Athens Center of Ekistics

Background to C.A. Doxiadis' "Ecology and Ekistics"

Author(s): Jaqueline Tyrwhitt
Source: Ekistics, Vol. 45, No. 266 (JANUARY 1978), pp. 12-19
Published by: Athens Center of Ekistics
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43618956
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References 12. Nedderhut, op. cit.
13. Kocks, od. cit.
1. United Nations, Compendium of Housing Statistics 1972-74 14. See, for example, Laszlo Huszar, "An approach to regional
(New York, 1976). planning in South Thailand," EKISTICS, no. 238 (September
2. Gunnar Myrdal, Asiatisches Drama (Frankfurt/M., 1973), 1975), pp 174-76.
p 86. 15. Directorate 73, op. cit.
3. K.V. Nedderhut and B. Rothschuh, "Bericht über die Mög- 16. Arge, op. cit.
lichkeit im Rahmen der technischen Hilfe einen General- 17. Litchfield, Whiting, Bowne and Ass., Greater Bangkok Plan
plan für Djakarta aufzustellen und dessen Erfolgsaussich- 2533 (Bangkok, 1960).
ten," manuscript, 1970. 18. The Governor, Head of Special Territory of the Capital Dja-
4. Arge Intertraffic-Lenzconsult, Jakarta Metropolitan Areakarta (DKI), Djakarta Masterplan 1965-65 (Jakarta, 1966).
Transportation Study (JMATS) Finai Report (Düsseldorf- 1 9. BAPPEMDA (Provincial Development and Planning Agency),
Mainz, 1972-74), pp 32-34. "Development plan surroundings Jakarta," manuscript, Ja-
5. Bratzel, Mildner and Schäfer, Stadtplanung in Thailand karta, 1973.
(Karlsruhe, 1975). 20. Directorate City and Regional Planning (DTKD) in the Minis-
6. F.H. Kocks, KG; Rhein-Ruhr-Ing. GmbH, Verkehrsstudie try of Public Works and Electric Power, Metropolitan Re-
Bangkok. Schlußericht, Zusammenfassung (Bangkok, 1975), gional Plan 1965; Development Plan West Java, 1970.
p 16. 21. Directorate General, op. cit.
7. Directorate General of Housing, Building, Planning and 22. Arge, op. cit.
Urban Development, Ministry of Public Works and Electric 23. K. Olszewski and R. Skeates, "Singapore's long range
Power of the Republic of Indonesia in Cooperation with the planning," Royal Australian Planning Institute Journal
Netherlands Directorate for International Techn. Assistance (1971), pp 57-70.
"Jabotabek" (Jakarta, Bogor, Tangerang, Bekasi), (Jakarta, 24. Kocks, op. cit., p 15.
1973). 25. Ibid., fig. 17.
8. Housing and Development Board, First Decade in Public 26. E. Thomson, H. Wardlaw, "Growth and change in Singa-
Housing 1960-69 (Singapore, 1970). pore," Royal Australian Planning Institute Journal (1971),
9. World Bank, Urbanization Sector Working Paper (Washing- p 55.
ton, 1972). 27. Kocks, op. cit., fig. 29.
10. Ibid. 28. Peter L. Watson and Edward P. Holland, "Congestion pricing
11. Manfred Uberschaer and Carsten Simonis, "Probleme des - the example of Singapore," Finance and Development,
Stadtverkehrs in Entwicklungsländern, dargestellt am Bei- vol. 13, no. 1 (March 1976).
spiel Jakarta, Indonesien," in Stadt , Region, Land, vol. 3629. Charles M. Correa, "Third world housing: space as a re-
(Aachen, 1976), pp 77-90. source," EKISTICS, vol. 41, no. 242 (1976), pp 33-38.

