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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

CONTENTS
Sr. No. Title of Review Papers Page
No.
1 Different Ways and Means of Paddy Straw Management: A Review 1-12
Bindu, Jatinder Manan and Manoj Sharma
2 False Smut Disease in Rice and its Integrated Management 13-26
Sanjeet Kumar, Seema Kumari, Bidya Shankar Sinha, Shambhu Roy, R N Singh
and R K Sohane

3 Kiwifruit Landscape: The Arunachal Pradesh Story 27-34

N D Singh, Divya Pandey, T S Mishra, M K Singh and V K Misra
4 Organic Nutrition Management of Papaya-A Review 35-45
Bindu B
5 Poultry Carcass Meal as an Unconventional Protein Source in Feeding 46-55
of Goat Kids
Kotresh Prasad C, John Abraham, Barman D, Mahanthesh M
T, Girish Panchbhai and Maneesh Ahirwar

6 Review on Effective Tools and Technology for Enhancing Wheat Productivity 56-69
Dhiman Mukherjee
7 Review on Boron Deficiency in Soils and Plants and its Management for 70-75
Sustainable Agriculture
Ruma Das, Debarup Das, Shrila Das, Renu Singh, Mandira Barman,
Sunanda Biswas and Abir Dey
8 Review on Integrated Pest Management in Muskmelon 76-81
Gurmeet Singh and Manoj Sharma
9 Roles, Values and Rights of Indian Women in the Prospective of Modern Agricul- 82-89
ture- A Review
Sunita Kushwah

10 Socio-Economic Considerations of Valorization of Food Processing By-Product 90-100

P N Ananth, Radhakrishnan Kalidoss , P Natarajan and J K Sundaray

11 Urea Molasses Mineral Block Feeding to Animals - An Effective Technology for 101-113
Dairy Farmers
Manoj Sharma, Rohit Gupta and Gurdeep Singh

86
Review Article Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Ways and Means of Paddy Straw Management: A Review

Bindu, Manoj Sharma and Jatinder Manan
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kapurthala 144620 ( Punjab)
Corresponding Author: kvk-kapurthala@pau.edu

ABSTRACT
The burning of paddy straw results in extensive impacts both on and off farm, e.g. losses in soil organic
matter, soil nutrients, production and productivity, air quality, biodiversity, water and energy efficiency
and on human and animal health. In India, being a largest producer of rice as well as of its residue, the
effects from residue burning are more severe. Scientists and researchers, on the other hand, have studied
the potential of various paddy straw management technologies as alternatives to paddy straw open-field
burning. It is documented that crop residues properly returned to the soil can maintain or enhance soil
quality and productivity through favourable effects on soil properties. In addition to this paddy straw
can be used as energy source, mulching, industrial raw material, biofuel and feed for animals etc.
Key words: Paddy straw, Burning, Crop-residue, Biochar, Mulch, Compost, Biogas.

INTRODUCTION Taking farmers view into account, burning

Rice (Oryza sativa), the staple food of more than
half of the population of the world, is an important
target to provide food security and livelihoods for
millions. As a major producer and exporter of rice
in the world, India reportedly produces around
152.60MT tonnes of rice per year. When cereal
crops are harvested, it is estimated that half of the
process ends with agricultural waste or crop residue
as straw. It is a non-edible product, often left in the
field after harvesting. Traditionally, paddy straw
was seen as a versatile by-product of rice cultivation
because it was used in many ways including fodder
for livestock and as a building material. However, the
increase in productivity and area under cultivation
of rice has led to a huge production of rice straw.
Moreover, mechanization decreased the animal
dependency and hence the feed requirement. So
the most effective way of disposing of the residue
is seen as burning of biomass in the paddy field.
It is important to mention that open field burning
is a widely practiced method all over the world;
however its intensity varies. For instance Gadde et
al (2009) estimated that less than a quarter of rice
straw is probably burnt in India compared to around
half in Thailand whereas the entire residue is burnt
in the Philippines.
is not only a cost-effective method but it acts as
an effective pest control procedure Dobermann
(2000). The short term effects of burningseems
more desirable than those from soil incorporation
due to the immobilization of inorganic nitrogen
which occurs in the latter and can adversely
affect productivity in the short term (Singh and
Singh,2001). Also, it helps to reduce diseases that
may occur due to reinfection from inoculum in
the straw biomassHaysaet al (2005).The burning
of rice crop residue causes atmospheric pollution
by emitting trace gases which forms ‘Black
Cloud’ adversely affects human health as well as
environment.The air pollutants are also a hazard
to people’s healthparticularly to those within local
proximity to paddy areas.
It is clear from Table 1 that crop residue is a
good source of nutrients and important component
for the stability of agricultural ecosystems. About
40% of the N, 30-35% of the P, 80-85% of the K
and 40-50% of the S absorbed by rice remain in
the vegetative parts at maturity. Therefore, one
ton of rice straw contains 5-8 Kg N, 0.7-1.2Kg P,
12-17 kg K, 0.5-1kg S, 3-4 K Ca, 1-3Kg Mg and
40-70Kg Si (Dobermann and Witt, 2000). Nutrient

DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2017.00039.3 1
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
Table1: Nutrients present in rice straw
Nutrient Content (%)
Nitrogen(N) Phosphorus(P) 0.65
Potassium (K) 0.10
Zink (Zn) 1.40
Sulphur (S) 0.003
Silicon (Si) 0.075
5.5
Source: Ismail et al (2013)
concentrationin residue depends on the soil
condition, crop management, variety and season.
Hence crop residue can be utilized by using different
methodswhich are discussed in detail as below:
Physical Method
Chemical &Biological method
Physical Method
This method is widely practiced by farmers as it
requires only machinery to manage the residue and
a common farmer can do all the operations himself.
Crop residues can be ground, soaked, pelleted or
chopped to reduce particle size which can further be
utilized in different ways.
In-situ management: Rice straw can be
managed successfully in –situ by allowing sufficient
time (10-20days) between its incorporation and
sowing of wheat crop to avoid N deficiency due to
N immobilization(Yadvinderet al,2005). The net
supply of N from crop residue to subsequent crop
depend upon decomposition period prior to planting
next crop, residue quality and soil environmental
conditions .However, the practice of in-situ rice
straw incorporation as an alternate to burning has
been adopted by only a few farmers because of
high incorporating costs and energy ; as well as
time intensive.It also requires high capacity Mould
Board plough to incorporate residue into the soil,
but it has no ill-effects on the next wheat crop yield
(Bijay Set al 2008). Gupta et al, (2010) stated that
the effect on wheat yield appearsonly after fourth
year of continuous incorporation of straw.
2
Nutrient Content (%)
Magnesium(Mg) Cal- 0.20
cium (C) 0.30
Iron (Fe) 0.035
Manganese(Mn) Cop- 0.045
per (Cu) 0.0003
Boron (B) 0.0010
Crop residue as Mulch: As incorporation of crop
residue requires much time for field preparation, the
quick and easy option is to collect theresidue and use
it as mulch in succeeding crop. A lot of machinery is
available for this purpose. A no till drill has positive
impacts on wheat yield , profitability and resource
use efficiency (Ladhaet al, 2009). The potential
benefits of no-till can be fully realized only when
it is practiced continuously and soil surface should
remain covered at least 30% of previous crop
residue. The use of new-generation planters like
happy seeder, spatial drill will lead to wider adoption
(Sidhuet al, 2007) due to direct drilling in standing
as well as loose residues, provided the residues are
spread uniformly.Chakrabortyet al (2010) reported
that rice straw mulch increased wheat grain yield,
reduced crop water use by 3-11% and improved
Water Use Efficiency by 25% compared with no
mulch. Mulch produced 40% higher root length
densities compared to no mulch due to retention
of soil moisture in deeper layers (Singh and Sidhu,
2014). Rice residue management in no-till systems
provides multiple benefits, including soil moisture
conservation, suppression of weeds, improvement
in soil quality (Singh et al, 2005) reduction in
greenhouse gas emission equivalent to nearly 13
t /ha (Mandal et al, 2004) and regulates canopy
temperature at the grain-filling stage to mitigate the
terminal heat effects in wheat (Gupta et al 2010;
Jat et al 2009) and significantly improves the C
sustainability index. The suppression of weeds
with straw mulch might help to reduce herbicide
requirements.
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
Use for energy generation: Use of agricultural
residues as feed stock of biomass energy has been
gaining popularity in many countries. Agricultural
residues could be a significant source of biomass
energy in agriculturally dominant countries
like India and China. Successful Research and
Development have been demonstrated in many
parts of the world concerning the use of agricultural
residues including rice straw as a potential feedstock
for biomass energy.
Rice producing countries like China, India and
Indonesia can take advantage of the environmental
and economic benefits from utilization of rice
straw and rice husk for energy. Heat and electricity
produced from rice residue cogeneration systems
could be used to meet local energy demands. The
excess amount of electricity produced can be fed
into the national grid. Lim et al (2012) reviewed
various key factors for the utilization of rice
husk and straw as renewable energy sources. In
Thilanad asSuramaythangkoor and Gheewala
(2010) reported the potential of rice straw for heat
and power generation while Delivandet al (2011)
evaluated economic feasibility of rice straw based
combustion projects of various capacities. Gaddeet
al (2009) estimated that generating electricity from
the straw instead of burning it in field increase rice
straw’s contribution to 0.75%, 1.81% and 4.31% in
India, Thailand and Philippines over greenhouse
gas emission.
Use for Biogas production: In India, 23% of
rice straw residue produced remains as surplus
or un-used. Punjab, Haryana and UP are three
major rice producing states in India. Part of this
surplus produce can be used at farmer’s field for
biogas production. Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana has designed a batch type biogas plant
in which crop residue can be used as feed along
with cowdung. This plant can run for 3-4 months
eliminating cumbersome operation of daily addition
of cowdung. Mussolineet al (2013) reviewed that
operating conditions of a biogas plant such as pH
(6.5-8.0), temperature (35-40oC) and nutrients C:N
ratio of 25-35 can yield methane from 92-280l/Kg
of volatile solids. These scientists used untreated
rice straw in combination with piggery wastewater
in a farm-scale biogas system to generate electricity.
It has been recommended an overall straw (dry wt.)
to wastewater ratio (wet wt.) of 1 to 1.4 to improve
gas production and decrease the acclimation period.
Zhang et al (1999) investigated the suitability of
rice straw for bio gasification with an anaerobic
phased solids digester system. Ammonia is used
as a supplemental nitrogen source for rice straw
digestion. It was found that a combination of
grinding (10 mm length), heating (110oC), and
ammonia treatment (2%) resulted in the highest
biogas yield of untreated whole straw.
Straw as biochar: Biochar which is like charcoal
is produced through burning organic materials
like rice straw with no or extremely low levels
of oxygen. However, biochar is recommended to
improve soil productivity, not it as fuel (Lehmann
and Joseph, 2009). When rice straw is burnt in the
open it is exposed to plenty of oxygen therefore the
combination of the carbon from the biomass and
oxygen in the air releases carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere. The absence of oxygen during burning
phase means that the carbon in the biomass largely
remains intact. The creation of biochar rather than
ash therefore reduces the amount of greenhouse
gases released into the atmosphere and it is believed
that the carbon can remain in soil for hundreds
of thousands of years (Wu et al, 2012). Another
advantage of biochar is its large surface area and
pore volume .Biochar also has the capacity to
adsorb pollutants like pesticides before they enter
local water sources .Biochar can stimulate native
soil microbial activity, provide favourable habitat
for microbes, and encourage mycorrhizal fungal
colonisation for improved plant water and nutrient
supply (Warnock et al, 2007) and may promote
rhizobia for N2 fixation in leguminous plants.
Biochar also effects the yield as shown by Thind
et al (2012) that application of rice husk ash, and
bagasse ash improved available nutrients and crop
yields in rice wheat system on a loamy sand soil in
3
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
Punjab. Haefeleet al (2011) concluded that biochar
from rice residues can be beneficial in rice based
systems depending upon site specific conditions.
Asai et al (2009) also reported increase in crop
yield with biochar application in rice crop.
CHEMICAL & BIOLOGICAL METHODS
Both chemical and biological methods are used
to decompose the rice straw which can further be
used for many purposes.Chemicals are used to
improve the utilization of rice straw may be alkaline,
acidic or oxidative agents. Alkali agents have been
most widely investigated and practically accepted
for application on farms as these alkali agents can be
absorbed into the cell wall and make the structural
fibres swollen.These process enable the rumen
microorganisms to attack more easily the structural
carbohydrates, enhancingdegradability and
palatability of the rice straw. The most commonly
used alkaline agents are sodium hydroxide (NaoH),
ammonia (NH3) and urea. The biological mode of
straw management are the use of fungi and/or their
enzymes to improve nutritional value by selective
delignification.
Ethanol production: Rice straw is an attractive
lignocellulosic material for bioethanol production.
It has high cellulose and hemicelluloses, which
can be readily hydrolysed into fermentable sugars.
Bioethanol produced from rice straw can be used
as transportation fuel. Binod et al (2010) reviewed
the current available technologies for bioethanol
production from rice straw. The choice of suitable
pre-treatment methods is to increase the efficiency
of enzymatic scarification and thereby making
the whole process economically viable. With
the introduction of genetically modified yeast,
synthetic hydrolysing enzymes, other sophisticated
technologies and their efficient combination, the
process of bioethanol production from rice straw
can be feasible technology. Ranjan (2013) studied
the feasibility of using rice straw as a substrate for
biobutanol production. They studied clostridial
fermentation of stress assisted-acid hydrolysed rice
straw that exhibited a typical trend of acidogenesis
4
followed by solventogenesis. They concluded that
higher solvents yield and significant sugar utilization
makes rice straw a potential feedstock for biofuels
production.Kim and Dale (2004) estimated that rice
straw can produce 205 GL of bioethanol globally,
which is the largest amount from single biomass
feedstock.
Compost: Rice straw is the only organic material
available in significant quantities at most rice
farms. About 40% (N), 30-35% of (P), 80-85% of
(K) and 40-50% of (S) taken up by rice remains in
vegetative plant parts at crop maturity. Straw is also
an important source of micronutrients such as zinc
(Zn) and silicon(Si). So rice straw can be converted
into compost to use it as fertilizer to improve nutrient
content in soil.This compost alongwith chemical
fertilizers can help to sustain or even increase the
agronomic yield (Sidhu and Beri, 2005).Compost
is the relatively stable product that results after
organic materials decompose. It usually contains
relatively low amounts of major nutrients but more
micronutrients, enzymes and microorganisms that
are not often found in inorganic fertilizer. The
process of decomposing rice straw generates high
temperature, around 55oC, keeping pathogen level
low and reducing the viability of weed seeds may
contain in rice straw.During composting rice straw
can be fortified with P using indigenous cheap
source of low grade rock phosphates to make it
value added compost with 1.5% N, 2.3% P2O5 and
2.5% K2O (Sidhu and Beri, 2005). Small farmers
are most likely to get benefitted from composting
technology. The rice residue can be composted by
using it as animal bedding and then heaping it in
dung heaps. Each kg of straw can absorb about 2-3
kg of urine from animal shed. The residues of rice
from one hectare give about 3.2 tonnes of manure
as rich in nutrients as FYM.
Rice straw as feed: Rice straw in developing
countries is used as a main feed for ruminants.
Nutritive value of rice straw can be enhanced
with physical, chemical and biological treatments.
Physical treatments such as crushing are related to
breaking the silicified encrusting layers of strawsLiu
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

