AE ¦q U V ˜ A
cs
v a

or

1
E
Uw A
¦q U V˜A
cs
v a

Evaporation:EnergyBalanceMethod,cont.
Heat input
dH/dt = rate of heat input
dH d
dt cv³
eu U w dV lv m v eu = specific internal heat energy of water
lv = 2.501 x 106 – 2370T (°C) latent heat of
dt vaporization (J/kg)
Rn = net radiation flux (W/m2)
dH Hs = sensible heat flux to air by water
Rn  H s  G G = ground heat flux to ground by water
dt
dH
Rn  H s  G
Rn Ri 1  D   Re dt
Ri ĮRi Re for m v U w AE
and assuming Hs and G are zero

Rn
Er
lv U w

EvaporationExample(energy)
• IncidentradiationattheKhaled Lagoonis978W/m2 at
noononFebruary12th.Watertemperatureis26.0°C.Air
temperatureis28.5°C,relativehumidityis75%,andwind
speedis1.7 m/sat2m.
– Determinetheopenwaterevaporationrateinmm/dusing
theenergymethod

lv 2.501 u 106  2370T

Rn
Er
lv U w
Rn Ri 1  D   Re
Albedo, Į = 0.35
eVTp Radiation emissivity of water, e = 0.995
4
Re Stefan-Boltzman constant, ı = 5.67 E-8 W/m2 ÂK4
Tp = water temperature [K]
 Evaporation:Review

• Whatis“latentheatofvaporization”?

• Whatisthenameoftheradiationemittedby
theearth?

• Whatdoesthe“energymethod”estimatein
ordertopredictevaporationrate?

EvaporationModeling:
AerodynamicMethod

• Howquicklycanwatervaporbetransportedawayfromthewatersurface

• Drivingforce:gradient (difference)inamountofwaterintheair
• Morewind=greaterrateofvaportransport(providesunsaturatedair)
• Largedifferenceintemp=greaterdifferencebetweensat.vaporpressure
andambientvaporpressure
• Largedifferenceinspecifichumidity=drivingforce

EvaporationModeling:
AerodynamicMethod,cont…

Ea B eas  ea  Ea = evaporation rate (aerodynamic)

B = vapor transfer coefficient (mm/dÂPa)
eas = saturation vapor pressure (Pa)
ea = ambient vapor pressure (Pa)
0.102u2 Rh = relative humidity
B
>lnz2 / z0 @2
u2 = wind velocity (m/s) at height z2 (cm)
z0 = water surface roughness height (cm),
typically 0.01 – 0.06 cm
Ta = air temp (°C)
§ 17.27Ta ·
eas 611 exp¨¨ ¸¸
© 237.3  Ta ¹

ea Rh eas
 EvaporationExample(aerodynamic)
• NetradiationattheKhaled Lagoonis185W/m2 atnoon
onFebruary12th.Airtemperatureis28.5°C,relative
humidityis75%,andwindspeedis1.7 m/sat2m.
– Determinetheopenwaterevaporationrateinmm/dusing
theaerodynamicmethod,withz0 =0.03cm
§ 17.27Tair ·
eas 611 exp¨¨ ¸¸
© 237.3  Tair ¹
ea Rh eas
0.102u2
B
>lnz2 / z0 @2
Ea B eas  ea 

EvaporationModeling:
TheCombinedMethod
– NonͲlimiƟngenergysupplyїuseaerodynamicmethod
– NonͲlimiƟngvaportransportїuseenergybalance
method
• Eithercaseisrare
– Acombinedmethodisrequired PriestleyͲTaylor

§ ' · § J · § ' ·
E ¨¨ ¸¸ Er  ¨¨ ¸¸ Ea | 1.3¨¨ ¸¸ Er
©'J ¹ ©'J ¹ ©'J ¹
Available energy aerodynamic

'
4098eas c  P
J
p air
66.8 Pa/ $C
237.3  Ta 2 lv MWratio
Gradientofsaturated Psychrometric
vaporpressurecurve constant

EvaporationExample(combined)
• NetradiationattheKhaled Lagoonis185W/m2 atnoon
onFebruary12th.Airtemperatureis28.5°C,relative
humidityis75%,andwindspeedis1.7m/sat2m.
– Determinetheopenwaterevaporationrateinmm/dusing
thecombined methodandPriestleyͲTaylor method
4098eas
'
237.3  TD 2
§ ' · § J ·
E ¨¨ ¸¸ Er  ¨¨ ¸¸ Ea
©'J ¹ ©'J ¹
§ ' ·
| 1.3¨¨ ¸¸ Er (P-T)
©'J ¹
 EvaporationPans
• Directlymeasureamountofevaporation
– Usedtoestimatecropevaporation,ET0
– Utilizepancoefficientsthatdependonconditions
– Considerssolarradiation,wind,temperature,humidity

Evapotranspiration

ET0 kpEp
Identify conditions
• Wind speed
• Relative humidity
• Upwind fetch

Select Pan Coeff.

Apply Equation

Discuss Trend of ET0 vs kp : (1) Wind speed, (2) Upwind fetch, (3) Relative Humidity

EvaporationPanExample
• AveragewindspeedinNortheastOhiois2.7m/sand
themeanrelativehumidityis65%.Ifanevaporation
pan(surroundedby100mofdryfallowonallsides)
measures4.2mmofevaporationperday:
– Whatisthemonthlyreferenceevapotranspirationforshort,
irrigatedgrassturf?
– Howmuchirrigationshouldfarmersprovide?
• Willevapotranspirationbemoreorlessforcorn,comparedtograss?

ET0 kpEp
 Water demands of
other crops relative
to a grass
reference

Clay – bound by
inter-grain
electrostatic forces

SoilParticle
AggregatesͲ
ConceptualDiagrams

Howdosoilproperties
influencethebehaviorof
Sand – particle size
water?
distribution ĺ void
size distribution

SoilͲtexturetriangle
(Soilisamixture ofcomponents)

Particle Size Classification

Clay < 0.002 mm
0.002 mm < Silt < 0.05 mm
0.05 mm < Sand < 2 mm
2 mm < Gravel

Example
% > 2 mm 25%
% Sand 40%
% Silt 33%
% Clay 2%
 SoilPropertyRanges

Porosity – porespace/total
volume.

FieldCapacity– moisture
contentinsoilafterdraining
excesswater.Usually2Ͳ3days
afterprecipitation.

Wiltingpoint– minimumsoil
moisturerequiredforplantsnot
towilt.