Background to
C.A. Doxiadis' "Ecology and Ekistics"
J. Tyrwhitt

The author of this article is consultant editor of EKISTICS. ecological balance is rapidly being destroyed, both on
C.A. Doxiadis wrote Ecology and Ekistics before the final thestages
large and small scales, by actions which are
of his crippling illness, but the manuscript was put aside while haphazard, and often wilful. It is only possible
heedless,
he successfully fought to get four other books published forwhich
human beings to enhance the quality of their own
he hoped would influence the proceedings of the 1976 lives Unitedif they take action to show a far greater respect
Nations Conference on Human Settlements. By the time he had
for natural ecosystems.
accomplished this almost superhuman task, it was too late for
Like every book, and almost every article, written by
him to oversee the publication of Ecology and Ekistics. This
task was undertaken by Professor Gerald B. Dix, who had been Doxiadis, Ecology and Ekistics is a call for action; action
a regular visitor to the Athens Center of Ekistics for over ten based on a systematic analysis of a particular set of
years. Ecology and Ekistics was published in November problems. In the case of problems caused by the in-
1977 by Paul E lek Ltd., London. creasing despoliation and pollution of the natural envi-
ronment, the action called for is the international accep-
The main theme of Ecology and Ekistics is that for mantance of a universal code of classification (including
(anthropos) to live a satisfactory life it is essential that land, water and air - ranging from nature reserves to
there be a condition of "global ecological balance." This industrial areas). This code of classification is coupled
means a state of equilibrium, of balance, between the with a code of conduct pertaining to each class or zone
global ecosystem and human settlements, "resulting - ranging from no intervention whatsoever by man to
in a situation suitable for the continuation of human life the complete absence of natural life. Doxiadis' logic
and of nature" (Ecology and Ekistics, p. xxiii). At present proceeds without interruption, and while his proposals

12 Ekistics 266, Jan. 1978

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for a global ecological balance are conceived on a It may simplify this understanding, though it is un-
world scale, they are capable of being implemented doubtedly at an over-simplification, to relate three major
the humblest level. influences in Doxiadis' early life to his subsequent sys-
This approach was characteristic of everything Doxi- tem of thought and action. First there was the very strong
adis undertook. First the project or problem had to beinfluence of his father, a man of high principle and fear-
set within a system of classification; then it had to be less action, and a man imbued with respect for the clas-
examined from the two extremes: sical Greek philosophers. He came to Athens as a re-
We must start from both ends, going from the parts to the fugee pediatrician from Bulgaria, and rose to high social
whole and from the whole to the parts. The omission of either and political eminence. To him we may attribute Doxi-
approach will lead to failure. By not employing the approach adis' constant emphasis on the sayings of Pythagoras
going from the whole to the parts, we will have a very weak and Aristotle (e.g. "Man as measure" and "The purpose
overall conception, while a lack of the opposite approach of the city is to enable its citizens to be happy and
may well lead to the non recognition of the real texture of the secure"), as well as his insistence on order and classifi-
fabric we are trying to build. (Ekistics, 1968, p 385)
cation and his conviction that no theory had value unless
Doxiadis recognizes that the achievement of a global it could be translated into action (for example, Doxiadis
ecological balance is dependent on a whole hierarchy asked the editors of EKISTICS never to publish ideal or
of balance being achieved at lower levels: "We must re- abstract city plans unless these were accompanied by
solve conflicts between interests representing different examples of the same plans put into action).
levels in the ekistic hierarchy (hierarchy of human settle- Doxiadis was, as it were, born with a pencil in his hand;
ments) over proposals such as for industrial location or that is, he could express himself most easily by drawing.
transportation networks. When there is a conflict be- This talent, coupled with his systematic way of thinking,
tween two levels, should the power lie with the larger led him to become a student of architecture, and he
unit, seeing the wider view of the development, or with frequently acknowledged his debt to Professor Demetrios
the smaller unit that is most directly affected?" (Ecology Pikionis, who emphasized the values of vernacular
and Ekistics, p43). architecture, the nobility of craftsmanship and the
Doxiadis contends that his proposals for the accep-
tance of a set of criteria governing the uses of different
types of space form the basis "for a move from well-
meaning, idealistic decelerations and uncoordinated
actions toward a realistic, coordinated action program
capable of implementation." He adds that his propo-
sals "are intended to help to insert dimensions in all
our decisions in order to make them work, remembering
with Protagoros that anthropos is the measure of all
things." To the question whether the task is not too
large and complex to be realisable, Doxiadis responds
with the statement that the word 'huge' "is meaningless
unless it is related to time, space and resources ....
Humans created irrigation systems in Egypt 5,000
years ago,. . . a water supply tunnel 4,260 feet long
in Samos, Greece, 2,500 years ago, and more than
2,000 years ago they were building dams in China."
If we compare the energy and income then available
with the conditions today, he says that we should be
able to build irrigation systems running half way round
the globe and tunnels more than 200 km long ( Ecology
and Ekistics, p38).
The important thing is to get the system agreed and
action started: "If we lack proper scientific knowledge,
it will not do to say, 'Wait till we learn.' Instead we must
have the courage to adopt the best approach on the
basis of what we do know from science and history.
We will learn from that experience and can ameliorate
the process for achieving a glçbal ecological balance
in the light of that experience" ( Ecology and Ekistics,
p xvi).
In the second part of Ecology and Ekistics, Doxiadis'
"anthropocosmos model" is described in about 15 pages
of text, plus tables and diagrams; but without a more
complete description of the classification tools of "ekis-
tics" (Doxiadis' word for "the science of human settle-
ments") it is difficult to see the relation of this complex Fig. 1: Hexagonal systems: Communities Class A, B, C, D and
model with the code of land classification advocated in their hierarchical interconnections (From Ekistics, 1968, fig.
the first part of the book. 116)