et al (1999); whileChemical treatment of straw with
alkalis such as ammonia and sodium hydroxide, has
been commonly used for improving both apparent
digestibility, bacterial colonization on cellulose and
voluntary intake of straws (Vadiveloo, 2000). Fibre
explosion and soaking straws in wood ash extracted
processes showed significant increase in vivo
digestibility (Weimeret al, 2003). Supplementation
with oilseed meal/ cakes or rapeseed meal and
mulberry leaves as protein was found to improve
animal performance(Liu et al, 2001).Also many
species of white rot fungi which are effective lignin
degraders have been used to assess their ability to
improve the nutritive value of fodder for ruminant
nutrition(Howard et al, 2003 )
In addition to the above mentioned uses of
paddy straw, it is also used in some other operation
though in small quantity. It may be used as
mushroom growth medium, packaging material,
animal bedding, handicrafts, paper making, erosion
control mulching and building material etc.
PRESENT STATUS
There are around 18.5 lakh farming families
in Punjab and around 65% of them are small and
marginal farmers which prefer to burn the paddy
stubble instead of spending money on straw
management. Singh et al (2010) stated that more
than 60 % of the population in Punjab live in the rice
growing areas and is exposed to air pollution and
related problems due to burning of rice stubbles. In
recent years the magnitude of stubble burning was
so high that it received international attention. The
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) released a satellite image showing large
number of fires across millions of hectares of
agricultural fields releasing smoke. Global concerns
also been drawn due to its effects on visibility, health
and global climate by emitting particulate matters
and other gaseous pollutants (Lemieuxet al, 2004).
It was observed that the peak in asthmatic patients
in hospitals in North West India coincides with
annual burning of rice residue in surrounding fields
.Pollutants brought significant change in blood
parameters in sheep (Ahmed et al, 2003),oxidative
stress (Riveroet al, 2005) as well as kidney and liver
dysfunctions in buffaloes(Massagueret al, 2002).
Biomass burning releases considerable amounts
of some environmental toxicants which function
as endocrine disruptors and affect the integrity of
reproductive function in mammals and ultimately
contribute to infertility (Smith et al, 2007). The
data regarding air Quality Index is being given in
Table 2.

Table 2: Air Quality Index

AQI Air Pollution Level Health Implications
Air quality is considered satisfactory, and air pollution poses little
0 - 50 Good
or no risk
Air quality is acceptable; however, for some pollutants there may be
51 -100 Moderate a moderate health concern for a very small number of people who
are unusually sensitive to air pollution.
Unhealthy for Sensi- Members of sensitive groups may experience health effects. The
101-150
tive Groups general public is not likely to be affected.
Everyone may begin to experience health effects; members of sen-
151-200 Unhealthy
sitive groups may experience more serious health effects
Health warnings of emergency conditions. The entire population is
201-300 Very Unhealthy
more likely to be affected.
300+ Hazardous Health alert: everyone may experience more serious health effects
Source: http://aqicn.org/map/india/#@g/21.5522/80.4858/5z

5
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Table 3: present scenario of farmer’s choice for paddy straw management methods
Choice Vegetable growers Paddy-wheat followers
Ist Removal of straw from fields Mulcher+ Mould BoardPlough and sowing
IInd Use of Mulcher+MouldBoard Plough and Use of Cutter-cum-spreader+ Mould Board-
then sowing plough and sowing
IIIrd Use of Cutter-cum-spreader+ Mould Board- SMS attached with combine+ Disc harrow
plough and then sowing and sowing
IVth Baler+ normal field preparation Use of Happy seeder
Vth Baler+ normal field preparation

Though, the state had already banned the is consumed in biomass-based projects, paper, or
practice of straw burning in 2013, but strictly cardboard mills and animal fodder, while a small
enforced it in the year 2017 which results decrease portion is managed through other systems such
in pollution. The figures released by the Punjab as machinery and equipment. Though bailing is
Pollution Control Board (www. ppcb.gov.in, 2017) the best option for straw management, but high
indicated that increase in pollution level by just 24 cost of machine and utilization of bails confined
per cent in October 2017 which was 70 per cent the its use. Punjab has a substantial availability of
previous year 2016. agro-waste, which is sufficient to produce about
As the ban is enforced and the Green Tribunal 1,000 MW of electricity through biomass energy
fixed a penalty for burning paddy residue, farmers plants. Nguyen et al (2016) stressed upon the use
of central zone of Punjab practicing a number of on straw bales for biogas generation in India and
practices to manage straw as mentioned in Table 3. Philippines by suggesting that the possible net
According to farmers these farmers enhanced the energy of the rice straw supply chain for biogas
cost of cultivation Rs 7500-10,000/ha. They also generation through anaerobic digestion is 3,500 MJ
stated that choice of operation depends upon crop to per tonof straw. Thisrice straw management option
be grown, type of soil and availability of machines. can provide a 70% net output energy benefit. The
The farmers who want to grow vegetables needs researchhighlighted the potential of rice straw as
a well prepared field as compared to wheat field. a clean fuel source with a positive energy balance,
Also the farmers having fields with heavy soil opt helping toreduce greenhouse gas emissions
for removal of straw while incorporation of straw compared with the existing practice of burning it
is first preference for light to medium soil fields. in the field.So consistent efforts should be made
Availability of machine is also a deciding factor for by government agencies as well as extension
farmer’s choice opting for the operation. Ridhima functionaries to generate awareness among farmers
(2012) while studying famers from seven districts regarding by-product utilization of paddy straw.
of Punjab stated that progressive farmers are already
practicing different methods to manage paddy CONCLUSION
straw and the costs incurred Rs. 6353/ha for using As a lot of work has been done by the scientists
Happy seeder, Rs. 7888/ha for Complete burning, to consider straw as a useful source, though huge
Rs. 7744/ha for partial burning and Rs. 8748/ha for potential needs to be developed further to replace
incorporation of straw. it with fossil-fuel resources that are dwindling; to
counter rising fossil fuel prices; energy security;
According to The Hindu dated 28-10-2017; in and to reduce threat to the development of climate
Punjab, out of the total paddy straw, nearly 4.3 MT change.

6
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
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Review Article Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

False Smut Disease in Rice and its Integrated Management

Sanjeet Kumar1#, Seema Kumari2, Bidya Shankar Sinha1, Shambhu Roy1,
R N Singh2 and R K Sohane3
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Sheikhpura 811105, Bihar, India
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kaimur 821116, Bihar, India
Directorate of Extension Education, B A U Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
# Corresponding Author: sanjeet1272@gmail.com; sanjeetseema@rediffmail.com

ABSTRACT
False smut disease of rice is caused by Ustilaginoideavirens (Cooke), has become a major concern not only
in India but also in almost all rice-growing areas of the world. The fungal pathogen completely converts
the grains into spore balls, unfit for consumption and seed production. Yield loss and disease severity is
accentuating with the increase in disease.The fungus overwinters in the soil by means of sclerotia and
chlamydospores. Sclerotia produce ascospores, which are primary source of infection to rice plants, whereas
secondary infection may come from air-borne chlamydospores. Application of heavy nitrogenous fertilizers
with intensive method of rice cultivation results into the severe form of disease. At present the disease is
managed only by administering prophylactic sprays of selected fungicides. Prediction or forecasting of
the disease for its better management needs attention. Proper management strategies with non- chemical
means are needed in controlling the false smut disease. Progress in achieving the resistant varieties and
management of false smut needs more emphasis. The QTLs responsible for the false smut resistance needs
to be identified and consistent inheritability of these QTLs have to be evaluated using marker assisted
selection.This review summarizes the present status of the disease, its pathogen, mode of entry and progress
in the field of management of disease by resistant varieties, exploration of resistance genes, chemical and
non-chemical means of control including the use of bio-control agents in integrated disease management.
Key words: False smut disease, Ustilaginoideavirens, Chlamydospores, Integrated Management,
Abbreviation: QTL: Quantitative trait loci, IDM: Integrated Disease Management

INTRODUCTION rapidly increasing population, declining cultivable

Rice continues to be the most important food
crop for more than half of the world’s population.
India is the largest rice growing country with
an area of around 44 m ha with a production of
more than 100 million tonnes (www.fas.usda.
gov/psdonline). It forms the major dietary energy
form of food and it covers more than 9% of earth’s
arable land. It contributes 21% of global per capita
energy and 15% of global per capita protein (FAO,
2016). It is grown in almost all the states of India
and plays a major role in country’s food security
and provides livelihood for about 70% of the
population. (Diwakar, 2009). Sustainable
rice production for food security has emerged as
challenging task especially in the background of
land, decreasing availability of agricultural labour
and yield losses due to abiotic and biotic stresses.
. Pest and diseases not only reduce crop yields but
also affect the grain quality. Rice crop is attacked
by a number of fungal, bacterial and viral diseases.
Among them, diseases caused by fungal pathogens
are the major for crop damages. False smut has
become one of the emerging fungal grain diseases
of rice. False smut pathogen, Ustilaginoideavirens
(Cooke) Takahashi (teleomorph Villosiclavavirens
Tanaka) on rice was first reported and described by
Cooke in 1878 from Thirunelveli district of Tamil
Nadu, India (Cooke, 1878). Tanaka et al (2008)
suggested the Villosiclavavirens as teleomorph of
U. virens. Subsequently, the disease was reported