Interpretation: moisture ‘moves’ more easily in sand than in clay

SoilͲwaterpressure(tension)
Suction(tension)intheunsaturatedzone
Capillary effect
(surface tension)

Tension is much higher

in finer-grained than in
coarser-grained soils

WaterMovementinUnsaturated Zone

76% of land-area precipitation

infiltrates.

Provides water for natural and

cultivated plants.

Responsible for recharge of

ground-water reservoirs.

Water that does not infiltrate

becomes overland flow.
 SoilWaterStatus

• Fieldcapacity– minimumsoilwatercontentafter
indefinitegravitationaldrainage
• Permanentwiltingpoint– naturalvegetationcannot
removeenoughwatertomatchmoisturelossto
atmosphere
• Hygroscopicwater– waterformsthinlayersaround
soilparticles.Tightlyheld,notavailabletoplants.

SoilProfile
Horizons
Profilevariesduringinfiltration
event.

Infiltration
Waterpenetrationintothesoil
Soil moisture
Unsaturated flow

Saturated flow

Rateofinfiltrationdependson
• Conditionofsoilsurface
• Vegetativecover
• Soilproperties:porosity,hydraulicconductivity,
moisturecontent
 RainfallandWatershedResponse

• Retention:water
keptforalong
periodoftime,
removedby
evaporation
• Detention:
waterkeptfora
shortperiod,
depletedby
outflow

ImportantTerms
• Zoneofsaturation:regionwheresoilvoidspacesare
completelyfilledwithwater

• Zoneofaeration:regionwherevoidspacesarenot
filledwithwater,andwhereatmosphericgassescan
circulate
– SoilͲwaterzone:wherevegetationrootsarefound,water
capacitylimitedbygravity/maximummoisturecontent
insoil
– Intermediatezone:betweensoilͲwaterandcapillary
zone
– Capillaryzone:whereadditionalmoistureispresentin
soilduetocapillaryforces
 Soil moisture
prior to rainfall
& infiltration

Surface tension: attraction ???

between water molecules
and soil particle surface

Suction Head, ȥ :energy

duetosoilsuctionforces

Infiltrometer test

SubsurfaceFlow:ImportantDefinitions
volume of voids
porosity K
total volume
їporosityvariesfrom0.25to0.40

soilmoisture
volume of water
content T
total volume
ĺ soilmoisturevariesfrom0toȘ (saturated soil: ș = Ș)
ĺ theamountofsoilmoisturegainedduringinfiltration,asș increases
fromși to șs is ǻș
ĺ aftersoilisthoroughlydrained,itstillhasresidualmoisturecontent,șr

effective T -Tr available moisture (at a given time )

se effective porosity, T e
saturation K -Tr
 Darcy’sLaw
• Studyingtheperformanceofsandfiltersintreatingdrinking
water,Darcymeasuredtheflowrateofwaterthroughsand.

Hydraulic Conductivity, K, key

parameter dictating flow rate (m/s)

Constant water
surface elevations

h1  h2
Q KA
L

h2  h1 q
Q
J
L A

q  KJ Darcy Flux

DarcyExample
h1  h2
Q KA
L

• A“finesand”hashydraulic
conductivityof3m/d.What
flowratewouldbeexpected
througha1mlong,25cm
diametercolumnofsoil
wheretheheaddifferential
is35mm?

• Watermovementinsoil:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ego2FkuQwxci
 SubsurfaceFlow:ImportantDefinitions
volume of voids
porosity K
total volume
їporosityvariesfrom0.25to0.40

soilmoisture
volume of water
content T
total volume
ĺ soilmoisturevariesfrom0toȘ (saturated soil: ș = Ș)
ĺ theamountofsoilmoisturegainedduringinfiltration,asș increases
fromși to șs is ǻș
ĺ aftersoilisthoroughlydrained,itstillhasresidualmoisturecontent,șr

effective T -Tr available moisture (at a given time )

se effective porosity, T e
saturation K -Tr

SoilWater

During a rainfall event, a soil’s capacity to absorb water

decreases. During a storm, infiltration rate decreases with time.

MoistureZonesDuring Infiltration
Schematic of Actual Behavior

Green-Ampt Simplification

h1  h2 h0  \  L  ª\  L º
Q KA f K | K« »
L L ¬ L ¼
Q [=] m3/s f = infiltration rate (cm/s) ȥ = wetting front soil suction head
 CumulativeInfiltration,F
t
F (t ) ³ f (W )dW
0
f = infiltration rate

During infiltration through a column of soil,

moisture content increases from și to Ș

F (t ) LK  T i 

So the question is…

what is L at t?

GreenͲAmpt Equation
Forcumulativeinfiltrationandinfiltrationrate

§ F t  · ª\'T º
F t  Kt  \'T ln¨¨1  ¸¸ f t  K «  1»
© \'T ¹ ¬ F t  ¼
F(t) = cumulative infiltration from time 0 until time t
f(t) = infiltration rate at time t
ȥ = suction head
ǻș = increase in soil moisture during infiltration Notes:
K = hydraulic conductivity
t = time period during which infiltration occurs 'T 1  se Te
se = effective saturation
șe = effective porosity Green-Ampt assumes
continuous ponding
Method:
• GivenK,t,ȥ andǻș
• Substitutea“trial”valueofF(t)onRHS
– Goodfirsttry:F(t) = Kt
• CalculatedvalueofF(t) onLHSissubstitutedintoRHS
• Iterateuntilconvergence

Hydraulic conductivity
decreases from sand ĺ
clay

Soil Suction head

increases from sand ĺ
clay

Why is effective porosity

closer to porosity for sand
than it is for clay?

§ F t  ·
F t  Kt  \'T ln¨¨1  ¸¸
© \'T ¹
 GreenͲAmpt Example
• Asilty claysoilhasthecharacteristicsshown
below.Findtheinfiltrationdepthandinfiltration
rateafter0.1hourand0.2hourassuminginitial
effectivesaturationof45%andcontinuous
ponding(useSolver,notGoalͲSeek)
'T 1  se Te
F t  ·
Parameter Value
§
șe (effective porosity) 0.423 F t  Kt  \'T ln¨¨1  ¸¸
ȥ (Soil suction head) 29.22 cm © \'T ¹
K (hydraulic conductivity) 0.05 cm/hr
ª\'T º
f t  K «  1»
¬ F t  ¼

Ponding Time

=f =F

i = rainfall intensity
K \ 'T ȥ = suction head
tp
i i  K 
ǻș = increase in soil moisture during infiltration
K = hydraulic conductivity
tp = time to ponding

PondingTimeExample
• Thesoilcharacterizedbelowhasaninitialeffective
saturationof45%.
a) Foraconstant rainfallintensityof1.5cm/hr,howlong
untilpondingoccurs?
b) Whatrainfallintensitywillcausepondingafter20
minutes?
c) Howmuchcumulativeinfiltrationduring0to0.156hr?