Ekistics 266, Jan. 1978 13

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importance of the human scale. In 1934, when Doxiadis 4. We must also classify them in five basic ways: economic,
was still a student in Athens, he sat in on the discussions social, political or administrative, technological and cul-
tural (Forces).
of the fourth congress of CIAM (Congrès Internationaux
5. To understand human settlements properly as living or-
d'Architecture Moderne) and was greatly impressed by
ganisms we must study their evolution from past to future,
their pioneer exhibition of the plans of 33 major cities, that is, their time dimension (Time).
all drawn to the same scale, which used standardized 6. To understand the present state and dynamic evolution
symbols to show the major residential, industrial and of human settlements we must be aware of the five
recreational areas, as well as the traffic network and principles which have always guided them (Ekistic
the relation between the city and its region. These in- Principles). ( Action , 1976, pp 2-8).
fluences led Doxiadis to the formulation of the "Ekistic
Elements" of all human settlements: Nature, Anthropos,Ekistic Units: The 15 ekistic units can be organized
Society, Shells, Networks. according to the average sizes of their population or of
In 1935, Doxiadis proceeded from Athens to Berlin theirto area (figs. 2 and 3). In both cases the sizes progress
by a factor of seven, proceeding upwards to the popu-
study for a PhD in Architecture. For his thesis he analyzed
29 classical Greek sanctuaries in accordance with the lation scale from the individual Anthropos, and down-
wards to the territorial scale from the total land surface
ekistic elements (though he had not yet spelled these
of on
out) and developed a system of classification based the earth (excluding the polar areas). The relation
"man as measure." However, the major influence of his the two is a matter of population density, as is
between
shown graphically by figure 4.
period in Germany was the work of Dr Walter Christaller.
From Christaller's hexagonal Central Place Theory (fig.
Ekistic
1), Doxiadis derived his preoccupation with the size andElements: The relations of the ekistic units and
thethat
relationships of human settlements; his realization ekistic elements form the basic ekistic grid (fig. 5).
settlements are in a constant state of change; and his The sequence of the elements in the grid is chronological.
insistence that problems must be examined, and so- As described by Doxiadis: "Nature is the container, An-
lutions sought, on the scale of both the largest possible thropos arrives in it and forms social groups which func-
unit and the smallest one for which implementation is tion as a Society. The Social group, in its need for pro-
practicable. Doxiadis' 15 "ekistic units" (ranging from tection, creates Shells, and then, when it becomes larger
Anthropos to Ecumenopolis) were a direct result of and more complex, Networks" (Ekistics, 1968, p 22).
Christaller's influence, as well as the fact that their sizes
grow by multiples of seven.
The 5 ekistic elements and the 15 ekistic units were
the first and most basic of Doxiadis' classification tools.
But to arrive at solutions which can lead to action one
also needs certain criteria. Doxiadis developed these
gradually as a result of his own practical experiences.
Ekistic population scale Persons
From almost every project he undertook he was able to
derive some new ideas, or some new facts, which he used
to strengthen or modify not only his classification system 15 Ecumenopolis 69,206,436,005

but also his burgeoning criteria. While he believed his

14 eperopolis 9,886,633,715
classification system to be universal and neutral, he
realized thaťfíís criteria were, to some extent, personal 13 small eperopolis 1,412,376,245
and tendentious.
A brief record of Doxiadis' classification tools follows 12 megalopolis 201,768,035
to elucidate his anthropocosmos model (part 2 of Eco-
11 small megalopolis 28,824,005
logy and Ekistics), and some account of his criteria to set
his global ecological balance (part 1) in context. 10 metropolis 4,117,715