9
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
from more than 40 countries including almost
all rice growing regions of the world viz., India,
Philippines, Myanmar, Colombia, Peru, Bengladesh,
Mauritious, Nigeria, Burma, Sri Lanka, Fijji, Africa
(Biswas, 2001), USA (Rush et al., 2000) and Egypt
(Atia, 2004). In India the disease has been reported
from Assam, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra
Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Haryana, Chhatisgarh,
Gujarat, Himanchal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir,
Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Odisha,
Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura,
Utter Pradesh, Uttarakhand and West Bengal (Dodan
and Ram Singh, 1996; Biswas, 2001; Ladhalakshmi,
2012). Earlier this disease was regarded as a
minor disease of rice, occurring sporadically in
certain regions, but at present the epidemics of the
disease are also being reported (Rush et al., 2000;
Singh and Pophaly, 2010). It has now become an
important devastating disease of rice causing yield
losses from 1.01 to 10.91% (Atia, 2004). Disease
incidence of 10-20% and 5-85% respectively
has been reported from Punjab and Tamil Nadu
on different rice cultivars (Ladhalakshmi et al.,
2012). The disease causes reduction in the quality
and quantity of rice grains and also affects the
germination vigour of the infected seedlings
(Sanghera et al., 2012). Pathogen on infected grains
produces antimitotic cyclic peptides, ustiloxin from
its chlamydospores, poisonous to both humans and
animals (Nakamura et al., 1994; Koiso et al., 1994).
In recent years, its outbreak might be due to high
use of inputs, increased use of hybrid varieties, and
climate change (Lu et al., 2009). Extensive use of
nitrogenous fertilizer to high fertilizer responsive
cultivars and hybrids increased disease incidence
and increase in phosphorus application results in
decreased disease incidence (Mohiddinet al., 2012;
Zhang et al., 2014). The disease symptom appears
only after flowering, by then the fungus infects
the individual grains of the panicle (Atia, 2004).
The pathogen over winters in soil by means of
sclerotia and chlamydospores. Sclerotia produce
ascospores, which are primary source of infection to
10
rice plants, whereas secondary infection may come
from air-borne chlamydospores (Ashizawa et al.,
2010). Infection results in one or more kernels on
mature heads of plants being replaced by globose,
yellowish - green, velvety smut balls. When smut
balls burst open, powdery dark green spores are
released (Atia, 2004). The rice false smut balls are
then formed in the infected rice spikelets (Hu et al.,
2014; Tang et al., 2013). The recent widespread
cultivation of hybrid rice and heavy application
of nitrogenous fertilizer have been considered as
reasons for the increased rice false smut disease
(Guoet al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2014). This disease
results in yield loss, polluted rice grains, and even
more important, generating toxins poisoning to
humans and domestic animals (Koisoet al., 1994;
Zhou et al., 2012). Two kinds of mycotoxins, namely
ustiloxins and ustilaginoidins have been isolated
and identified from rice false smut pathogen (Lu et
al., 2014; Zhou et al., 2012). To analyze ustiloxins,
some methods have been developed, which includes
high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry
(LC–MS) (Ji, Cao, Xu, Yin, & Shi, 2012; Miyazaki,
Matsumoto, Uchihara, &Morimoto, 2009; Shan
et al., 2012). The most economical and effective
strategy to manage false smut is breeding of durable
resistance varieties (Cartwright et al., 2000; Wang
et al., 2010). Rice cultivars exhibit significant
differences in quantitative resistance; still no variety
is yet to have complete resistance to U. virens
(Biswas, 2001; Li et al., 2008; Huang et al., 2015).
Management of false smut is achieved through
cultural, biological and chemical control methods.
The efficacy of several fungicides to manage false
smut has also been reported by various researchers
(Pannu et al., 2010; Mohiddin et al., 2012). This
review paper entails the present status of the
disease, its pathogen, mode of entry and progress
in the field of management of disease by resistant
varieties, exploration of resistance genes, chemical
and non-chemical means of control including the
use of bio-control agents in integrated disease
management.
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
Rice false smut disease
Symptoms
Rice False Smut Disease is also known as Green
smut and considered as Lakshmi disease, because it
was always found associated with bumper harvest.
The false smut pathogen, Ustilaginoideavirens,
infects rice at the time of panicle development and
affects the young ovary of the individual spikelet
transforming it into large, yellow to velvety green
balls (smut balls) and the symptoms produced are
visible from milky stage onwards. Initially, the smut
balls are small in size and remain confined between
glumes. They gradually enlarge and enclose the
floral parts. The individual grain get converted into
yellowish smut ball then changes to yellowish orange
to green, olive green and greenish black on maturity.
Powdery dark green spores are released when smut
balls burst open (Biswas, 2001; Atia, 2004). If the
infection occurs before fertilization most of the
glumes remain sterile without any visible sign of
infection. Typical large, velvety, green smut balls
develop when infection occurs after fertilization.
The fructifications replacing the grains represent
the conidial, pseudosclerotial and sclerotial stages
of the pathogen. The pseudosclerotia ( green smut
balls) consists of mycelial tissue and spore masses,
remnants of anthers and portions of palea and
lemna.Ingeneral only few grains are affected in a
panicle but the number may rise up to 100 in case
of severe disease incidence ( Ladhalakshmi et al.,
2012).
The Pathogen (Taxonomy and Nomenclature)
Cooke (1878) first identified and named rice
false smut fungus as Ustilagovirens, based on the
symptom of rice smut collected from Thirunelveli
district of Tamil Nadu in India. On the basis of the
specimen collected from Japan by Patouillard (1887)
he named it as Tilletiaoryzae. Brefeld (1895) renamed
Tilletiaoryzaein to Ustilaginoideaoryzae based on
the conidial stage characteristics by ascertaining
that Tilletiaoryzae belonged to the fungi imperfecti,
and not to the basidiomycete family Ustilagineae
associated with Hypocreales. Ustilaginoideaoryzae
was combined with Ustilagovirens as they were
identical as pointed out by Takahashi (1896) and
named as Ustilaginoideavirens, based on priority of
epithet. No reports have been made for nearly 40
years for the teleomorph of Ustilaginoideavirens.
Hard black, horse-shoe shaped, oblong or flat
protruded sclerotia from false smut balls on rice
was documented by Sakurai (1934). Nakata
(1934) classified Clavicepsvirens (Cke.) Sakurai
as teleomorph of the fungus, Ustilaginoideavirens.
Hashioka (1971) reported the presence of numerous
perithecia on the surface of fruiting body and named
the teleomorph of the fungus, Clavicepsoryzae-
sativae as an avowed substitute. By considering
the formal error and illegitimate naming of the
teleomorph of the fungus and studying the numerous
differences in the morphology, phylogenetic
evolution, ecology and physiology between
Claviceps and the teleomorph of U. virens, Tanaka
and Tanaka (2008) rectified the teleomorphic stage
as Villosiclavavirens by proposing a new genus
Villosiclava under family Claviceptaceae on the
basis of dark- coloured sclerotia of various shape,
embedded pseudomorphs, ascomata, multiseptate
needle like ascospores.
Morphological characters of disease signs
Smut Ball
It is made up of central hard mycelial tissue
composed of thin, hyaline, septate hyphae and
surrounded by three sporiferous layers consisting of
yellow coloured chlamydospores which later turns
into green colour representing maturity of spores.
Chlamydospores is a thick or double walled asexual
spore formed directly from a vegetative hyphal cell
that functions for overwintering or as a resting stage
which in the spore balls are borne laterally on minute
sterigmata (a small arclike, usually pointed hyphal
branch or structure supporting a spore) on hyaline,
septate hyphae. The younger spores are smaller,
smooth and lighter in colour, on germination
bears conidia at the tapering apex. These conidia
are ovoid and minute. U. virens produces both
the sexual (ascospores on sclerotic) and asexual
11
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

(chlamydospores) stages in its life cycle (Biswas, sterile distilled water. Next the chlamydospores
2001). are streaked on to Petri dishes using a sterilized
needle followed by the incubation of plates at 27
Sclerotia 0 C for seven days. After seven days of incubation
The true sclerotia formation was observed in a small tiny white colour colony can be observed.
hilly regions of Uttar Pradesh at an altitude of 1200 A single well isolated colony of the fungus (arising
msl and in Assam and Karnataka at an altitude of from single spore) can be picked up using sterilized
91 msl (Hegde and Anahosur, 2000). Generally needle and maintained as pure culture. Later,
number of sclerotia are 2 per smut ball but can the white colour of the fungus gradually changes
vary from 1 to 5, which remain loosely attached into yellow and produces small ball like structure
or sometimes joined to cover the pseudomorph (mycelial mat) on the surface. Later, these balls are
like umbrella. The sclerotia are hard, dark-brown, changed into mass of chlamydospores and bursting
clavate, reniform, horse-shoe shaped to indefinite of the clump is observed (Ladhalakshmi et al.,
shape, concave on the inner-side and convex on 2012).
the outer side measuring 3-10 mm x 1-5 mm and
0.5-1.5 mm in thickness. Transverse section of the Pathogenicity
true sclerotia shows the outer tissue to be made of The exact mode of infection of the pathogen
pseudo parechymatous cells while the inner tissue is still not fully understood. In India, no work on
is hyaline with prosenchymatous cells (Singh and the pathogenicity of U. virens has been reported
Dube, 1976). The true sclerotia germinate when it using artificial culture because artificial culture of
is kept on the moistened quartz-sand for the period pathogen itself is difficult under in vitro condition.
of 1 month at 40 C and incubated at 24-280 C under Ashizawa et al. (2011) developed a method by
fluorescent light and dark conditions. Overwintered injecting the rapidly prepared conidial suspension
sclerotia on germination produce stalked stromata. into leaf sheath of the main culm of rice plants.
The stromata form a swelling at the tip of the They found that a concentration of 5x105conidia/ml
stalk, more or less globose in shape, and contain could cause the infection but a concentration of 7.5
perithecia around periphery. Each flask-shaped x105 conidia/ml may impose an additional stress
perithecium contains about 300 asci. The asci are and resulted in failure of emergence of panicle.
cylindrical with a hemispherical apical appendage
(Ladhalakshmi et al., 2012). Source of Inoculum
Ustilaginoideavirens produce propagules viz.,
Isolation of U. Virens primary conidia, chlamydospores, pseudosclerotia
Isolation of false smut pathogen is a little bit and sclerotic. Singh et al (1985) reported that
difficult and is time consuming because of the sclerotia survived up to 11 months both under
slow growing nature of the fungus and presence of room temperature and under field conditions.
contaminants on the surface of the small ball. The Chlamydospores remain viable up to 8-12 months at
fungus can be isolated using Potato dextrose agar, 40 C and at room temperature it remained viable for
Potato sucrose agar, Yeast peptone potato dextrose eight months (Ikegami, 1958; Hegde and Anahosur,
agar, Yeast glucose agar medium and XBZ agar 2000). Sclerotia act as a major source of primary
medium. The isolation of the fungus from the smut inoculum and chlamydospores play an important
balls has been standardized at the Dirctorate of Rice role in the secondary infection of the host. In hilly
Research, Hyderabad, India (Ladhalakshmi et al., areas the presence of sclerotia can serve as primary
2012). At the first step smut affected spikelets are inoculum whereas in the plains, chlamydospores act
surface sterilized with 0.1 % mercuric chloride for as primary inoculum where occurrence of sclerotia
one minute followed by three times washing with is not common.