Parameter Value
șe (effective porosity) 0.423 K\'T
tp
i i  K 
ȥ (Soil suction head) 29.22 cm
K (hydraulic conductivity) 0.05 cm/hr
 HortonModel(ofdecliningpotentialinfiltrationrate)
Assumescontinuousponding abovesoilcolumn.

Rate: fp f c  ( f o  f c )e  kt

fp = potential infiltration rate

fo = initial infiltration rate
fc = minimum infiltration rate
k = infiltration constant
t = time (min)

HortonModel:Infiltrationdepth
(cumulative)

( fo  fc )
Ft f ct 
k

1  e  kt 

HortonExample
• Calculatetheinfiltrationrateasafunctionof
timeforaLeefield loamysand.
fp f c  ( f o  f c )e  kt

– Whatistheinfiltrationrateafter15minutesof
300mm/hrrain?
• Whathappensiftherainfallis<f0?
 LargeScaleHydrologicModel
Water:Whereitiscomingfrom,whereisitgoing,andhowmuchofboth?

Qout Qin  PR  ET  GR  'S  LQ  AG

Qout =Streamdischargefromwatershed
Qin =Waterinfromupstream
PR =Precipitation
ET =Evapotranspiration
GR =Groundwaterrecharge(+/Ͳ)
ǻS =Surfacewaterstoragerecharge(+/Ͳ)
LQ =LargeQuantityuserwaterconsumption
AG =Agriculturaluserwaterconsumption

Abstraction
Thedifferencebetweenobservedprecipitationandrainfallexcess.

• Theprocessofthequantity(ortiming)rainfallbeing
changed priortowaterentryintoadischargesystem
– Delay,androutingeffects
– Quantityreduction

• Designimplications:
– Conveyancenetworksizing
• Peakstormintensitydelayedbyabstraction
– Detention/retentionpondsizing
– Treatmentprocessparametersandsizing
– Channelcapacityandsizing

Interception
• Amountofrainfallbeing
collectedbyvegetation(and
buildings)beforeitcanreach
theground
• Heavyvegetationintercepts
morewater
 Actualamountofrainfall
interceptedcanbeaffectedby:
• Stormcharacteristics(intensity,
duration,temporaldistribution)
• Localclimate(humidity,
evaporation)
• Densityofvegetation
• Age,size,healthofvegetation

CalculatingInterception
• Accountfor Vegetation Storage
– vegetativestorage,S (mm) (mm)
– amountofrainfall,P (mm) Pine trees 3–4
Spruce, fir, 7
– leafareaindex(leafarea: hemlock
projectedgroundarea),K Hardwood 3
– evaporationrateduringthe (leafed)
storm,E (mm/hr) Bare 1
hardwood
– stormduration,t (hr)

§  ·
P
I S ¨¨1  e S ¸¸  KEt
© ¹

Example:Interception
• Duringa1.5hourlongstorm,3.8cmof
precipitationfalls.Evaporationduringthe
stormis0.3mm/hr.
– Forsprucetreeswitha
Vegetation Storage
leafareaindexof6.5,how (mm)
muchprecipitationisavailable
Pine trees 3–4
forrunoff&infiltration? Spruce, fir, 7
hemlock
Hardwood 3
(leafed)
§ 
P
·
S ¨¨1  e ¸  KEt
Bare 1
S
I ¸ hardwood
© ¹
 DepressionStorage
Someoftheprecipitationdoesnotimmediatelyinfiltrateorrunoff.

• Wateraccumulationinsurfacedepressions(puddles)
• Duetotopography,notsubjecttotransport
• Waterindepressionstoragewilleventuallyinfiltrateor
evaporate

TypicalDepressionStorageQuantities
Formoderateslope.FlaƩerslopeїmoredepressionstorage.

• AdditionalFactors:
– Slope
– Specificsurfacearea(surfacearea/planͲviewarea…
porosity)
– Wateraffinityofmaterial
– Previous,recentrainfallevents(depressionstoragestillwet
/alreadyfull)
 MotivationsforStudyingStreamResponse

• Watersupply(quantity)

• FloodPredictionandForecasting

• WaterQuality

StreamResponse

• Hyetograph –
graphofwater
inputvs.time

• Streamflow
hydrograph–
graphofstream
dischargevs.time

FactorsthatInfluenceResponse
• Precipitationcharacteristics
• Watershedcharacteristics

Flow network & path

Flow with lateral
inflows
 DrainageBasin:topographicareathatcollectsand
dischargessurfacestreamflow throughoneoutletormouth

Rectangular ĺ :
preferential flow in fractured
rock & fault lines

Ĺ Dendritic: uniform erosion resistance Trellis – mature coastal plain: unequal

erosion resistance. Ļ

ĸTrellis - folded: unequal

resistance to erosion.
Tributaries extend in lest
resistant areas.

StreamOrdering
Systemtoclassifynetworkhierarchy

• Firstorder– anonͲbranching
channelsegment
• Secondorder– receivesonly
firstͲordersegments
• WhenlowerͲorderjoins
higherͲorder,classification
retainshigherorder

• Perennialstreams– continuousflow,welldefinedchannel
• IntermittentStreams– onlyflowduringwetseason
(<50%)
• EphemeralStreams– flowonlyduringorimmediately
afterstorms

Intermittent stream Ĺ

Perennial stream Ĺ

Ephemeral stream ĺ
 Watershedareaand
streamresponse
Flow through the stream network
attenuates the peaks of a runoff
hydrograph.

FlowMechanisms,cont.
• Overlandflow
– Hortonion OverlandFlow:Caused
bysaturationfromabove.
– SaturationOverlandFlow:Causedby
saturationfrombelow(e.g.,groundwater
movementfromupslope).