9 small metropolis 558,245

Classification
8 polis 84,035

Doxiadis' five principal tools of classification are suc-

7 small polis 12,005
cinctly described in the opening to his book Action for
Human Settlements, written specifically to influence the 6 village 1,715
outcome of the United Nations Conference in 1976. He
starts with a definition: 5 small village 245
1. Human settlements are the territorial arrangements made
4 housegroup 35
by Anthropos for himself.
2. To proceed with a proper understanding of human settle-
3 family 5
ments we must accept the ekistic logarithmic scale for their
international classification and understanding (Ekistic
2 couple 2
Units).
3. When dealing with human settlements we must always be 1 Anthropos 1
aware that they consist of five elements, Nature, Anthropos,
Society, Shells and Networks, without any of which they
cannot exist (Ekistic Elements). Fig. 2: Ekistic p

•14 Ekistics 266, Jan. 1978

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 Ekistic territorial scale square meters ■ ļ i i i , b. rural : mechanised
a. rural : cattle breeding , , ,
, dry , tarmin g

1 8 biosphere

all land (excluding

17 polar areas) 135,750,000,000,000.000

anthropareas plus
16 cultivareas 19,392,857,000,000.000

15 ecumenopolis 2,770,408,000,000.000

14 eperopolis 395,772,000,000.000
' ^ ' c. rural : non- mechanised
y dry farming

13 small eperopolis 56,538,000,000.000 _f minimum total area corresponding

to the inhabitants of an urban

12 megalopolis 8,077,000,000.000 settlement , .
a , . rural : intensive

11 small megalopolis 1,153,850,000.000

'' ' ' ' cu it iv at^^ļ
10 metropolis 164,836,000.000
/..

9 small metropolis 23,548,000.0000

I Í ģ
I ' v

8 polis 3,364,000.000 ' ' j /to the inhabitants of e

- V

7 small polis 480,570.000 ' '. "V j/ / to the inhabitants of e

X.

6 village 68,650.000 ' to the inhabitants of e

'

5 small village 9,800.000 to the inhabitants of e

grid 10x10 km
4 housegroup 1,400.000
Fig. 4: Population densit
3 house 200.000 100 people living in four
Ekistics, 1968, fig. 292)
2 room 28.059

1 human bubble 4.084

- 1 standing person .583

- 2 squeezed person .083

Fig. 3 : Ekistic territorial scale

COMMUNITY SCALE i ii iii

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
O

§ £
EKISTIC i J O □
UNITS a. § § O 3W§ S2
» § i 8 3
I zZco(o^ī_ico_ia:-i<-iSs .S!M ! t * § ; I !
zZco(o^ī_ico_ia:-i<-iSs
ļ-0D3<2<j<f-<O<SjD

NATURE

w ANTH ROPOS I
H

ļg SOCIETY

w SHELLS

NETWORKS

SYNTHESIS:

HUMAN SETTLEMENTS |
POPULATION l
M
T (Thousand!)
(Million« Ekistic Logarithmic
m
Scale
8
Fig. 6: The five elemen
elements that make up t
Fifl. 5: The basic Entopia,
ekistic grid 1975, figs. 44 an

Ekistics 266, Jan. 1978 15

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 Forces: Doxiadis held that there are five forces which
must be in reasonable equilibrium if a human settlement
is to be a satisfactory living environment: economic, so-
cial, political or administrative, technological and cultu
ral (fig. 6). These are also the forces which motivate
change. Doxiadis illustrates their interrelation by one of
his simplistic but graphic stories: "Let us assume that in a
mudbrick village someone manages to build a marble
house. Such an act will upset the village from every point
of view. Economically, itwilj bean unwise act because the
economy of the village cannot stand the introduction of
such different standards. Socially, it will create trouble
because one person will be trying to live at a much higher
level than the others. It is also bound to have local politi-
cal repercussions. Technologically, if the house is built
by the villagers, it will be of poorer construction than the
mud-brick houses which they know well how to build.
Finally, there will be no esthetic adjustment to the pro-
perties of marble (no builder adjusts to a new material
overnight) and the house will disrupt the esthetic unity
which had prevailed in the village" (Ekistics, 1968, p 269).