12
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
Mode of Entry
Hashioka et al (1951) reported that infection
occurs just before flowering. Yoshino Yamamoto
(1992) and Ikegami (1960) successfully inoculated
the panicles with chlamydospores and concluded
that the infection occurs during a short period just
before heading. Ikegami (1963) detected the hyphae
of U. virens in the growing points of the tillers but
not in the ear primordium stage and concluded that
the pathogen did not produce systemic infection.
The study conducted by Ashizawa and Kataoka
(2005) revealed that the fungus would invade into
rice spikelets at booting stage. Till now the exact
mode of entry by the fungus and infection on
the spikelets is not revealed and it needs further
attention.
Disease management
Host Plant Resistance
A large number of rice varieties have been
reported to be resistant or tolerant by various
researchers based on their reaction under natural
condition in fields (Dodan and Ram Singh,1996
). However, artificial screening procedures are not
dependable. Research on rice false smut resistance
screening and molecular mechanism of false smut
resistance is not sufficient (Zhang et al., 2014).
Resistance genes to rice false smut is less reported
despite considerable efforts on screening of on-
field resistance and Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL)
analysis (Guo et al., 2012; Huang et al., 2015; Zhou
et al., 2014). Resistance genes against U. virens had
not been identified and the role of rice cultivars on
the degree of resistance to false smut have been
reported (Singh et al., 1987; Biswas, 2001). Various
attempts have been made by researches to screen
rice cultivars resistance to false smut. Pheno-typing
of rice cultivars for false smut is based on scoring
system as per the standard evaluation system (SES)
scale of IRRI (2002). Singh and Singh (2005)
evaluated and screened 27 rice genotypes resistant Cultural methods
to false smut from 98 rice germplasm. Four rice
genotypes were screened by Mohiddin et al. incidence when compared to late planting
(2012), HRI 119 being the most resistant genotype (Chhottaray, 1991; Dodan and Ram Singh, 1995)
with low disease incidence. Screening of 186 rice
hybrids to false smut resistance was done by Yan
et al. (2014) who identified few hybrids with low
disease incidence. Screening of 125 rice genotypes
by artificial inoculation of false smut was done by
Kaur et al. (2015) and they identified nine hybrids
namely Hybrids VNR-211, GK-5025, HRI-140,
IRH-74, PRSH-9018, KPH-467, RH-10428, 27P64
and KRH-4 which shown complete resistance to
rice false smut. To develop varieties resistant to U.
virens, studies have been carried out and using near
isogenic introgression line for disease resistance two
QTLs were mapped (Xu et al., 2002). Li et al (2008)
mapped two major genes controlling rice false smut
with polygene mixed model and the heritability of
two major genes. Li et al (2014) detected eight QTLs
(qFsr1, qFsr2, qFsr4, qFsr8, qFsr10a, qFsr10b,
qFsr11 and qFsr12) on chromosomes 1, 2, 4, 8, 10,
11 and 12 controlling false smut resistance. Stable
inheritance of disease resistant loci on chromosome
10 and 11 over the years has been studied by Li et
al (2011). Using a large set of random introgression
lines (ILs) and field-based phenotyping, rice QRLs
providing resistance to U. virens were identified.
Four QRLs (qFSR-6-7, qFSR-10-5, qFSR- 10-2
and qFSR-11-2) have been identified with relatively
larger and consistent effects across the two testing
sites (Zhou et al., 2014). Li et al (2011) identified
QTL conferring resistance to false smut in IR28
from the chromosome 11 during preliminary
mapping of 157 recombinant inbred lines. Channa
mallikarjuna et al (2010) suggested that the broad
spectrum and durable disease resistance for
sheath blight resistance might be associated with
chitinase gene cluster. Han et al (2015) described
the chitinase gene cluster region closer to the QTL
conferring resistance to false smut. Apart from that
nine chitinase genes were also analyzed that are
highly induced after the infection by U. virens.
Early transplanted rice had higher disease
13
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
while Sanne (1980) reported that false smut can
be avoided by early sowing. Conservation tillage,
continuous rice cropping and moderate nitrogen
fertility rates reduced false smut disease in
susceptible cultivars (Brooks et al., 2009). To avoid
severe damage, sowing date and heading period
could be planned in such a way that flowering should
not coincide with rainy period. Use of sclerotic free
seeds for sowing and cleaning of bunds may help
the farmers to reduce the initial occurrence of the
disease. In respect of cultivation practices, furrow
irrigated rice cultivation system recorded less
disease severity compared to flooded fields. The
mechanism behind is the reduction on the survival
period of chlamydospores in soil and occurrence of
physiological changes in the host plant in response
to shift of rice cultivation from anaerobic to aerobic
growing conditions ( Brooks et al.,2010).
Chemical control
The control of rice false smut disease is
mostly dependent on chemical fungicides. Copper
fungicides viz., Copper oxychloride, copper
hydroxide proved highly effective (Dodan and
Ram Singh, 1997). Several fungicides such as
Wenquning (a suspension of Bacillus subtilis in
a solution of Validamycin), Copper Oxychloride,
Cuproxat, Simeconazole, Tebuconazole, Copper
Hydroxide, Difenoconazole and Hexaconazole
have been reported for the control of over 70%
of rice false smut disease (Ahonsi and Adeoti,
2003; Tasuda et al., 2006; Gao et al., 2010; Zhou
and Wang, 2011; Liang et al., 2014; Tripathi et
al., 2014). Liang et al., (2014) found the control
efficiency of 91.92 % by spraying 2.5 % Wenquning,
a suspension of Bacillus subtilisin solution of
validamycin with 4.5 Litre/ha at 6 days before
heading. The time of application of fungicides is
also important to control the disease. Ashizawa et
al (2012) reported the infection of U. virens from
booting to flowering stage. Bagga and Kaur (2006)
evaluated and reported significant reduction in false
smut incidence by spraying with fujione 40 EC (0.1,
0.2 and 0.3%) and Carbenadazim 50% WP (0.1 %)
14
at the booting stage. Treatment with Copper Oxy
Chloride (Blitox) 50 WP (0.3%) and Propiconazole
(tilt) 25 EC (0.1%) were found as the most
effective. Tasuda et al. (2006) found the application
of fungicide Sime conazole under submerged
condition at 3 weeks before rice heading as more
effective against rice false smut disease. Evaluation
of fungicides triûoxystrobin 25% + tebuconazole
50% and propiconazole 25 EC in vitro and in
vivo condition showed 100% inhibition to growth
of fungal mycelium. Applicationof prochloraz
+ carbendazim followed by chlorothalonil had
effective in controlling the false smut of rice
(Mohiddin et al. (2012). Raji et al (2016) reported
that propiconazole 25EC (0.1 %) recorded lowest
disease severity than other treatments, followed by
trifloxistrobin + tebuconazole 75 WG when sprayed
at booting or 50% panicle emergence. Higher
yields were obtained by spraying of Propiconazole
25 EC at booting stage and also trifloxystrobin +
tebuconazole 75 WG at booting. Barnwal et al.,
2010 found that the spray of propiconazole and
hexaconazole were effective in controlling the rice
false smut. Chen et al (2013) reported the application
of EBI fungicides such as propiconazole to control
rice false smut and sheath blight.
Control by plant products
Plant products such as leaf extracts and plant
oils could also be used to control rice false smut.
Raji et al (2016) studied plant extracts under in
vitro against rice false smutpathogen which was
considerably inhibited by bulb extract of garlic
(Allium sativum), rhizome extract of turmeric
(Curcuma longa), leaf extracts of lantana (Lantana
camara) and bael (Aeglemarmelos), whereas
plant oils of lemon grass (Cymbopogon flexuous)
cinnamon (Cinnamomumzeylanicum), and
palmarosa (Cymbopogonmartinii) have completely
inhibited the growth of U. virens.
Biocontrol of rice false smut disease
Bacillus subtilis (Liu et al., 2007) was reported
to be effectively against the disease. Kannahi et al.,
(2016) studied the antagonistic potential of nine
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
isolates of Trichodermaviride, Trichodermavirens,
Trichodermaharzianum and Trichodermareesei
obtained from rice rhizosphereunder in vitro
condition and reported that all the isolates of
Trichoderma have showed antagonistic activity
against U. virensbut among them isolate of T. viride
showed maximum antagonistic potential.Andargie
et al., 2017 reported first time Antennariellaplacitae
as a potential fungal endophyte effective in
reducing the negative effects of rice false smut
fungus (Ustilaginoideavirens) both in vitro and in
vivo condition.
CONCLUSION
Because of intensive methods of rice cultivation,
overdependence on chemical fertilizers, changes in
varietal profile and climatic condition, false smut
disease of rice has emerged as one of the major
threats to rice cultivation in India. The potential of the
disease causes yield losses up to 50 per cent in terms
of both quantity and quality indicates its potential
of threat. The work on host plant resistance has not
progressed much due to paucity of knowledge in
culturing of the fungus and artificial induction of
the disease. With the increasing importance of the
disease, the research on the searching of resistant
genes and management of false smut disease has
to be intensified. The mapping of resistance genes
and their stable inheritance have been reported.
Furthermore, molecular studies on isolation and
characterization of the QTLs responsible for
resistance to false smut are needed. Development
of resistant varieties through resistant QTLs and
marker assisted selection has to be considered for
further research. Cultivation of resistant varieties is
the best method to control disease. As culturing of
the fungus will have been standardized and artificial
induction of the disease would be reported, major
focus shall be needed on evaluation of large pool
of germplasm and use of the resistant germplasm
in the breeding program. Detailed studies on the
occurrence of disease in hybrids vis- a- vis varieties
are also needed. Another area of work which needs
attention is prediction or forecasting of the disease
occurrence for better management of the disease.
Focus is also required for overwintering of the
pathogen and spread of the disease especially in
Indian plains where the disease has become an
endemic. However, few varieties showing false smut
resistance have been reported till date, management
through fungicides only has been found effective in
managing false smut of rice at present. The disease
is presently managed only by prophylactic sprays of
selected fungicides. Among the fungicides tested,
triazole group of fungicides have been reported to
control false smut effectively. Other effective non-
chemical means of control including the use of bio-
control agents or plant products need to be explored.
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Review Article Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

The Kiwifruit Landscape: The Arunachal Pradesh Story

N D Singh, Divya Pandey, T S Mishra, M K Singh* and V K Misra
Krishi Vigyan Kendra- West Kameng, Sangti, Arunachal Pradesh
*Krishi Vigyan Kendra- East Kameng, Pampoli, Arunachal Pradesh

ABSTRACT
The kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis Patch) is a Horticulture wonder. In India Kiwi fruit is grown in mid hills
of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttrakhand, Sikkim, Meghalaya in sub-tropical regions lying
between 3000 -5500 ft. amsl. This fruit was introduced in Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh in 2000 on trial
basis as Dirang also fulfils the climatic condition. Since the climate and soil condition was found suitable
for Kiwi, farmers from Kalaktang, Tenzing Gaon, Rupa, Singchung, Nafra cultivate Kiwi and now it has
spread to other districts of Arunachal Pradesh in a large scale. The state Arunachal Pradesh is the leading
producer of Kiwifruit, in India and the crop can also be grown in others states for expansion provided a
favourable climate prevails. . Despite congenial climate and soil, the lack of quality planting material,
package of practices, modern technology and trained manpower are the major constraints in enhancing
the productivity of kiwifruits. The paper elucidates the major technologies developed for increased
productivity in kiwifruits. Keeping in view the constraints, KVK West Kameng and East Kameng have put
forward road maps for cultivation of Kiwifruits in Arunachal Pradesh. This paper also discusses about the
priority area, economic estimate and organic production to be studied for precision farming of Kiwifruit.
Key words: Kiwifruit, Arunachal Pradesh

INTRODUCTION horticulture industry. Fruits namely apple, pear,

plum, peach are grown semi commercially in
Kiwifruit was first introduced in India in 1963
(Rathore, 2001) in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh the North Eastern-Hill (NEH) states particularly
and later spread to other parts of the country. in Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Nagaland and
Introduction of Kiwifruit in Arunachal Pradesh isMeghalaya. It is oberved that Walnut, Pecan nut,
of recent and has assumed tremendous popularity Strawberry and Kiwifruit are also experiencing
and preference among the growers as well as under area expansion. The best suited tract for
apple and kiwi cultivation is in Arunachal Pradesh.
consumers due to its favourable properties for easy
maintenance and marketing besides having high The lack of quality planting material, package
of practices, modern technology and trained
nutritional and medicinal values. The Kiwifruit of
manpower are the major constraints in enhancing
the state has already attained commercial identity
the productivity of temperate fruits in general and
not only in the local markets but also in national
kiwi in particular. The technologies generated in
as well as international markets. This is the future
crop of the state which could provide sustenance Chaudhary Shravan Kumar HPAU, Palampur and Dr
to the economy of the rural masses and the state.Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry,
Diversification in any farming system provides Solan have been transferred with the co-operation
of scientists from Krishi Vigyan Kendra West
sustainability to the major occupation. Cultivation of
Kameng, State Departments of Horticulture and
minor temperate fruit crops can impart sustainability
farmer to farmer interaction facilitated by National
to the promotion of temperate horticulture venture.
Arunachal Pradesh has rich resources of soil Horticulture Board, Guargaon and Central Institute
and agro-climate making them an ideal region for of Horticulture (CIH) Medziphema, Nagaland. The

19
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
technologies available for the farming communities
in NEH, particularly in high hills of Arunachal
Pradesh for low chilling fruits such as Kiwi Fruit
are discussed in this paper. It is pertinent to mention
that recently kiwifruit has caught popularity
among the producers in Arunachal, Sikkim,
Nagaland, Manipur and Meghalaya. However, the
productivity of temperate fruits is low. Causes of
low productivity observed are selection of areas for
expansion in high hills and valleys having spring
frost and temperature fluctuations during flowering
time adversely affected fruits yield. Trees hardly
receive desired training and pruning resulting in
poor fruiting. Pollinizing varieties are insufficient
and disproportionate resulting in the lack of
pollination and fruit set. Lack of quality planting
material and technical knowhow have added serious
dimensions to productivity problems (Jindal,
2016a). Performance of fruit set, yield and different
attributes of kiwi fruit varieties under West Kameng
District of Arunachal Pradesh (Singh et al. 2012).
Team of experts has suggested priority activities
and Research and Development plans and Roadmap
for expansion of kiwifruit. Based on University
Roving Team for 2009-10, 2010-11, 2011-12 a road
Map for Kiwifruit cultivation in Arunachal Pradesh
suggests that to Asses the present status and future
scopes of Kiwifruit in the hills and mountains of
Arunachal Pradesh and analyze climate change
parameters and suggest R & D intervention areas
for successful commercial cultivation of kiwi in
suitable pockets. Kiwifruit has been a new crop
establishment in the state and has widely spread to
cultivate among the farmers. It is observed that more
than the excellent productivity the quality of Kiwi
fruit is like the Australian kiwifruits which fetches a
good demand in the international market. The fruit
is now getting its momentum in the temperate -
alpine zone, particularly in the rain shadow belts
of the state. The most promising locations for Kiwi
fruit cultivation in the state are in the Hills of West
Kameng, Tawang, Ziro, Anini, Upper reaches of
Anjaw, Upper Subansiri and Upper Siang.
20
About Kiwifruit and thrust areas of concern in
Kiwifruit Production
The Kiwifruit is a berry, oblong in shape with
brown skin similar to Sapota (Chikoo). The fruit
has a refreshing, delicate flavour, pleasing aroma
and high nutritive and medicinal values with low
calories. The centre of origin of Kiwifruit lies in
China and hence is crown as Chinese gooseberry.
It is grown well in the mid hills under moderate
to high rainfall conditions with a wide range of
adaptability having no serious pests and diseases.
The fruit ripens during October/ November which
is a lean period for other fruits in the market.
During this period rains stop and temperature slides
down providing less chance of road blockade and
spoilage thereby ensuring possibility of supply for
long periods without creating glut and fetching high
prices (Jindal, 2016b).
Precision Farming (Advanced Horticulture
Production Systems) In Kiwi Fruit
In general the precision farming of Kiwifruit
in Arunachal Pradesh require skill in training and
pruning, quality improvement of fruits besides
proper post-harvest management practices as major
attributes to sustain its cultivation to meet the
international standards.
Distance between plant to plant: 6 m and row to
row: 5 m
The transfer of technology on the improved
cultivation in production with main emphasis
on training and pruning will further enhance the
scope of kiwifruit in mid hills of other districts of
Arunachal Pradesh where other fruits have shown
declining trend in the recent past due to their
perishable nature and poor marketability. In order
to have high yield of quality fruit of Kiwi a training
manual with skill items is required for proper
training and pruning of Kiwifruit plants to boost
the productivity of quality fruits with international
marketing standards and grades.There are generally
two recognized support structure for kiwifruit, the
T-bar system and overhead pergola. T-bar system
is simple and cheaper to establish under the state
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Figure:1 Plantation design for Male and Female combination of Kiwi garden:
F F F F F F F F F F F F
F M F F M F F M F F M F
F F F F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F F F F
F M F F M F F M F F M F
F F F F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F F F F
F M F F M F F M F F M F
F F F F F F F F F F F F
conditions. Overall yield may be lower, but this may 4. Heading back of old shoots will not yield fruit in
be compensated by easier management manually the current season.
and earlier attainment of full cropping potential. On 5. The buds on basal end are smaller initially but
the contrary pergola system though gives complete get developed in fruiting buds/flowers where as
cover with leaves and fruit, but little light penetration such buds do not exist in upper side of the shoots.
lower side and reduction in cultural operations. In Keeping in view all above points, pruning is done
this system the plant will have no damages due to in such a way that fruiting shoots are encouraged
wind. However, it is more expensive to construct and every year. For ensuring this, after 3-4 years lateral
needs more labour to maintain. It may also reduce replacement system is followed where in basal
access for bees and rotting may be a problem. Some shoots coming out of main branch need to be headed
of the pergola system observed in present studies back so that these produce 4-5 fruiting shoots with
are not properly laid out for want of more inputs. 4-5 buds/internodes. The fast growing vegetative
Hence, T-bar system is more efficient and workable shoots which are sometimes criss-crossing should
in the state.As stated above the objective of pruning be removed in summer. The fruiting shoots need to
is to strike a balance between vegetative growth be tripped off in summer. There are two timings of
and reproductive fruiting growth so as to get fruit pruning viz., winter and summer.
every year with better quality. In kiwifruit plants,
the fruits are borne on current season growth is out(a) Winter Pruning: In dormant winter pruning,
of one year old shoots. Normally 4 to 10 buds from the fruiting laterals are cut book to vegetative
the base will bear fruiting. More vigorous shoots lands beyond the last fruit. In the second year these
later on will twin disrupting air and light. These vegetative lands produce the fruiting shoots, which
inter twining shoots need to be cut back or pinched is pruned again. The arms on lateral shoots are
pruned and allowed to fruit for 3-4 years. After this
off during summer little away for the fruiting nodes.
the lateral is removed from the main branch and
Precautions during pruning required: other laterals are selected and pruned accordingly
1. Fruiting occurs on current reason shoots coming so that balance between vegetative and reproductive
out of last year growth. growth is maintained for the continuity in the fruit
2. Only 4-10 buds producing shoots from the base production. In Hayward variety, buds are kept more
will bear fruits. during pruning so as to have more fruiting shoots as
this variety is shy bearer. In first year the shoots do
3. Annual growth of shoots is normally left up to 3 not bear fruits but later on 4-6 buds are maintained
meters, while excessive shoot growth will produce to have more sustainable fruiting.
twinning shoots which are required to be removed
in summer and winter pruning.
21
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