Storm begins to elevate water table Slope & lateral flow causes saturation
 ChannelWaterSources
Dry Weather • Baseflow –
groundwaterthat
entersthechannel
– Typicallypresenteven
duringdryweather
• Returnflow–
infiltratedwaterthat
Wet Weather reͲemergesatthe
surfaceandentersthe
channel
• Overlandflow–
surfaceflowthat
entersthestream

Hydrograph
graphicalrepresentationofstreamflow overtime

• Interflow:lateralmotionofwaterinthevadosezoneuntil
itreachesastream
• Risinglimb:dischargeincreasingovertime
• Saturatedoverlandflow:waterthatistheresultof
rainfallontosoilinexcessofpotentialinfiltration(soilis
saturated,andsowaterflowsoverlandinstead)

Hydrograph
graphicalrepresentationofstreamflow overtime

• Interflow:lateralmotionofwaterinthevadosezoneuntil
itreachesastream
• Risinglimb:dischargeincreasingovertime
• Saturatedoverlandflow:waterthatistheresultof
rainfallontosoilinexcessofpotentialinfiltration(soilis
saturated,andsowaterflowsoverlandinstead)
 HydrographShape
– “Whenthelocalabstractions havebeenaccomplishedforasmallareaof
awatershed,waterbeginstoflowoverlandasoverlandflow,and
eventuallyintoadrainagechannel(inagulleyorstreamvalley).”

• Factors:
– Drainagearea
– Channelslope
– Hydraulicroughness
– Naturalandchannelstorage
– Streamlength
– Channeldensity
– Antecedentmoistureconditions
– Other:vegetation,channelmodifications,etc.

Slope

Hydraulic
Roughness

Storage

Drainage
Density

Channel
Length

HydrographShape,cont…

Temporal distribution
of rainfall

Geographic size of
storm / spatial
distribution

Storm direction &

Movement
 RainfallExcess
Rainthatisneitherretainedonthesurfacenorinfiltratedintosoil.
Why is infiltration decreasing over time?

Hyetograph vs hydrograph: hyetograph – bar

graph of rainfall vs time. Hydrograph – graph
of some property of a stream over time (flow,
stage, velocity, etc.)

Analytical steps – rainfall to runoff

UnitHydrograph
Asimplelinearmodelofrainfallexcessandcatchmenthydrograph

• Theamountofrunoffresultingfrom1unit(inch,
cm,etc.)ofrainfallexcess

• Principle:onceyouknowawatershed’sresponse
toonestorm,youcanpredictwhatitsresponse
foranotherstormwilllooklike

• Assumes
– Constantintensity
– Uniformlydistributed
– Timeincrementisconstant
– Watershedisnotchanging

MultipleUnitHydrographs
UseanexistingunithydrographtopredictrunoffduringanonͲunitrainfallevent

givenP1ĺn and U1ĺn find Q1ĺn

For multiple “pulses” of precipitation, combine responses to each

individual segment of precipitation.
 Response to 1 in of
Rainfall Excess
Time (hr) Flow
(cfs)
1 10
2 100
3 200
4 150
5 100
6 50

Time (h) 1 2 3 4
Precipitation 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5
(in)

UnitHydrographExample
• Oneinchofrainfallexcessfallsonto Time (hr) Flow
awatershedinonehour,andyields (cfs)

thefollowing“unithydrograph” 1 10
2 100
3 200
– Whatisthehydrographifa 4 150
precipitationeventyieldstherainfall 5 100
excessshownbelow?(Assume 6 50
abstractionsof.3inchesperhour)

Time (h) 1 2 3 4
Precipitation 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5
(in)

UnitHydrograph
UseanexistingunithydrographtopredictrunoffduringanonͲunitrainfallevent
givenP1ĺn and U1ĺn find Q1ĺn
Time (hr) Flow
(cfs)
Table of “U”
1 10
2 100
3 200
4 150
5 100
Conceptual figure of runoff 6 50
(there are FOUR rainfall excess periods)
Table of “P”
Time (h) 1 2 3 4
Precipitation 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5
(in)
Spreadsheet Example
Rainfall 0.2 0.7 1.2 0.2
Excess (in)
Q1 = P1U1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Q2 = P2U1 + P1U2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Q3 = P3U1 + P2U2 + P1U3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Q4 = P4U1 + P3U2 + P2U3 + P1U4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Q5 = 0 + P4U2 + P3U3 + P2U4 + P1U5 0 0 0 0 0 0
Q6 = 0+ 0+ P4U3 + P3U4 + P2U5 + P1U6 0 0 0 0 0
Q7 = 0+ 0+ 0+ P4U4 + P3U5 + P2U6 + P1U7 0 0 0 0
Q8 = 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ P4U5 + P3U6 + P2U7 + P1U8 0 0 0
Q9 = 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ P4U6 + P3U7 + P3U8 + P1U9 + 0 0
Q10 = 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ P4U7 + P3U8 + P2U9 + P1U10 0
Q11 = 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ P4U8 + P3U9 + P2U10 + P1U11

UnitHydrograph
UseanexistingunithydrographtopredictrunoffduringanonͲunitrainfallevent

givenP1ĺn and U1ĺn find Q1ĺn

Table of “U”
Time 1 2 3 4 5 6
(h)
Flow 10 100 200 150 100 50
(cfs)

• Whatif… Table of “P”

– GivenP Time (h) 1 2 3 4

Precipitation 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5
– GivenQ (in)

– NeedtofindU

Deconvolution:developingaunithydrograph
nd m
Qn ¦P U
1
m n  m 1

n = runoff hydrograph time interval

m = precipitation time interval

- See spreadsheet -

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8
 SyntheticUnitHydrographs
• SometimesrainfallͲrunoffdataisnot
availabletomakeaunithydrograph
– Evenwhenitis,aunithydrographisonlyvalidforthe
watershedwherethedatawascollected,andonlyfor
thelocationwherestreamflow dataweremeasured

• Synthetichydrographs– usegeometricor
statisticalprocedurestointerpolateaunit
hydrographswhereactualdataisnotavailable

Snyder’sSyntheticUnitHydrograph

• Drivingprincipal:thetimelagbetweenthe
middleoftherainfallandthepeakofrunoff

Example:Snyder’sSyntheticUnitHydrograph
Watershed area, A = 5.42 mi2
Main channel length, L = 4.45 mi
Distance from outlet to watershed
centroid, Lc = 2.0 mi
Regional parameters, Ct = 2.0, Cp= 0.625

– Findthe“standardduration”,tr
a) Findthesyntheticunithydrographforadesired
rainfallexcessduration(tR)of60min
b) Findthesyntheticunithydrographforadesired
rainfallexcessduration(tR)of30min
 SͲhydrographs
Amethodforchangingaunithydrographfromonedurationtoanother

• Given:aunithydrographthatcorrespondsto
somerainfallexcessduration,tR (e.g.,2hr)
• Wanted:aunithydrographthatcorrespondstoa
differentrainfallexcessduration,t’R (e.g.,4hr)

• Methoddependsonan“SͲCurve”

The S-curve is made by

lagging the unit
S-curve hydrograph by tR an
infinite number of times,
and summing the result

ExcelExample:SͲCurve
• Oneinchofrainfallsduring2hours(tR),and
yieldsthefollowinghydrograph:

Question:Whatisthe
hydrographifoneinchofrain
fallsduring4hours(t’R)?
Procedure:
1. CreatetheSͲCurve
2. Lagbyt’R
3. SubtractthelaggedSͲCurvefromthe
originalSͲCurve
4. Dividetheresultbyt’R/tR

Whatisthe“bigquestion”ofthiscourse?
Foranareaofinterest,whataretherunoffcharacteristics?