Time: "Without time dimensions, interaction and func-

tion do not exist in any living system" said Doxiadis
(Ecology and Ekistics, 19 77, p 66). In the standard
anthropocosmos model the five elements are related to
nine units of time: minute, hour, day, week, month, year,
10 years, 100 years, 1,000 years. This model was used
to show duration: "In this way we can appreciate
dynamic forces influencing settlements" (Ecology and
Fig. 7: Example of the use of a period time-scale to show the Ekistics , 1977, p 66). Where this system was not ap-
relation of the actual and the ideal sizes of cities ( Between propriate, Doxiadis used a period time scale (fig. 7).
Dystopia and Utopia, 1966, fig. 11)
Ekistic principles: The five ekistic principles were de-
veloped between 1967 and 1969 as a result of Doxiadis'
'5. asP*cts Desirability Feasibility attempts to find a way of measuring "happiness,"
"satisfaction" and "quality" in terms of man's relation to
' Õ a
' ü y space. His first step was to suggest that one might
X' cc -EO*SOE-O"õo
O*SOE-O"õoS - Ï-- -* -
- "measure happiness by the satisfaction we experience
' X 8 00
E8
Í5
o "o
-lis
3 at each O*SOE-O"õo
moment in time. Our most important commodity É
6. principles 'nJ</>û.t-ouJ</>o-»-o is our lifetime, measured in units of time .... Such satis-
factions, multiplied by the time they are felt, will give the
1. maximum
of contacts
total satisfaction possible. We could then compare this
with economic feasibility, and reach conclusions about
what is preferable at what cost: how much time for what
satisfaction at what expenditure" (EKISTICS 135, 1967,
2. minimum
of effort
P 70).
By 1969 his search had crystallized into the following
five "principles":
The first principle is the maximization of man's potential
3 optimum of
contacts with elements of Nature (water, trees, etc.), with
protective
space other people and with the works of man (buildings, roads,
etc.). This amounts to an operational definition of personal
freedom. It is in accordance with this principle that Anthropos
4. optimum of
quality of the
abandoned the garden of Eden and is today attempting to
total conquer the Cosmos.
environment The second principle is the minimization of the effort re-
quired for the achievement of man's actual and potential
contacts. Anthropos always selects the course requiring
5. optimum in
the minimum effort.
the synthesis
of all principles The third principle is the optimization of man's protective
space at every moment and in every locality, whether it is
temporary or permanent, whether Anthropos is alone or part
Fig. 8: The model of satisfaction relates the ekistic principles of a group.
to the five forces (or aspects), distinguishing between what is The fourth principle is the optimization of the quality of
desirable and what is feasible (EKISTICS 247, June 1976, p 357) man's relationship with his environment, which consists of