(b) Summer Pruning: It is generally practiced (e) Concept of hand thinning and use of bio
only to maintain proper food supply to growing stimulants to increase fruit size is nonexistent
fruits and allow proper aeration and light, so as
to encourage heavy fruiting on shoots. In summer Strategies for the adoption of Precision farming
pruning, shoots with 6-8 buds beyond fruiting in Kiwifruits
area are headed back. The main purpose is check A. Introduction, evaluation and mass
shading, removal of twining and crossing branches. multiplication of suitable varieties which can
The pruning wood is used for preparation of semi- bear biotic and abiotic stress:
soft wood cuttings for propagation. The orchards in West Kameng have mainly the
varieties like Allison, Bruno and Monty. However,
Yearly production and Constraints in Kiwifruit the variety Hayward isfound to be scarce and now
cultivation it is introduced widely under Technology mission.
Though the farmers face several constraints
in cultivating Kiwifruit it is remunerative and the B. Training and pruning in kiwi is very crucial
yearly production and income /plant is presented in in regulating the vegetative growth and fruiting:
the table 1 as below. The technique of trellis on T-bar is very scientific and
needs precise practice to be performed by farmers
There are in general several constraints in the so as to have maximum fruiting wood. The farmers
cultivation of kiwifruits and some of them are as should possess skills to perform the activitity.
follows:
(a) Lack of genetically superior planting material. C. Crop and Quality regulation of kiwifruits:
(b) High cost of plantation whole establishment. All cultivars of kiwifruit except Hayward bear
heavy crop every year. The heavy crop creates a
(c) Lack of standardized techniques of cultivation severe competition between fruits for nutrients
like pruning cum training. and water which leads to production of small size
(d) Lack of use of proper proportion of pollinizers, fruits. Poor management practices, improper ratio
practice of hand pollination of pollinizers, their placement in plantations also

Table 1: Yearly Production and gross income per plant:

Age Production ( Kg/plant) Return ( Amount @ Rs. 60/Kg)
1st and 2nd Year Nil Nil
3rd Year 1 60
4th Year 3 180
5th Year 20 1200
6th Year 40 2400
8th Year 50 4000
9th Year 60 3600
10th Year 70-80 4200 – 4800
11th – 25th Year 60-70 3600-4200
25th – 30th Year 50-60 ( mostly B & C Grade) 2500- 3000
35th - 40th Year Decline in productivity <2000
After 40th Year Need total replacement Unproductive

22
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

contribute to small fruits. Therefore to increase and later at higher attributes. The fruits are harvested
quality kiwi crop of good size hand thinning is when they are still hand. In mid hills (1200-1500
essential. The studies conducted in thinning of meter) the fruits mature in first week of November
fruits to 4-6 fruits per bunch immediately after fruits while at lower elevation mature in mid October to
set and treatment with CPPU biostimulant/ plant last week of October (Table 2).
growth promoter standardized by Dr. Y.S. Parmar
University of Horticulture & Forestry Nauni, Solan G. Storage:
need to be replicated in kiwi orchards. Since the fruits are harvested hard, can be kept in
cool place without refrigeration up to 6-8 weeks. It
D. Improvement for propagation and quality can be stored for about 4 months in a cold storage
work in Kiwi using biotechnological tools: at 0oC with 80-90% RH, provided sugar percentage
Quality production of planting material of Kiwifruit at harvest in less than 8 per cent, the best being 6.5
through improved propagation technologies and per cent.
improvement of fruit growth by plant hormones.
H. Grading:
E. Guidelines for Crop and Quality Regulation As per Indian standards we need to grade fruit on
(Hand Thinning): the basis of fruit weight to ensure better national
All the cultivars of kiwifruit except Hayward and international market. For international markets
bear heavily every year. This heavy crop creates a minimum size should be 100 gms under Arunachal
severe competition between the fruits for water and conditions were rainfall is plenty during growth can
nutrient material which leads to production of small have added advantage.
sized fruits. Therefore to harvest quality fruits hand
Sr. No. Grade Weight of Fruit
thinning of small fruits is essential to the extent of
retaining 5-6 fruits per bunch or flowering shoot 1. A More than 100 gm
will produce more ‘A’ grade fruits without having 2. B 60-100 gm
any adverse effect on total quality yield. 3. C Less than 60 gm
F. Maturity Harvesting and Storage: I. Emphasis on Organic Farming: Organic
In Kiwifruits determination of optimum harvest farming is sustainable crop and soil management
maturity is difficult as there is no perceptible practice, especially for the small and marginal hill
change in colour of skin of flesh of fruit at the time farmers. The farmers of the region are generally the
of maturity. A maturity index of 65oBrix TSS to locally available organic materials in their cropping
8.0oBrix is considered satisfactory for fruit harvest. system. Therefore there is a need for standardization
The harvesting period varies from area to area and of doses different organic fertilizers. The emphasis
varieties. The fruits mature earlier at low altitudes should be given on the use of locally available

Table2: Time of Harvesting of Kiwi in Mid Hill (1200-1500 m) of different varieties

Sr. No. Variety Days from flowering to fruiting (days) Time of Harvest
1. Allison 188-195 4-6 November
2. Abbot 192-200 7-12 November
3. Bruno 190-199 1-3 November
4. Monty 189-197 6-10 November
5. Hayward 194-202 15-20 November

23
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
organic materials up to the maximum extent.
Although Kiwifruit production does not involve Rathore D S. 2001. Kiwi Fruit Production: Present Status and
major diseases and pests, the use of botanicals
to control incest pest and diseases should be
encouraged. Although, Arunachal Pradesh is termed
Jindal K K. 2015. Potential and strategies for production of
as organic by default, yet some farmers in the West
Kameng district have been striving hard to produce
organic Kiwifruit.
CONCLUSION
Arunachal Pradesh located in the eastern Sub-
Himalayan ranges has huge unexplored land under
temperate climatewith a potential to promote of
Kiwifruits. It is strongly recommended that Kiwifruit
production should be taken up in commercial scale
in all parts of the state. The basic requirements
of development like appropriate self-reliant
technology, infrastructure and techno physical
marketing facilities are addressed in a mission mode
with long term vision with the active participation
of Horticulture Technology Mission supported
by Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and
Farmers Welfare Ministry of Agriculture Govt. of
India, Central Institute of Horticulture, Dimapur,
and Directorate of Agriculture & Horticulture,
Government of Arunachal Pradesh. The Kiwifruit
could be developed into a vital industry for
sustainable economy of hilly region for rural
people in particular of Arunachal Pradesh for their
livelihoods and export to neighbouring states.
24
REFERENCES
Future Prospects, In: Productivity of Temperate Fruits –
Issues and Strategies” (ed. K. K. Jindal, D. R. Gautam),
ICAR-UHF Publications, pp. 355-364.
higher productivity and quality temperate fruits and
nuts in North-Eastern regions, Proceedings of “National
Conference on Temperate Fruits and Nuts- A Way
Forward for Enhancing Productivity and Quality”, held
at CITH Srinagar, Nov pp. 43-66.
Jindal K K and Dilip Singh R K. 2015. Low Chilling Temperate
Fruits for Sub-Tropical and Tropical Zones of North East
States, Proceedings of “International Symposium on Next
Generation Approaches for Sustainable Development of
Hill and Upland Horticulture”, held at Sikkim University
Gangtok, pp. 43-46.
Jindal K K. 2016a. Prospects and Strategies for Production
of Higher Quality And Productivity of Temperate Fruits
- With Special Reference to Arunachal Pradesh And
Sikkim States of North-East, Proceedings of “National
Conference on Horticulture in North Eastern Region”
(Souvenir, ed. A. K. Pandey et al), held at CAU Pasighat,
pp. 56-58.
Jindal K K. 2016 b. Possibilities and Strategies in Temperate
Fruits Production with Special Reference to Precision
Farming in Kiwi Fruit Production in North East States
(Case Study of Sikkim and Arunachal),” Proceedings
of “National Seminar on Integrated Development of
Horticulture in Sub-Tropical & Hill Region”, held at HRS
Kahikuchi Guwahati organized by CIH Medziphema
Nagaland and Assam Agriculture University, pp. 120.
Singh N D, Mishra T S and Singh A K. 2012. Performance
of fruit set, yield and different attributes of kiwi fruit
varieties under West Kameng District of Arunachal
Pradesh. J Krishi Vigyan 1(1):58-60.
Review Article Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Organic Nutrition Management in Papaya- A Review

Bindu, B
Krishi Vigyan Kendra- Kollam, Kerala Agricultural University, Kerala
Corresponding Author: drbindusanthosh @gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Papaya as afruit has gained popularity in the rcent past due to its nutraceutical properties. Considering its
health benefits, it is essentially important to cultivate papaya organically in order to add quality. Due to the
increasing popularity of the crop, progressive farmers have started its commercial cultivation. Reluctance in
giving proper care and scientific management has resulted in decrease in fruit size, quality and yield. Adoption
of suitable organic nutrient management measures and care to the plant will lead to an increase in fruit yield
and quality. Papaya is a heavy feeder and it demands nutrients continuously in large amounts. Use of large
quantity of chemical fertilizers is not feasible as it results in progressive rise in nutrient deficiencies, nutrient
imbalance, deteriorating soil health and productivity over time, hence, organic farming is the best known
alternative. A number of studies conducted on organic farming indicated that quality of agriculture produce is
better than inorganically grown produce. In addition, there has emerged niche markets for organically produced
fruits especially in urban areas where consumers are ready to pay premium price. Studies also indicated that
use of organic fertilizers and bio inoculants has increased the growth and yield of papaya plants. Keeping
this in view, an attempt had been made to review the works done on organic nutrient management in papaya.
Key Words: Papaya, organic manures, growth, yield, quality,

INTRODUCTION health benefits, it is essentially important to cultivate

Papaya Carica papaya L., an important
tropical fruit crop has gained popularity due to
its nutraceutical properties and consumed widely.
Young leaves are rich in flavonoids (kaempferol and
myricetin), alkaloids (carpaine, pseudocarpaine,
dehydrocarpaine I and II), phenolic compounds
(ferulic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid), the
cynogenetic compounds (benzylglucosinolate).
Both leaf and fruit of papaya possess carotenoids viz.,
β- carotene, lycopene, anthraquinones glycoside,
as compared to matured leaves. Hence the fruit
possess medicinal properties like anti-inflammatory
hypoglycaemic, anti-fertility, abortifacient,
hepatoprotective, wound healing, recently its anti
hypertensive and anti tumor activities have also
been established. Leaves being an important part of
several traditional formulations are undertaken for
standardization for various parameters like moisture
content, extractive values, ash values, swelling
index, etc ( Anjum et al., 2013). Considering its
papaya organically in order to add on its quality.
In Kerala, due to the increasing popularity of the
crop, progressive farmers had started commercial
cultivation of this fruit. . Reluctance in giving
proper care and scientific management has resulted
in decrease in fruit size, quality and yield. Adoption
of suitable organic nutrient management measures
and care to the plant will lead to an increase in fruit
yield and quality. Papaya is a heavy feeder and it
demands nutrients continuously in large amounts.
Use of large quantity of chemical fertilizers is not
feasible as it results in progressive rise in nutrient
deficiencies, nutrient imbalance, deteriorating soil
health and productivity over time, therefore organic
farming is the best known alternative. A number
of studies conducted on organic farming indicated
that quality of agriculture produce is better than
inorganically grown produce. Although organic
manures contains plant nutrients in small quantities
compared to chemical fertilizers, they have a