• Rainfall
– Returnperiod/Amount
– Temporaldistribution
– Spatialdistribution
• Abstractions
– Evaporation
– Interception
– Surfacewetting
• Infiltration
– Soiltype&Landuse
– Antecedentmoisture
• Runoffmodeling
– RainfallїRunoī
– Hydrographshape
• Routing
– Basincharacteristics
– Timeofconcentration
– Concentratedflow
transittime
• Implications
– Hydraulicsizing
– Floodplainmanagement
&riskassessment
 NRCSApproach:Conceptually
AWatershedModelWorkstoDefine…

Rainfall Runoff
(TemporalDistribution) (TemporalDistribution)
InfluencingFactors:
• Soilproperties
• Landcover
• Abstractions(interception,surface
wetting,minorponding)
• Groundslope
• Streamcharacteristics
• Watershedgeometry(size,shape,
streamdensity)

NRCSApproach
• Definesoil&landcharacteristics
• Estimatedistributionofinitialabstraction,retention,andrunoff,in
termsofoveralldepthduringtheevent
• Useaunithydrographtotranslaterunoffdepthintorunoffflow

Fa = retention; water reaching

SCS/NRCSCurve ground that is retained by
NumberModel catchment. Mainly infiltrated water.
S = potential maximum retention;
Actual amount
related to retention capacity of soil
Fa Pe stored
Ia = initial abstraction; rainfall stored
S P  Ia Potential
amount stored
in catchment before runoff begins.
Pe = rainfall excess, runoff.
P = precipitation.

Duringarainfallevent,theportionof
theavailablestorage(S)thatgetsfilled
(F)istheavailablerainfall(PͲIa)that
appearsasdirectrunoff(Pe).

Ia 0 .2 S (Empirical approximation)

MassBalanceandtheNRCSMethod

IN Watershed OUT
(Rainfall) • Initial Abstraction (Runoff)
• Retention

Accumulation
 SoilstorageandRunoffVolume
• Calculatesoilstorage

§ 1000 ·
S ¨  10 ¸
© CN ¹

• Calculaterunoffdepth

( P  0.2 S ) 2
P>0.2S Pe Pe 0 P<0.2S
P  0.8S

Example:NRCSMethod
§ 1000 · ( P  0.2 S ) 2
S ¨  10 ¸ Pe
© CN ¹ P  0.8S
Fa Pe
Ia 0.2 S
S P  Ia

• Whatistherainfallexcessdepthfora
watershed(CN=70)thatexperiences:
a) 0.7inchesofrainfall
b) 3.5inchesofrainfall
• Inthiscase,‘whereisthewater?’

RainfallͲRunoff
§ 1000 ·
S ¨  10 ¸
© CN ¹
Fa Pe
S P  Ia Pe
( P  0.2S ) 2
P  0.8S

• ForHW8,Problem3,usecumulativePuptoa
certaintime,and…
S Pt  I a 
Fa ,t
Pt  I a  S
 CurveNumberEstimation
SoilGroupClassification
• GroupA:deepsand,deeploess(windͲblowngranularsilt),aggregatedsilts
• GroupB:shallowloess,sandyloam(mixofsand,clay,anddecayingorganics)
• GroupC:clayloams,shallowsandyloam,soilslowinorganiccontent,soils
usuallyhighinclay
• GroupD:soilsthatswellwhenwet,heavyplasticclays,certainsalinesoils

Group Minimum Infiltration

Rate (in/hr)
A 0.30 – 0.45
B 0.15 – 0.30
C 0 – 0.05

Condition: depends on the density of ground cover. (e.g., “fair” hydrologic

condition for noncultivated agricultural land is 25 – 50% cover density)
 TheGeographyofRecession
• https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/geographyͲrecession

Condition: depends on the density of ground cover. (e.g., “fair” hydrologic

condition for noncultivated agricultural land is 25 – 50% cover density)
 CurveNumberEstimation
AntecedentMoistureClasses(AMC)
4.2CN (II)
CN ( I)
10  0.058CN (II)

23CN (II)
CN (III)
10  0.13CN (II)

Example: A residential ¼ acre lot on class “B” soil has a curve number
of 75 under AMC group II conditions.

•What would be the curve number if there had been no rain in the past
five days?

•What would be the curve number if, in July, it had rained 3 inches in the
past five days?

CompositeCurveNumbers
• Forwatershedsofseveralsubcatchments with
differentCNs,computetheareaͲaveragedCN

• Example:Forthewatershedsummarizedinthe
tablebelow,whatistherainfallexcessfora
rainfallof6inches?
§ 1000 ·
Land Use Soil Curve S ¨  10 ¸
(%) Group Number © CN ¹
40 C 83
25 D 80 ( P  0.2 S ) 2
Pe
20 C 94 P  0.8S
15 D 93

CompositeCN:ConnectedImperviousAreas
Grass,
(example CN = 60)

A1 = 7 acres
Pervious

A2 = 3 acres
Water Flow

Impervious
Example:Runofffrom7acresofgrass
flowsoverandjoinsrunofffrom3acres
Pavement, ofpavementbeforereachingtheoutlet.
(example CN = 98)
Outlet WhatistheCompositeCurveNumber
forthiscatchment?(Ans.72)
 CompositeCN:UnconnectedImperviousAreas
Pavement,
(example CN = 98)

A1 = 3 acres
Impervious

A2 = 7 acres
Water Flow
Pervious

Example:Runofffrom3acresof
pavementflowsoverandjoinsrunoff
Grass, from7acresofgrassbeforereachingthe
(example CN = 60)
outlet.
Outlet
WhatistheCompositeCurveNumber
forthiscatchment?(Ans.65)

CompositeCN:Connected&UnconnectedImperviousAreas

Pavement,
(example CN = 98)

Impervious A1 = 1.5 acres

A2 = 7 acres
Pervious
Example:Runofffrom1.5acresofpavement
flowsoverandjoinsrunofffrom7acresof
grass,allofwhichflowsoverandjoins
Grass, A3 = 1.5 acres runofffrom1.5acresofpavementbefore
(example CN = 60) reachingtheoutlet.
Outlet
WhatistheCompositeCurveNumberfor
thiscatchment?(Ans.68)