16 Ekistics 266, Jan. 1978

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Nature, Society, Shells (buildings of all sorts), and Networks
(from roads to telecommunications).
Finally, Anthropos organizes his settlements to achieve an
optimum synthesis of the previous four principles. This opti-
mization depends upon time and space, actual conditions
and man's ability to create a synthesis." ( The Two-Headed
Eagle , 1972, p69).
Having established these five principles, Doxiadis has to
incorporate them into his classification system. He did
this in such a way that they have to be evaluated in terms
of the five forces (fig. 8). "Our judgment here also de-
pends on whether we are considering desirability or
feasibility."
The anthropocosmos model: This comprehensive model,
which comprises all the six systems of classification listed
above, was devised to "help us understand how to con-
ceive and build the whole Anthropocosmos properly"
(fig. 9). To do this, we must:
1. Define our total system of life - Anthropocosmos - and
create a systematic framework so that any part of it can be
clearly located within it.
2. Define all relationships (causal and non-causal) that may
exist between any parts of the system so that we can under-
stand their functions and changes.
Ekistics 266,
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Fig. 9 : The anthropocosmos model
1. ekistic population scale
2. ekistic territorial scale
3. ekistic time scale - part of 1
4. ekistic elements - part of 2
5. aspects - part of 3
6. principles - part of 5
3. Define a method to evaluate all parts of the system and
their interrelationships (including those that cannot now be
scientifically measured) so that we can recognize the
relative importance of each situation and each problem.
(Action, 1976, p 58).
It is perhaps necessary to add that the practical use
Doxiadis made of the complex anthropocosmos model
was as a check list, from which he could select the types
and levels of investigation that would be most relevant to
whatever problem he had to deal with. Its value was that
it obliged him to consider the possible relevance of a
number of aspects that would normally not come into
question, and which might, in fact, have a very direct
bearing on the problem.
Criteria
Doxiadis never spelled out his criteria as explicitly as his
classification system, but in 1974, when he had already
lost the power of speech, he presented two papers to the
eleventh Delos Symposion; one was the first draft of the
anthropocosmos model, the other a list of "the twelve
radical changes needed." In a slightly revised form, this
list was published at the end of Action for Human Settle-
ments (1976). The first version opens with the statement:
Jan. 1978 17
"Under the heads of the five ekistic elements I present
ness, etc.) have much less chances of freedom, mobility,
twelve proposals for action. There are two for each choice, etc." (EKISTICS 229, December 1974, p 392),
element and two for the total human settlement. To- equality of access requires a complete network of public
gether they build up to an overall image." (EKISTICS 229,
transportation, so that no one is more than one hour's
December 1974, p 390) travel time from the center of their urban system.
In Action for Human Settlements , Doxiadis also defined
Shells: Here the goal is to provide housing and com-
the "ultimate goals" which should guide action in the
area of each of the ekistic elements. In all cases these
munity services for everybody, but the means to do
this are neither government housing programs nor the
are closely related to the "radical changes." We can
imposition of housing standards, since Doxiadis notes
consider these to represent the major criteria, against
that even in the highest income countries, these policies
which Doxiadis had to set the facts elucidated by his
have not solved the problem of providing housing for the
classification system. These criteria are not of equal
poor. Doxiadis' solution - his criteria - "to help people
importance, nor are they listed in order of priority but,
acquire the proper houses at the proper time" demands
if we look at them in the context of the gradual formation
the provision, in sequence, of:
of a humane Ecumenopolis, they do "build up to an over-
all image." 1. Land (and access to it): a minimum of 150 square
meters - "without this there is no hope";
Nature: The goal is for human settlements to live in 2. Water supply;
3. Sewage disposal;
balance with the conservation of natural resources. This
involves control of despoliation and pollution. The means Assistance to build one room;
4.
to do this - or what we can call the criteria - are to 5. Additional assistance for more rooms (after stage
establish a global ecological balance by means of the4 has been accomplished);
6. Electricity supply;
classification and action outlined in the first part of Eco-
logy and Ekistics. 7. Additional facilities.

A second goal is control of all exploitation of space The criteria for community services involve calculation
of
that is to the detriment of the community. In other words, the prospective needs and reservation of sufficient
control of the erection of high buildings which are land to provide for these at the very start of the above
put up
without responsibility for the social and economic housing
con- program. Services would be provided at the
sequences of their increased numbers of persons and same time as for the house plots. "In this way the land
vehicles, or for the physical and esthetic consequences can be used even without buildings as people can have
of their alteration of the landscape. The means sug- an open air market and make a school with tents" until
gested is to limit ownership of "land" to specified dis- adequate structures can be provided (Action, 1976,
tances above and below the land surface (the figure of P 176).
1 0 meters above and half that below was someti mes used)
Networks: The goal is a "totally coordinated system."
beyond which building rights would have to be purchased Doxiadis' criteria involve, first: "a new concept of LAN-
from the local or national authority. This approach was WAIR (Land-Water-Air)" systems of transportation. "All
elaborated in The Great Urban Crimes We Permit by networks moving people and goods must be conceived
Law (1973). as unified systems." Next, this system must incorporate
the movement of water, gas, oil, electricity and tele-
Anthropos: The ultimate goal is to create human settle- communications. This means "the creation of coordi-
ments in which Anthropos can develop his potential. This
nated transportation and utility corridors". Such
ģoal incorporates the Aristotelian demand for happiness
action can save more than 80 percent of the land now
and Doxiadis' two criteria are related to living space and
given over to these services (Action, 1976, pp 176, 177).
the human scale. The first consists of a table of optimum
densities: 200-300 persons per hectare in the polis (Ekis- Ecumenopolis: As Professor Dix points out in his fore-
tic Units 7 and 8), and 100-200 in the megalopolis (Units word to Ecology and Ekistics: "Doxiadis did not parti-
11 and 12). The high and low figures relate to the levels cularly welcome ecumenopolis nor yet the large areas
of technology. For the gross density of the total "built- of megalopolitan growth of America, Japan and else-
up area," or Anthroparea, these figures need to be di- where, but he regarded them as inevitable, and if they
vided by three. were inevitable it would be better to give them order and
Doxiadis' second criteria is to restore the human scale
coherence, to . . . use our energies to care for the quality
of life instead of wasting them fighting for the impos-
by means of a strict separation of the streams of vehicular
and pedestrian movement - "the separation of humans sible" (Ecology and Ekistics , p ix). Very shortly before
from machines" (figs. 10a and 10b). his death, Doxiadis added a personal Epilogue to the
volume on Ecumenopolis which was written with John
Society: The goals of Society should be to guarantee G. Papaioannou. In it he said that, in an epilogue, he
human security and to give people equal opportunities thought he was entitled to give his personal opinion:
to take full advantage of whatever their society has to "and say that Anthropos should not allow the process of
offer. Doxiadis' criteria meet the Aristotelian demand for events to go on by themselves and produce whatever
security by requiring "the spatial organization of society ecumenopolis comes by chance, but that he should
in a hierarchical way" (Action, 1976, p 130) and equality exercise the privilege of Anthropos and take a hand in
of opportunity by requiring that everyone has equal ease his own evolution."
of access to any part of the urban region. As "those who "We know" (he continued) "that it is possible for an
cannot own or drive a car (through income, age, sick- ecumenopolis to be created that is better than the sys-