25
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
positive influence in building up of organic matter,
soil microbes, soil properties such as aggregation,
permeability and related physical properties. Studies
also indicate that use of bio inoculants like PGPR
and AMF has increased the growth and yield of
papaya plants. In addition, there has emerged niche
markets for organically produced fruits especially
in urban areas where consumers are ready to pay
premium price for the same.
Organic farming has been the outcome of
concerns relating to the increased contamination
of food and consequent negative effect on human
health. The present vision of the Government of
Kerala is to switch over to organic agriculture. Since
several decades chemical fertilizers have played a
crucial role in boosting the agricultural production,
however they have a short history in modern
agriculture. Their toxic effects on environment,
plant, animal and human life diverted the focus on
ecofriendly management. Biopesticides are also
become important components of the Inetegrated
Pest Management (IPM). Very specifically, this
paper deals with the developments in organic
nutrient management in the fruit crop of Payapa
which has a direct bearing on the quality.
Influence of organic manures in seedling growth
Papaya seedlings grown on media composed of
FYM, mushroom compost and rice hull compost
contained high concentration of nutrients (Yifong,
1996). Gomez et al (2003) noted that substrate
containing 25-100 per cent hog manure was best
for papaya seedling production. Yamanishi et al
(2004) recorded higher germination rate in papaya
variety Solo in the growth medium fertilized with
composted cattle manure and humus. Seedling
growth, plant height , number of leaves and root
dry matter were higher when papaya seedlings
were grown in 1:1:1:1:2 cow manure : coffee peel:
vegetable coal: sand : soil (Mendonea et al, 2004
; Mendonea et al, 2005; Mendonea et al, 2006 ).
Araujo et al (2010) suggested the use of substrate
composed of goat manure, soil and plantmax for
efficient growth of papaya seedlings.
26
Influence of organic manures on plant growth
and yield
In a study on organic farming of papaya,
Ravishankar et al (2010) reported that growth
and yield characters as influenced by organic
manures were on par with recommended dose of
NPK fertilizers (250:250:500g NPK plant-1 year-
1). According to Shijini (2010) application of
recommended dose of fertilizers (240:240:480
g NPK plant-1 year-1) and vermicompost along
with Trichoderma and Pseudomonas exhibited
superiority in terms of vegetative and floral
characters and recorded highest fruit yield in
papaya cv.CO-7. Shivakumar et al (2012) noted that
application of farm yard manure equivalent to 100
per cent recommended dose of nitrogen resulted in
higher fruit yield in papaya cv. Surya and the B:C
ratio was highest with the use of organic manures
as against the application of chemical fertilizers
in papaya.Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
are able to colonise the root surface, survive and
multiply in microhabitats associated with the root
surface, in competition with native microbiota;
at least to express their plant promotion activities
(Kloepper, 1994). Their positive effects on plant
growth and development and growth of seedlings
are well established in papaya. papaya growth
can be improved when it is inoculated with AMF
(Vega, 1995; Balakrishna and Bararaj, 1996;
Trindade et al, 2001). PGPR single inoculation or
in combination with AMF favours papaya growth
during the nursery phase (Alarcón et al., 2002).
Singh et al (2007) obtained an increase in
plant height and girth in VAM inoculated papaya
variety Coorg Honey Dew .Use of 75 per cent RDF
in combination with Azospirillum, VAM and PSB
produced highest fruit yield in papaya (Mitra and
Tarafdar, 2008). Ray et al (2008) reported highest
fruit yield in papaya variety Surya when 100 per
cent RDF was applied along with VAM (50 g),
PSB (25g) and Azospirillum (50) g per plant.
Application of full dose of NPK and 10g VAM per
plant promoted plant growth, advanced flowering
and improved fruit quality and yield (Prakash et al,
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
2008). Akinyemi and Akande (2008) studied the
effect of organic manures on growth and yield of
papaya and reported that morphological characters
like stem girth, leaf area and days to first flowering
was better with organic fertilizers and gave a higher
fruit yield of 83.5 t per ha per year. Mendonea et
al (2006) opined that the application of 40 per cent
organic compost and 10 kg single super phosphate
was optimum for the growth of papaya seedlings.
Use of fermented organic matter in the substrate
for the production of papaya seedlings showed a
positive effect on the precocity and plant height
(Hafle et al, 2009). Chagas et al (2000) compared
the yield of papaya under organic (50.4 fruits per
plant) and conventional production system (37.2
fruits per plant). Significant increase in fruit yield
was reported when papaya was grown organically
(Martelleto et al, 2008). According to Ray et al
(2008) application of organic manures registered
significantly lower number of fruits compared to
the plants receiving inorganic fertilizers in papaya
variety Pusa Delicious. Hossain et al (1990)
reported that in papaya highest number of fruits per
plant was obtained when decomposed compost was
used as manure. Highest fruit yield was obtained
when cowdung along with mustard oil cake was
given to papaya plants.
Influence of organic manures on fruit quality
Application of 20 kg farm yard manure plant-1
recorded the maximum total soluble solids, total
sugar and the least value of titrable acidity as
compared to intensive farming with chemical
fertilizers in papaya cv.Coorg Honey Dew
(Ravishankar and Karunakaran, 2008). Application
of organic manures improved the yield and quality
of papaya fruits (Xianghong et al, 2006). Hossain
et al (1990) noted that in papaya highest total and
reducing sugar was obtained when cowdung along
with mustard oil cake was given to papaya plants.
Mesquita et al (2007) reported the positive effects
of bovine biofertilizers in increasing fruit yield and
quality of papaya.
Influence of organic manures in available
nutrients in soils
Increase in available micronutrient status of
soil in organically treated plots was noticed by
Sharma et al (2001) and there was a reduction in
micronutrient content in the treatments receiving
only inorganic fertilizers. Organic carbon present
in the soil is an indication of organic matter in
the soil. Rajasree et al (2005) noted an increase in
soil organic carbon with application of farm yard
manure. Beneficial effects of humic substances and
steady mineralization of organic nitrogen available
in organic substances was reported in papaya
orchards of variety C0-6 (Rani, 1995). The addition
of organic mulches and organic manures have
shown to have beneficial effects on plant growth
through the supply of nutrients, by improving
soil structure and by addition or stimulation of
microorganisms that are antagonistic to soil borne
pathogens (Rebeiro and Linderman, 1991; Aryantha
et al, 2000). Addition of organic manure had a
significantly greater effect on enzyme activities
and microbial populations, therefore the addition
of organic manure is advisable to obtain maximum
benefits to the soils (Tiwari, 1996). Papaya responds
well to the incorporation of organic compost, which
improves the physical chemical and biological
conditions of the soil (Oliveira et al, 2004). Organic
matter content of soil was seemed to be increased
in organic papaya plots (Akinyemi and Akande,
2008). Different organic manure treatment gave
significantly higher microbial population (bacteria
, fungi and actinomycetes) and enzymatic activities
in soil and application of FYM 20kg per plant is
best for improving soil quality (Ravishankar et al
, 2008)
Influence of organic manures on plant nutrient
content
Calcium concentration was highest in papaya
leaves treated with organic fertilizers and Boron
in leaves treated with organic fertilizers. It was
observed that the fruits that are rich in Calcium are
more resistant to mechanical injury and post harvest
losses (Rajkumar et al, 2005).
27
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Table 1. Effect of different biocontrol agents application in papaya

Variety Biocontrol agent Effect Reference
Maradol Roja Trichoderma sp Seventy percent germination and Santana et al (2002)
best seedling growth
Solo Trichoderma sp Increase in seed germination Amiri et al ( 2008)
Solo Pseudomonas fluorescens Reduces the foot rot Samiyappan (2008)
and Trichoderma viride
Ranchi Azotobacter, Azospiril- Increased plant height, plant Dutta et al ( 2008)
lum and AMF girth and number of fruits, max-
imum TSS, total sugar and caro-
tene content in papaya
Pusa Delicious AMF Increased stem girth, early flow- Prakash et al (2010)
ering and increased number of
fruits per plant and fruit yield in
papaya

Application of Biocontrol agents 40 kg of N/ acre. The biofertilizer maintain the soil

Soil inoculation with Trichoderma gave 70
per cent germination and best seedling growth
in papaya cv. Maradol Roja (Santana et al, 2002)
(Table 1). An improvement in seed germination of
papaya cv. Solo was noticed by Amiri et al (2008)
when Trichoderma was applied in potting media
and produced healthy and disease free seedlings.
According to Samiyappan (2008), soil application
of Pseudomonas fluorescens and Trichoderma
viride mixed in well decomposed farm yard manure
around the root zone reduces the foot rot of papaya.
Biofertilizer application
Indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides
contributed in loss of soil productivity along with
addition of salts to the soil (Khan et al, 2000). To
revive the soil health and living on alternate source
has become essential concept of biofertilizer came
forward, which can be a good supplement for a
chemical fertilizers, Biofertilizers are nutrient
availability systems in which biological process
are involved. Biofertilizer is a cost effective, eco-
friendly and renewable source of land nutrient, they
play a vital role in maintaining a long term soil
fertility and sustainability. The biofertilizer with
nitrogen fixer and phosphate solubilizer fixes 20-
fertility cost by using in the yield is assured with
biofertilizer and continuous use of biofertilizer
makes the soil very fertile for good yield. It can
be manufactured in soil form or in liquid form for
spraying on the plants. Biopesticide and biofertilizer
is a need of modern agriculture since demand for
safe and residue free food is increasing (Shetty et
al, 2005). Application of the microbial biofertilizer
is an important step in the biofertilizer technology.
If the microbial inoculant is not applied properly,
the benefits from the biofertilizer may not be
obtained. Microbial inoculants must be applied in
such a way that the bacteria will be adhered with
the root surface. So in case of transplanting crops,
the inoculant are applied through roots, and in
case of the crops in which seeds are sown directly
in the field, the inoculants are applied through the
seeds so that they can colonize in the rhizosphere
region when the young roots are emerged. The use
of growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) is a
promising solution for sustainable, environmentally
friendly agriculture (Li et al, 2011 ). PGPR control
the damage to plants from phytopathogens and
promote the plant growth by a number of different
mechanisms. Successful colonization on or around
the host plant is the precondition for their effective