Demo:GeospatialData

GoogleEarthPro
https://www.google.com/earth/download/gep/agree.html
– Enable/disableterrainandotherlayers
– Measurearea
– ImportShapefiles

SoilType:STATSGO(lowͲres)andSSURGO(highͲres)
http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/WebSoilSurvey.aspx
– DefineAreaofInterest(AOI)
– Browsesoilclassificationsandcharacteristics(SoilMap)
– SoilDataExplorer:(a)Suitabilities (ForestProd),(b)SoilProperties&Qualities,Soil
Qualifies&Features,HydrologicSoilGroup
– DownloadSoilsData
 Demo:GeospatialData,continued

NationalLandCoverDatabase
https://www.mrlc.gov/nlcd11_data.php
– EntireNLCDraster(USA)

https://viewer.nationalmap.gov/basic/
ͲDownloadindividualstates

SCSUnitHydrographMethod
• SimilarinbackgroundandapproachtoSnyder’ssyntheticunit
hydrograph
– Findrunoffhydrographbyknowingsomegeographicparametersabout
thewatershedtodefine“lagtime”
– Advantage:shapeiscurvilinear;canuseSCSͲderivedrunoffquantities&
timeofconcentration

TimeofConcentration
ForuseinSCSunithydrograph

• TimeLag(tL)timeinhoursfromcenterofmass
ofrainfallexcesstopeakdischarge
L0.8 S  1
0.7
tL
1900Y 0.5
Y =slope(%)
L =hydrauliclength(ft)
S =potentialmaximumretention(in)

5
tc tL
tb 2.67t p tr 1.67t p 3
 TimetoPeakandPeakDischarge
484 AQ
tp 0.67tc Pe [ ]Q qp
tp
A= watershed area (mi2)
Q = amount of direct runoff (in) - for a ‘unit hydrograph’ Q = 1 inch
V = velocity (ft/s)
qp = peak discharge for a unit hydrograph (ft3/s)

General Description Peaking Limb Ratio

Factor (Recession to
Rising)
Urban areas; steep
575 1.25
slopes
Typical SCS 484 1.67
Mixed urban/rural 400 2.25
Rural, rolling hills 300 3.33
Rural, slight slopes 200 5.5
Rural, very flat 100 12.0

SCSUnitHydrographExample
• Fora3.0mi2watershedofCN86,findtheunit hydrographpeak
discharge(given:3%slopeand1.2milehydrauliclength)

L0.8 S  1
0. 7
1. Findtimeofconcentration 5
tL tc tL
1900Y 0.5 3
2. Findtimetopeak tp 0.67tc

3. Findpeakdischarge 484 AQ
qp
tp

• Whatistheflowrateatt=87min? § 1000 ·
S ¨  10 ¸
© CN ¹

Time Ratios Discharge Ratios Mass Curve Ratios

(t/tp) (q/qp) (Qa/Q)
0.0 0.000 0.000
0.1 0.030 0.001
0.2 0.100 0.006
0.3 0.190 0.012
0.4 0.310 0.035
0.5 0.470 0.065
0.6 0.660 0.107
0.7 0.820 0.163
0.8 0.930 0.228
0.9 0.990 0.300
1.0 1.000 0.375
1.1 0.990 0.450
1.2 0.930 0.522
1.3 0.860 0.589
1.4 0.780 0.650
1.5 0.680 0.700
1.6 0.560 0.751
1.7 0.460 0.790
1.8 0.390 0.822
1.9 0.330 0.849
2.0 0.280 0.871
2.2 0.207 0.908
2.4 0.147 0.934
2.6 0.107 0.953
2.8 0.077 0.967
3.0 0.055 0.977
3.2 0.040 0.984
3.4 0.029 0.989
3.6 0.021 0.993
3.8 0.015 0.995
4.0 0.011 0.997
4.5 0.005 0.999
5.0 0.000 1.000
 PhysicalMeasurementofLagTime

WMSProgramOutline

• PreͲ /PostͲProcessorforHydrologicModels
– GUI formodelsthatwerepreviouslycommandͲline(text)
driven
– Read(&obtain)GISdatatocomputeparameters
– Calculator forparametersbasedonGISdata
– Generatereports&modeloutputs (e.g.,hydrographs)

• Integrationwithhydraulic/waterqualitymodels
– HECͲRAS
– HY8
– CEͲQualͲW2

WMSDemo– ProgramTour,BasicModeling

• Delineatewatershed:Ona,WV
– Images,identification,elevation,delineation
(TOPAZ)

• Activity1:Images

• Activity2:DEMsandWatersheds
 HydrologicDesignScale
• Primaryhydrologic
designfactorsthat
mustbeconsidered
– Costandsafety
– Optimalmagnitudefor
designbalancesthese
• Estimatedlimiting
value(ELV)– largest
possiblemagnitudefor
ahydrologiceventata
givenlocation

Guiding Principles
• Cost of damage upon failure
- Temporary inconvenience
- Cleanup
-Structure replacement
only?
- Other damage
• Risk of loss of life upon failure

Riskofatleastoneeventthatexceedsdesign
limitsduringexpectedlife…
[Storm Size]

For 10 year design life…

• 90% risk of 5 year storm or
larger.
• 63% risk of 10 year storm or
larger.
• Why isn’t it a 50% risk?

Question:
For a 20 year design life, what
storm size has only a 5% risk
of at least one event?

[Design Limit]
 Rainfall data over 20 years

Complete Duration Series

Annual Exceedance Series

Annual Maxima

145 mph winds, 8000 dead,

Galveston, 1900: highest point 8.7 ft, storm surge 15 ft.
• FloodLocations:
– Alongrivers,streams,andlakes
– Incoastalareas
– OnAlluvialfans
– IngroundͲfailureareas(subsidence)
– Inareasinfluencedbystructuralmeasures
– Inareaswithsurfacerunoffandinadequatedrainage
• Floodplain:flat,normallydryareaadjoiningrivers,
streamslakes,bays,oroceans

AlluvialFan
• Encroachment – developmentonfloodplainsthatreduces
floodͲcarryingcapacityandincreasesfloodheightand
hazard
• Floodway – streamchannelplustheadjacentfloodplains
thatmustbekeptcleartolimit100Ͳyearfloodheight
increaseto1.0footorless
• Floodwayfringe– floodplainsectionthatcouldbe
completelyobstructedandstilllimitwatersurfaceelevation
increaseto1.0footorless