"l® Ekistics 266, Jan. 1978

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Fig. 10: The separation of humans from machines

a. Footpath entry to the houses at Apollonion, Attica. b. Vehicle entry and parking on the middle level

terns of life which exist at present. We know that we can 4. We must find the courage to act on a global scale.
study the successful settlements of the past in order to Until we can manage to organize plans on this
find out what factors make Anthropos happy and safe. scale, we must act within as large a scale as we
We know how to ask the right questions in order to find can achieve.
out how to solve the problems of any specific area. We 5. Our actions must never be based on the desire to
know how to create models that will lead to good rather show off - as individuals, groups or corporations
than bad solutions. We know how to influence action so - but only on the desire to serve Anthropos. Every-
that the development of our settlements can be close to thing we build now lays the foundations for the
the best models we can create. All that we have to do is to ecumenopolis of the future." ( Ecumenopolis , 1974,
define our goal, realize its importance and unite in our pp 395-7).
determination to achieve it. . . . The vital factors upon
which all the necessary changes will depend are the References to writings by C.A. Doxiadis
intellectual and cultural development of mankind. New
Action for Human Settlements (Athens, Athens Center of Ekis-
ideas, new techniques, new attitudes to life do not de-
tics, 1976; New York, W.W. Norton (forthcoming) ). The three
pend on Anthropos' food but on Anthropos' mind. We other books in this series are:
must concentrate on the mind of Anthropos if we are to - Anthropopolis: City for Human Development (Athens,
achieve the ecumenopolis we desire." Athens Publishing Center, 1974)
"We are left with five conclusions: - Ecumenopolis: The Inevitable City of the Future (with
1. Ecumenopolis will come inevitably, but it will only John G. Papaioannou), (Athens, Athens Publishing Center,
come in its most desirable form if Anthropos guides 1974)
events. - Building Entopia (Athens, Athens Publishing Center, 1975)
2. We must set our goal as harmony between theBetween five Dystopia and Utopia (Hartford, Conn., Trinity College
elements that make up human settlements: Nature,Press, 1966)
Ekistics: An Introduction to the Science of Human Settlements
Anthropos, Society, Shells, Networks. Growth
(London, Hutchinson, 1968; New York, Oxford University
takes place naturally; harmony can be achieved
Press, 1968)
through the conscious action of Anthropos. EKISTICS 135 (February 1967)
3. We must use a rational and scientific approach, EKISTICS 229 (December 1974)
making a careful study of the complex systems of The Great Urban Crimes We Permit by Law (Athens, Lycabettus
life in which we live. . . . Without knowledge we are Press, 1973)
relying on blind chance, and it is not right to play The Two-Headed Eagle: From the Past to the Future of Human
games with the future of mankind. Settlements (Athens, Lycabettus Press, 1972)

Ekistics 266, Jan. 1978 19

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