28
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
functions. Alarcon et al (2002) studied the short
term effect of mycorrhiza and PGPR on growth and
root acid phosphatase productivity of papaya and
found that, inoculated plants had greater dry matter
and leaf area than non inoculated plants. Dutta et al
(2008) claimed that application of 2 kg farm yard
manure along with Azotobacter, Azospirillum and
AMF resulted in maximum plant height, plant girth
and number of fruits, maximum TSS, total sugar
and carotene content in papaya cv. Ranchi. Shing
et al. (2008) reported a positive correlation between
organic matter content and microbial diversity in
the soil under papaya cultivation.
Due to inoculation of AMF, Glomus mosseae in
papaya N P K and micronutrient (Fe, Mn, Zn and
Cu) content of petiole was significantly increased
(Kennedy and Rangarajan, 2001). According to
Khade and Rodrigues (2009), AMF application in
papaya significantly increased plant height, stem
girth, leaf area and root length. Glomus mosseae was
the most effective species of Arbuscular mycorrhizal
fungi, recording highest root colonization and
exerting profound influence on growth of papaya.
In another study it was showed that application of
full dose of NPK along with 10g AMF registered
more stem girth, early flowering and increased
number of fruits per plant and fruit yield in papaya
(Prakash et al, 2010).
Effect of biocontrol agent application in disease,
pest incidence and tolerance to stress
Papaya is susceptible to the Meloidogyne
species and so this nematode can become an
important limitation in papaya production in dry
subtropical conditions (Singh and Nath, 1996).
Apart from the typical symptoms in root tissues (gall
formation), nematode infection of papaya leads to a
deficient plant development, higher susceptibility
to different stresses, significant growth suppression
and reduction in fruit yield (Ramakrishnan and
Rajendran, 1998). Meloidogyne infection was
significantly reduced in mycorrhizal plants of
papaya (Vega et al, 2006). Beneficial rhizospheric
microbe plant interactions have a great influence on
plant health and soil quality. Among these beneficial
rhizospheric microbes, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
(AMF) and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria
(PGPR) can be considered. Mycorrhizae may also
increase plant tolerance to stress conditions such
as salinity (Safir, 1994), drought (Requena et al,
2004), heavy metals (Hetrick et al, 1994), root
soilborne pathogens (Aguilar et al, 2004 ) and the
improvement of soil structure (Barea et al, 1997)
CONCLUSION
Organic farming has been the outcome of
concerns relating to the increased contamination
of food and consequent negative effect on human
health. In papaya growth and yield characters as
influenced by organic manures were on par with
recommended dose of NPK fertilizers. Plant growth-
promoting rhizobacteria are able to colonise the
root surface, survive and multiply in microhabitats
associated with the root surface, in competition with
native microbiota; at least to express their plant
promotion activities. Their positive effects on plant
growth and development and growth of seedlings
are well established in papaya. Reports also showed
that an increase in plant height and girth was
observed in VAM inoculated papaya plants. Due
to inoculation of AMF, Glomus mosseae in papaya
N P K and micronutrient like Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu
content of petiole was significantly increased. AMF
application in papaya also significantly increased
plant height, stem girth, leaf area and root length.
Glomus mosseae was the most effective species of
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, recording highest
root colonization and exerting profound influence
on growth of papaya. Application of farm yard
manure in papaya recorded the maximum total
soluble solids, total sugar and the least value of
titrable acidity as compared to intensive farming
with chemical fertilizers. An increase in available
micronutrient status of soil in organically treated
plots was noticed and there was a reduction in
micronutrient content in the treatments receiving
only inorganic fertilizers. Organic carbon present in
the soil is an indication of organic matter in the soil.
29
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
There was an increase in soil organic carbon with
application of farm yard manure. Beneficial effects
of humic substances and steady mineralization of
organic nitrogen available in organic substances
was also reported in papaya orchards. The addition
of organic mulches and organic manures had
beneficial effects on plant growth through the
supply of nutrients, by improving soil structure and
by addition or stimulation of microorganisms that
are antagonistic to soil borne pathogens. It also had
a significantly greater effect on enzyme activities
and microbial population, therefore the addition of
organic manure is advisable to obtain maximum
benefits to the soils. Papaya responds well to the
incorporation of organic compost, which improves
the physical chemical and biological conditions
of the soil. Different organic manure treatment
gave significantly higher microbial population like
bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes and enzymatic
activities in soil. The above review will provide
information and knowledge to policy makers and
extension workers to develop a suitable organic
nutrient package for papaya.
REFERENCES
Akinyemi SO S and Akande M O. 2008. Effect of organic
and inorganic fertilizers on growth and yield of papaya.
Abstracts, Second International Symposium on Papaya;
9-12, Madurai, pp. 96.
Aguilar C, Vega C and Calvet C. 2004. The contribution
of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to the control of soil-
borne plant pathogens. In: Mycorrhizal technology in
agriculture: from genes to bioproducts.(eds Gianinazzi S,
Schüepp H, Barea J M and Haselwandter K) Switzerland.
Pp: 187–197.
Alarcón A , Davies F T, Egilla J N , Fox T C, Luna A A
and Cerrato R. 2002.Short term effects of Glomus
claroideum and Azospirillum brasilense on growth and
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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Poultry carcass meal as an unconventional protein source in

feeding of goat kids
Kotresh Prasad C1, John Abraham2, Barman D1, Mahanthesh M T1,
Girish Panchbhai1, Maneesh Ahirwar1
2Assistant Professor, Department of Livestock Production and Management
College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Pookode, Wayanad, Kerala
1Ph.D. Scholars, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal – 132001 (Haryana)

ABSTRACT
Creep feeding may not always be economical in kids, especially on farms where high quality and
quantity of forage is available. It is, therefore, important to pay close attention to feed price, weight gains
and the market value of the additional weight gained. The prices of conventional feed ingredients are
increasing at the same time the vast availability of crop residues and un-conventional feed ingredients
can be used for formulating economic ration without adversely affecting health and productivity of
livestock. The animal protein meal which is commonly incorporated in the feeds of livestock includes
meat meal made from poultry, cattle and sheep carcasses and blood meal. Poultry carcass meal is a
sterile and economic unconventional feed source, which can be incorporated in the feed of ruminants
replacing costly conventional protein sources. Carcass meal feeding can be recommended to improve
the body weight gains of Malabari kids during the pre-weaning period without any ill effects on health.
Keywords: Poultry carcass meal, goat feeding.

INTRODUCTION
The Indian poultry farming scenario has shown
an unprecedented transformation among all other
animal husbandry sectors into a fast growing
commercial poultry industry in the last two decades.
From about ‘0’ during 1950’s, the number of
commercial layers increased to 510 million in the
year 2012 (Report, 2014). An absolute fascinating
growth was seen in the broiler industry with 3000
million birds at present compared to a meagre 20 dead birds (about 8000 Kg of carcass) available
million birds in 1960’s (Mehta and Nambiar, 2010). per day for disposal. As such, this huge quantity
India is 3rd largest egg producer in the world and of dead birds, unless disposed of properly pose a
5th among the chicken producing countries (BAHS, catastrophic threat to the environment and may
2016). result in major health hazards to human as well as
livestock in the wake of emerging diseases. Among
The Namakkal district of Tamil Nadu has 1001 the different bio-secure and sanitary disposal
poultry farms having a stocking density ranging methods, rendering is an excellent way to recycle
from 50,000 to 7, 00000 birds per farm (Ananth, a troublesome waste material (dead birds) into a
2011). The overall daily mortality rates in these good feed ingredient. The end products are carcass
farms were recorded as 0.03 per cent (Sivakumar, meal and rendered chicken oil. Carcass meal can be
2006). The normal mortality (due to physical used as feed ingredient and fertilizer. Conversion
causes) in these farms account for about 6000 of rendered chicken oil into biodiesel may open

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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

new vistas for generating wealth from waste for progresses. It is particularly used in intensive goat
poultry farmer besides controlling the major havoc production systems where early weaning of kids is
of environmental pollution (John, 2012). practiced. Creep feed also influence factors such
as season of kidding, type of births and type of kid
Biodiesel production: production. Creep feed is necessary for anatomical
Dry rendering is a bio safe method of utilization and physiological maturation of gastro-intestinal
of dead poultry birds where the end products are tract and helps to improve the growth (ICAR, 2013).
carcass meal and Rendered Chicken Oil (RCO).
Conversion of RCO into biodiesel may open new Effect of creep feeding on the growth performance
vistas for generating wealth from waste for poultry of kids
farmer besides controlling the major havoc of Mowlem (1992) stated that kids weaned at an
environmental pollution caused by the unscientific early age will not undergo a post-weaning shock,
disposal of dead carcass. Therefore, a study was provided their DM intake is sufficient. Creep fed
carried out to assess the utilization of dead poultry kids will have greater daily weight gain because
birds for the production of biodiesel (John, 2012). the supplementation of nutrients is more efficient
at this stage of growth. The effect is more evident
Creep feeding in kids in twins and triplets compared to single litter. Kids
Twins and triplets are common among Malabari will reach the target market weight at an earlier age,
goats. The competition for milk between the kids which has a positive effect on net profit. Creep
generally restrict the maximum growth of kids in feed helps to reduce the stress related to weaning
the pre-weaning period. Creep feeding is a simple by making the transition from milk to a dry diet
method of providing high-quality supplemental much effectively. Kids already trained on creep
feedstuffs to nursing kids. Pre-weaning growth feeds are much easier to wean at an early age
mainly depends on the nutrition of the kids from without stress. Early weaning of creep fed kids
dam’s milk and creep feeding. allows the dam to utilize nutrients for reproductive
“The practice of self-feeding easily digestible functions, thereby facilitating early rebreeding and
concentrate feed which contain 17% Crude Protein reduces body weight loss of does during lactation.
(CP) and 70% Total Digestible Nutrient (TDN) to An increased body condition of dams will improve
young kids to meet the nutrient requirements of kids conception rate. Creep feeding as a management
as per ICAR feeding standards, while still nursed tool is alternate not only for increased growth rate,
by the dam in a separate enclosure which cannot be but also for the economic gain of early weaning and
accessed to the dam is called creep feeding”. Along less days to market weight (De Villiers et al, 1993).
with natural suckling and grazing, kids also receive Creep feeding has several possible advantages,
additional nutrients to make up for any shortfalls in such as the earlier development of the rumen and
intake. The kids receive supplemental feed through an increase in the utilization of feed resulting in a
an opening in a fence known as a “creep that is higher weaning weight (Coetzee, 2011). Increasing
large to allow the entry of kid but small for their the concentrate feed in meat-goat diets results in
dams (Alcock, 2006). Feed supplement will elicit increased live-body weights, and also helps to
an increased growth response mainly because extra increase the carcass weights with more muscling
nutrients are available beyond the requirements of (Urge et al., 2004; Haddad, 2005). Singh et al.
maintenance. (1984) reported that under fat lamb production
Creep feeding allows the kids to have access to system, add-libitum creep mixture feeding promote
supplemental feed while suckling, thereby making faster rate of growth (Average Daily Gain [ADG]
up for the inevitable drop in milk intake as lactation of 140g) during pre-weaning phase, which could

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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

be considered optimum. Average performance John and Ramesh (2014) studied the effect of
increase of 90 g/day has been observed in lambs two methods of fat extraction on the proximate
supplemented daily with concentrate of 20 g/kg of composition of poultry carcass meal and observed
body weight (BW) (Carvalhoet al., 2007). that carcass meal obtained from centrifugal fat
extraction contain moisture 8.88 ± 0.06%, Crude
Nutrient composition of poultry carcass meal Protein 61.96 ± 0.60%, Ether Extract 10.93 ±
Bohnertet al. (1996) and Lapiere and Lobley 0.26%, Crude Fiber 0.67 ± 0.18%, Nitrogen Free
(2001) reported that broiler meat meal has 57.45% Extract 5.12 ± 0.59%, total ash 12.44 ± 0.58% and
RUP. This level was related to the thermal treatment meal obtained by solvent extraction method contain
with steam which removes moisture, allowes lipids moisture 6.92 ± 0.14%, Crude Protein 71.23 ± 0.75
extraction, and increased Rumen Un-degradable %, Ether Extract 0.83 ± 0.02%, Crude Fiber 0.95 ±
Protein.Kulkarni et al. (2006) reported that the 0.04%, Nitrogen Free Extract 8.70 ± 0.64%, total
poultry carcass meal had a proximate composition ash 11.37 ± 0.41%.
of 8.5% moisture, 60.9% crude protein, 0.54%
crude fibre, 10% ether extract, 0.71% sand and Prohibition of meat and bone meal in livestock
silica, 13.16% total ash, 0.53% salt, 3.63% calcium feeding
and 2.15% phosphorous. The dry rendered spent The Mexican laws, Official Mexican Norm:
hen meal contained moisture, crude protein, ether NOM-060-ZOO-1999 (SAGARPA, 1999), allows
extract, crude fiber, TA, Ca and P as 5.47, 72.12, the utilization of meals of only non-ruminant animal
9.52, 0.23, 12.34, 3.38 and 2.15% respectively origin for ruminant feeding and only if the feeds
(Karthik, 2007). Also, Rajendra Kumar (2009) are produced in areas that adhere to production
studied the proximate composition of spent hen conditions stipulated by the mentioned norm,
meal and reported that the moisture, crude protein, which states that poultry by-product meal used for
ether extract, total ash, phosphorous, calcium and ruminant feeding must receive thermal processing.
NFE were 8.9, 62.24, 10.91, 0.74, 12.05, 3.54, 1.58 Some jurisdiction limit the use of animal protein
and 14.07% respectively. meal in animal food because they might be a vector
Table 1. Composition of Poultry carcass meal as obtained by different scientists
Item DM CP CF EE NFE Ash Ca P Reference
Poultry car- 91.50 60.90 0.54 10.00 - 13.16 3.63 2.15 Kulkarni et
cass meal al. (2006)
Dry rendered 94.53 72.12 0.23 9.52 - 12.34 3.38 2.15 Karthik,
spent hen (2007)
meal
Spent hen 91.00 62.24 - 10.91 14.07 12.07 3.54 1.58 Rajendra
meal Kumar
(2009)
Carcass meal 91.02 61.96 ± 0.67 ± 10.93 ± 5.12 ± 12.44 ± - - John and
(Centrifugal 0.60 0.18 0.26 0.59 0.58 Ramesh
extraction) (2014)
Carcass meal 93.08 71.23 ± 0.95 ± 0.83 ± 8.70 ± 11.37 ± - - John and
(solvent 0.75 0.04 0.02 0.64 0.41 Ramesh
extraction (2014)
method)
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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