FloodplainManagement
1. Reducefloodsusceptibility
2. Modifytheflood
3. Assistindividualsandcommunitiesin
respondingtofloods

NationalFloodInsuranceProgram(NFIP)
• Encourageresponsibledevelopmentof
floodplainareasbymanaging(subsidizing)
pooledfloodinsurance

NFIPStandards&Requirements

• Requirepermits fordevelopmentinfloodͲ
hazardareas(i.e.,the100Ͳyearfloodplain)
• EnsurefloodͲresistantmaterialsandmethods
areused(e.g.,elevatelowestfinishedfloor
abovebasefloodelevation)
• Assurethatproposeddevelopmentis
consistentwithneedtominimizedamage
• Regulation ofwatercourses&alterations/
relocations
• Prohibitencroachments
 FloodAssessmentRelationships

Damage ($)
Stage

Hydrologic analysis – create Hydraulic analysis – based Economic analysis –

a rainfall/runoff model
considering the watershed
characteristics and expected
meteorological event
on the flow rates identified in calculation of the
the hydrologic analysis, amount of damage
determine the related water expected at various
depth once the runoff enters water depths
the channel

Question:Thinkofamodificationthatcouldaltereachoftheaboverelationships.

FloodControlAlternatives
Objective:reduceoralleviatetheconsequencesof
flooding
• StructuralMeasures– floodͲcontrolfacilities
suchasreservoirs,diversions,leveesordikes,
andchannelmodification
• NonͲstructuralmeasures– techniquesdesigned
tomodifythedamagesusceptibilityof
floodplains

• Decision:whethertoundertakestructural
measures,nonͲstructuralmeasures,both,or
none

Learnwithyourhands…

• Foreachofthefollowingstructuralmeasures,
prepareaconceptual‘sketch’showinghowit
willwork.
FloodControlReservoirs
• Usedtostorefloodwater
untilafterfloodevent
– Reducespeakdischarge
magnitude

• StageͲDischargecanbealteredbyerosion/sediment
deposition
• StageͲDamagecanbealteredbysubsequentdevelopment

ReservoirSuitability

1. Damageablepropertyisspreadoveralarge
geographicarea
2. Highdegreeofprotectionisdesired
3. Varietyofpropertytypestobeprotected(e.g.,
agricultural,structures,infrastructure,etc.)
4. Waterimpoundedcanbeusedforother
purposes
5. Landareaisavailableforreservoirconstruction
6. Economicvalueofdamageableproperty
justifiesconstructioncosts

Diversions

• Usedtorerouteorbypassfloodflowsawayfrom
damagecenters
 DiversionSuitability
1. Damageablepropertyspreadover
largegeographicarea
2. Highdegreeofprotectionis
desired
3. Varietyofpropertytypestobe
protected(e.g.,agricultural,
structures,infrastructure,etc.)
4. Landareaisavailablefordiversion
channeland/ortunnel
5. Economicvalueofdamageable
propertyjustifiesconstruction
costs

LeveesandFloodwalls
• Modifiesallthree
functionalrelationships
– StageͲDamage
– StageͲDischarge
– Discharge– Exceedance
frequency

Increases peak
discharges
downstream by
reducing the natural
storage of a
floodwave

Flow is excluded from floodplain outside the levee –

constricts flow to a smaller conveyance area
 ChannelModifications

ChannelModifications
• Improvetheconveyancecharacteristicsofastream
channel
– Reducechannelroughness
– Increasechannelslope
– Reducechannellength
– Makechannelshape“morehydraulicallyefficient”

Decreases local storage.

 NonͲstructuralmeasures(FloodProofing)
• Waterproofingexteriorwalls
• Smallwallsorlevees
• RaisinginͲplace
• Floodwarningsystems

WebResources
PrecipitationandRiverDepthData
http://water.weather.gov/

FloodplainMapping
http://msc.fema.gov/

FloodDamageRelationships
• Directdamage– propertylossdirectly
attributabletocontactwithfloodwater
• Indirectdamage– lostbusinessandservices,
costofalleviatinghardship,reroutingtraffic
• Secondarydamage– adverseeffectsbythose
whodependonoutputfromthedamaged
propertyorhinderedservices
• Intangibledamage– environmentalquality,
socialwellbeing,aestheticvalues
• Uncertaintydamage– failuretodevelop
(economically)becauseofthethreatofflooding
 WebResources
PrecipitationandRiverDepthData
http://water.weather.gov/

FloodplainMapping
http://msc.fema.gov/
 FloodDamageRelationships
• Directdamage– propertylossdirectly
attributabletocontactwithfloodwater
• Indirectdamage– lostbusinessandservices,
costofalleviatinghardship,reroutingtraffic
• Secondarydamage– adverseeffectsbythose
whodependonoutputfromthedamaged
propertyorhinderedservices
• Intangibledamage– environmentalquality,
socialwellbeing,aestheticvalues
• Uncertaintydamage– failuretodevelop
(economically)becauseofthethreatofflooding
 Review:FloodAssessmentRelationships
Foreachmodel,considertheindependent anddependent variables.

Damage ($)
Stage

Hydrologic analysis – Hydraulic analysis – Economic analysis –

Input: return period Input: flow rate Input: water depth
Output: flow rate Output: water depth Output: damage cost

EvaluatingFloodControlAlternatives
• Calculatethe“DamageReduction”each
alternativeofferscomparedtotheexisting(no
action)condition
• Foreachalternative,computehowmuch
“DamageSavings”willoccuronanannualbasis
– Incrementalprobability(ȴF)differenceinexceedance
probabilitybetweentwoconsecutiverows/100
– DamageReduction(ȴD)averagedamagereduction
betweentwoconsecutiverows
– Annualexpectedfloodreduction,ɇ(ȴDͼȴF)thesumof
allannualizedflooddamagesavings

ExpectedFloodDamage:Example
Damage(millionsofdollars)
Exceedance Existing Channel
Probability% (DoNothing) Dike Diversion Modification Reservoir
20 0 0 0 0 0
10 6 0 0 0 0
7 10 0 0 0 0
5 13 13 2 4 3
2 22 22 10 12 10
1 30 30 20 18 12
0.5 40 40 30 27 21
0.2 50 50 43 40 35
0.1 54 54 47 43 45
0.05 57 57 55 50 56

For the four alternatives of a certain size (Dike, Diversion, Channel

Modification, or Reservoir) what is the expected annualized benefit of each?

Step 1: Assemble ‘Expected Damage Cost’ vs Exceedance Probability Data. (Here: given.)
Step 2: Calculate ‘Damage Reduction’ vs Exceedance Probability for each alternative.
Step 3: Calculate Incremental Probability, Incremental Damage Reduction, and accumulate.
 MaximizingAnnualBenefit
• Compute“Total”annualcost
– Annualdamage+annualcost
– Identifywhichlevelofprotectionhasthelowest
totalcost
• Calculateannualbenefit
– Howmuchlesstheannualdamageiscomparedto
the“baseline”case
• Calculatethenetbenefit
– Annualbenefit– Annualcost
– Identifywhichlevelofprotectionhasthehighest
AnnualNet Benefit

RiskͲBasedDesign
Costcomesfrom(1)flooddamage,and(2)floodprevention.
Choosethedesignlevelthatwillminimizetotalcost.

• Expecteddamagecost– ahigh‘exceedance
probability’isaneventthathappensregularly
– CostofdamageislowforfrequentlyͲoccurringevents
• Totalcost– thesumofconstructioncostsfordamage
prevention,andexpecteddamagecoststhatstilloccur
evenafterstructuralmeasuresareputintoplace

MaximizingAnnualBenefitofFloodControl
AnnualDamage AnnualCost
T(yr) ($M/yr) ($M/yr)
You currently have protection in place
5 1.94475 Ͳ
against the 5 year storm (i.e., no new
10 1.64475 0.2
spending required to get this protection).
20 1.17475 0.6 On average, the annual damage is
50 0.64975 1 $1.94475M. By spending $0.2M/year, you
100 0.38975 1.4 can protect against the 10 year storm, and
200 0.21475 1.8 the annual damage experienced will go
500 0.07975 2.1 down to $1.64475/year.
1000 0.02775 2.3
2000 0.00000 2.5

• Adikesystemcouldbebuilttoprovidevaryinglevelsof
protection,correspondingtodifferingreturnperiods.
– Calculate“TotalCost”($M/yr)forvaryinglevelsofprotection
– Calculate“Benefit”($M/yr)– reduceddamagecomparedtothe
currentannualdamagewiththeexistingprotection
– Calculate“NetBenefit”($M/yr):Benefit– AnnualCost
 GroundͲwaterhydrology
• Studiesseveralparametersforwaterbelowthe
surfaceoftheearth:
– quantity
– quality
– distribution
– movement

• Otherissuesinclude:
– contaminanttransportandremediation
– engineeredstoragesystems(ofsurfacewater)
– loweringgroundwatertableforagriculturalneeds

QuantityofWaterAvailableonEarth

Ogallala Aquifer Video Groundwater Recharge Video

Aquifer
• Aquifer:geologicformationwherewatercanbewithdrawnin
significantamounts(sand,gravel,fracturedrocks)
• Aquiclude:containswater,butcannottransmit(clays)
• Aquifuge:neithercontainsnortransmitswater(rocks)

p
I z
J
Pressurized
 AdditionalTerms

• Artesianaquifer: aquiferundersuchpressure
thatflowingwaterisproducedatgroundlevel
whenpenetratedbyawell
• Aquitard: asoilorrockformationthatslows
waterflowinanaquifer
• Leakyaquifer: anaquiferboundbyasemiͲ
perviouslater
– Leakyunconfinedaquifer
– Leakyconfinedaquifer

Darcy’sLaw
• Studyingtheperformanceofsandfiltersintreatingdrinking
water,Darcymeasuredtheflowrateofwaterthroughsand.

Hydraulic Conductivity, K, key

parameter dictating flow rate

'h
Q KA
L

PumpingandConeofDepression

Cone of Depression surface comes into equilibrium during steady-state

pumping. (Over-pumping can exhaust an aquifer.)
AquiferMaterial&ConeofDepression

EffectofOverlappingConesofDepression

WellTerms
• Fullypenetrating
• “Screen”depth(orlocation)
• Wellradius

• Transmissivity:ameasureofanaquifer’s
abilitytotransmitfluidflow,onaunitwidth
basis.
T=Kb(confinedaquifer)

T=KH(unconfinedaquifer)
 Terms
• HydraulicConductivity,K: derivedfromDarcy’slaw,isa
functionoffluidand soilproperties.Measuresabilityof
fluidtoflowthroughsoil.[L/T]
• AquiferThickness,b: Verticaldistancethroughwhichwater
flowsthroughthesoil.Oftenthedistancefromalower
confininglayertoanupperconfininglayer(orto
groundwatertableelevation).[L]
• Transmissivity,T: functionofaquiferconductivityand
thickness,T=Kb.[L2/T]
• Piezometric head,ʔ:Sumofpressureandelevationheads
forsomelocation,ʔ =P/J +z
• EffectivePorosity,n:Thatportionofthesoilporositythatis
availableforfluidflow.

SteadyFlowtoaWell:ConfinedAquifer

Qw §r ·
ln¨ ¸
rw = radius of well
I (r ) hw 
b = height of aquifer 2SKb ¨© rw ¸¹
hw = depth of water in the well
H = Initial piezometric surface 2ST (h2  h1 )
Qw
s(r) = drawdown at some radius, r §r ·
ln¨¨ 2 ¸¸
ij (r) = piezometric head at some radius, r
© r1 ¹

SteadyFlowtoa
Well:Confined
Aquifer
 ConfinedAquiferExample

2ST (h2  h1 )
Qw
§r ·
ln¨¨ 2 ¸¸
© r1 ¹
• Aconfinedaquiferhashydraulicconductivityof20
m/d,thicknessof6.6m,andinitialpiezometric surface
of14.53mabovethelowerconfininglayer.
– Whatflowrate willcausethepiezometric surfacetobe13.85mat
aradiusof40mand14.31ataradiusof85m?
– Whatisthewaterdepthatthewellifthewelldiameteris0.50m?

SteadyWellFlow:UnconfinedAquifer

rw = radius of well
SK (h2 2  h12 )
H = height of aquifer Qw
§r ·
hw = depth of water in the well ln¨¨ 2 ¸¸
H = Initial phreatic surface © r1 ¹
s(r) = drawdown at some radius, r
 Example– UnconfinedAquifer
• Awellpumps0.4m3/sfromanunconfinedaquiferwhose
saturatedthicknessis24m.Ifthedrawdown50mfrom
thewellis1mandthedrawdown100mfromthewellis
0.5m,then:
(a) calculatethehydraulicconductivityoftheaquifer.
(b) Determinetheexpecteddrawdown 5mfromthewell.

SK (h2 2  h12 )
Qw
§r ·
ln¨¨ 2 ¸¸
© r1 ¹