for transmission of zoonotic diseases like BSE. to growing steers may decrease the cost of protein
The people who eat meat from infected animals supplementation and its performance is equal to
may also have possibility to get affected by the fatal or better than that of soya bean meal (SB meal)
disease variant Creutzfeld Jacob Disease (vCJD). based diet. Application of heat to meat meal (MM)
The cases of Creutzfeld Jacob Disease (vCJD) have during the dry rendering helps to decrease the
been reported in Europe since 1980’s (FAO, 2008). rumen degradability of protein in ruminant (Sahluet
Regulations about the use of animal protein al, 1984).Meat meal contain 9-12% fat with up to
meal are continually changing between different 20% in poultry carcass meal. In addition to protein
jurisdictions. Protein of animal source has greater (amino acid), calcium and phosphorous, meat cum
nutritional value than protein of plant source; bone meal is an excellent source of other minerals
however their addition in animal feed is strictly like k, Mg, Na, etc. The ash content of the meat
regulated because feeding of infected feed or meat cum bone meal normally ranges from 28
supplements increases the risks for transmissible to 36%, Ca (7 to 10%) and P (4.5 to 6%). When
BSE, scrapie, and other diseases. Cases of outbreaks using meat cum bone meal, the mineral levels may
of BSE occurred in the United Kingdom (1988), limit its use in some feed formulations. Meat and
which resulted in the restriction of meat meal in bone is a good source of vitamin B-12. Excessive
ruminant feeding. “True” protein must contribute at heating during dry rendering can reduce protein
least 2/3rd of total nitrogen (CP) in ruminant diets digestibility. Ruminal escape proteins ranged
(Kim and Paterson, 2003), so, feed formulations for from 41.7 to 51% of CP in the study conducted by
ruminants must have a good balance between total Klemesrudet al. (1997) and 51.3 to 60.8% in another
protein and RUP (NRC, 2007). study conducted by Howie et al (1996).
The animal protein meal which is commonly
Level of inclusion of carcass meal in kid starter incorporated in the feeds of livestock includes meat
Meat meal is obtained from trimmings that meal made from poultry, cattle and sheep carcasses
originate from the slaughter of animals and dead and blood meal. Meal obtained from animal carcass
poultry birds. Meat meal should be devoid of hair, usually includes bone but are usually called meat
hoof, horn, feather, manure and stomach content. meal or meat cum bone meal. Meat and bone meal
Meat meal is reach source of protein contain 50- has a well-balanced amino acid profile used as an
55% high quality protein. If the phosphorus content excellent source of supplemental protein. Meal
of the meal is more than 4.4%, it is regarded as meat made from lean tissue are good sources protein,
cum bone meal. The level of protein varies with the Ca and P, which occur in readily available forms.
amount of bone contained in the meal. The level of Digestibility of animal protein fraction is high, and
dietary inclusion of meat meal is about 7-10%. is ranging from 81 to 87% (Kellemset al., 1998).
Lira-Casas et al. (2014) reported that the As per FAO (1998) recommendation the meat
inclusion of 2.5% of BM in the finishing ration meal should be autoclaved at 133 0C for 20 min.
based on cereal grains for feedlot hair lambs at 300 kPa which will reduce the risk of the meal
improved growth performance and some carcass carrying pathogens and stabilize the raw material
characteristics over rations with higher BM levels.
by drying it to about 5-8% moisture will reduces
Low levels of BM could be used as a promising amino acid availability and protein degradability in
source of protein in lamb feed. the rumen. Protein imbalance will reduce growth
Effect of carcass meal on growth rate, increase feeding costs and emission of gases
Stock et al (1981) and Rooke (1985) reported like methane to the atmosphere (Atkinson et al.,
that feeding meat and blood meal along with urea 2007).Lira-Casas et al. (2014) conducted study on
effect of broiler meat meal on performance and
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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Table 2. Comparison of weaning weight of Malabari kids with Poultry carcass meal fed kids
Feed Weaning weight Reference
Normal weight 5.76 ± 0.07 Report, (1977)
Normal weight 8.37 ± 0.25 Raghavanet al. (2004)
Normal weight 10.66 Raghavanet al. (2007)
Normal weight 8.83 ± 0.83 Vermaet al. (2009)
Normal weight 9.06 ± 0.18 Rani Alex et al. (2010)
Normal weight 7.21 ± 0.30 Prasad et al. (2017)
Creep ration 8.24 ± 0.35 Bhale, (2015)
Carcass meal fed 10.87 ± 0.48 Bhale, (2015)

characteristics of cross breed hair lamb and reported can be used for formulating economic ration without
that there were no effect (P >0.005) of the level of adversely affecting health and productivity of
BM on dry matter intake (DMI) in lambs. livestock. Alcock (2006) stated that Creep feeding
Bhale (2015) compared Malabari kids in natural can also be uneconomical when animals are reared
suckling (T1), conventional creep fed kids (T2) on adequate high quality green pasture.
and un-conventional creep fed kids (incorporating John and Ramesh (2014) stated that chicken
poultry carcass meal) (T3) from 2-12 weeks and carcass meal is a sterile and economic unconventional
reported that The weight gain (kg) and average feed source, which can be incorporated in the feed
daily gain (g) were significantly different among the of ruminants replacing costly conventional protein
kids fed different creep rations. The body weight of sources. The published literatures are mostly based
Malabari kids at weaning was 7.25 ± 0.13 kg in the on studies comparing various feed combination
group fed only does milk and green grass till three under semi-intensive and intensive system of
months of age whereas it was 8.24 ± 0.35 kg and production (Karim and Verma, 2001 and Santra and
10.87 ± 0.48 kg among the kids fed conventional Karim, 2002). The cost of live weight gain (Rs. /
creep ration and un-conventional creep ration kg) was significantly (P<0.01) lower in carcass
respectively. The FCR was significantly (P<0.01) meal incorporated group (Rs. 100.12) compared
higher in kids in T3 and T2 which was 3.14 and to conventional creep ration fed groupwhich was
4.40 respectively compare to T1 which was 4.62. 143.83 and in natural rearing system which was Rs.
129.10.
Effect of feeding carcass meal on economics of
rearing kids Starter feed incorporating chicken carcass meal
Creep feeding may not always be economical, as the main protein source was more economical
especially on farms where high quality and quantity than starter feed incorporated with soya bean and
of forage is available. It is, therefore, important to gingelly oil cake as the protein source during
pay close attention to feed price, weight gains and the post-weaning period. With global food
the market value of the additional weight gained. security at stake due to ever increasing price of
The prices of conventional feed ingredients are conventional feed ingredients, it is necessary to
increasing at the same time the vast availability of formulate economic rations using un-conventional
crop residues and un-conventional feed ingredients feed without adversely affecting the health and

37
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

productivity of livestock (Prasad et al., 2015). for ruminants : small intestinal amino acid flow and
Starter feed computed with unconventional disappearance in steers. J Anim Sci 7: 100-107.
feed ingredients (poultry carcass meal replacing Bohnert DW, Larson B T, Bauer M L, Branco A F, Mcleod
conventional protein source) was more economical K R , Harmon D L and Mitchel G E. 1996. Nutritional
evaluation of poultry by-product meal as a protein source
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starter feed computed with conventional feed
Carvalho S, Brochier M A, Pivato J. 2007. Ganho de peso,
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1: 0.021. Hence this system of concentrate feeding de cordeiros da raça Texel terminado semdiferentessist
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2015; Prasad et al., 2015). DorperNuus. Pp. 21-26.
FAO. 1998. Food and Agricultural Organization. Animal feed
CONCLUSION resources information system. Available at: http://www.
fao.org/ag/aga/agap/frg/afris/index_en.htm. [11 May
Poultry carcass meal is a sterile and economic
2014].
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Howie S A, Calsamiglia S and Stern M D. 1996. Variation
incorporated in the feed of ruminants replacing
in ruminal degradation and intestinal digestion of animal
costly conventional protein sources and is having byproduct protein. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol 63: 1-7.
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I C A R Feeding standard. 2013. Indian Council of Agricultural
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meal in feed is more economical compared to other John A and Ramesh S V. 2014. Effect of two methods of
concentrates feeding. The feeding of poultry carcass fat extraction on one proximate composition of poultry
meal as a protein source can be recommended in carcass meal. Indian Vet J 91(3): 16-18.
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39
Review Article Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

A Review on Effective Tools and Technology for Enhancing

Wheat Productivity
Dhiman Mukherjee*
Department of Agronomy, Directorate of Research,
Bidhan Chandra KrishiViswavidyalaya, Kalyani-741235, West Bengal
*Officer in charge of AICRP on Wheat and Barley Improvement Project, BCKV, Kalyani.
Corresponding Authot : dhiman_mukherjee@yahoo.co.in

ABSTRACT
The relationship between farm size and land productivity in terms of crop production, has been widely
debated and explanations for the inverse relationship between farm size and land productivity have been
put forward and tested. However, in cultivating wheat this relation can be changed by adoption of improved
agronomic interventions and site specific tools and technology. In this review paper, an attempt has been
taken enlist few tools and techniques for enhancing wheat productivity at farm levels. It is a fact that the
grain yield of wheat crop depends upon a number of package of practices adopted like variety sown, seed
treatment, type of soil, seed rate, method of sowing, weed control etc. Different farmers follow different
practices to raise a crop and the yield also depends on the prevailing weather conditions under changing
climate scenario, and improved mitigated technology during the crop growing season. It is due to this the
production varies from farmer to farmer. The net profit from crops is shrinking day by day owing to the rising
cost of required inputs; therefore, it is imperative to enhance wheat production as well as reduced cost of
production incurred by the farmers, by adopting suitable well established techniques and tools for cultivation.
Key words: wheat, productivity, climate change, cultivation practices, management

INTRODUCTION in restaurants for which bread wheat is cultivated

Wheat is one of the prehistoric crops which
provides major energy requirement of the human
diet across the world. This is the second most
important staple food after rice consumed by 65%
of the population in India and is likely to increase
further due to changes in food habits. Wheat is
widely grown in a range of environments like
temperate, irrigated to dry and high-rain-fall areas
and from warm, humid to dry, cold environments.
Undoubtedly, this wide adaptation has been
possible due to the complex nature of the plant’s
genome, which provides great plasticity to the crop.
Wheat is a C3 plant and as such it thrives in cool
environments. Recent past has witnessed increased
demand of wheat due to availability of wide range
of end products at lower prices over other cereal
crops. This is mostly consumed in the form of
chapati in India commonly called as Indian bread
in nearly 95 per cent of the cropped area. Durum
wheat, which is most suitable for making macaroni,
noodles, semolina and pasta products, occupies
about 4 to 5% of the area, and is predominantly
grown in Central and Peninsular parts of India
(Mukherjee, 2014a). As per estimate, world would
require around 840 million tonnes of wheat by 2050
from its current production level of 642 million
tonnes. To meet this demand, developing countries
should increase their wheat production by 77%
and more than 80% of demand should come from
vertical expansion (Anonymous, 2016). This has to
be achieved with less land and resources through
genetic, physiological and agronomic interventions
particular resource conservation technologies.
Besides, precision breeding for improving varietal
elasticity, new initiatives for climate change monitor
in grand crop modelling for advance yield forecasts

40
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

would help in fulfilling future demands. The future in evidence of stagnation in crop yield potential
strategies to mitigate adverse effects of climatic world over, and that average crop yields in major
change, threat of new and emerging diseases, pests cereal-producing countries have struck a plateau.
and weed flora, including the issue of increased Further, the increasing population and preference
herbicide resistance, deteriorating soil health need for wheat in rural India has exacerbated the demand.
to be implemented to enhance genetic yield potential The debate on climate change, depleting natural
and sustainability. There is a search to explore resources, stress on food and nutritional security
options to increase yield components through in most of the global platform aims to achieve the
photosynthetic capacity and efficiency, introduction higher yields with the given resources at farmers’
of C4 like traits– carbon concentrate mechanism, field. Delivering increased yields is a complex
improving light interception, optimizing spike challenge that is unlikely to be solved by a single
and canopy photosynthesis in future genotypes. approach. There are three specific major challenges:
There is an urgent need for enhancing productivity increasing yield potential (the maximum yield
through agronomic manipulation (water, nutrients, for a given genotype under optimal conditions),
weed management etc.) and improved resource protecting yield potential, and increasing resource
conservation technologies at the ground level use efficiency to ensure sustainability. As indicated
(Mukherjee, 2013b). Despite the technological earlier wheat crop has wide adaptability and it can
breakthrough after Green Revolution, the yield be grown not only in the tropical and sub-tropical
of wheat realized at farmers’ fields is much zones, but also in the temperate zone and the cold
lower than its potential yield at experimental tracts of the far north, beyond even the 60 degree
farms. Technology did increase the food grains north altitude (Mani and Mukherjee, 2016). Wheat
productivity in India till 1990s, but the subsequent can tolerate severe cold and snow and resume
growth rate started to decline. There is an increase growth with the setting in of warm weather in
Table 1: Wheat gorwn zones based on agro-climatic conditions and area in India.
Zones States/Regions covered Approx area
(million ha)
Northern Hill Hilly areas of J&K ( except Jammu, Kathua and Samba districts), Him- 0.80
Zone(NHZ) achal Pradesh (except Una & Paonta valley), Uttarakhand (excluding
Tarai region) & Sikkim
North Punjab, Haryana, Western UP (except Jhansi Div), Rajasthan (excluding 11.55
Western Kota & Udaipur div),Delhi, Tarai region of Uttarakhand, Una & Paonta
Plains Zone valley of HP, Jammu, Samba & Kathua districts of J&K and Chandigarh.
(NWPZ)
North Eastern Eastern UP(28 dist),Bihar, Jharkhand, WestBengal, Assam, Odisha and 10.51
Plains Zone other NE states (except Sikkim)
(NEPZ)
Central Zone MP, Gujarat, Chattisgarh, Kota& Udaipur Div of Rajasthan, Bun- 5.20
delkhand and Jhansi Div of UP.
Peninsular Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu(except Nilgiris & Palani Hills), Karnataka & 1.63
Zone Andhra Pradesh
Southern Hill Nilgiris & Palani Hills of Tamil Nadu 0.11
Zone (SHZ)

41
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
spring. It can be cultivated from sea level to as
high as 3300 meters. The best wheat are produced
in areas favoured with cool, moist weather during
the major portion of the growing period followed
by dry, warm weather to enable the grain to ripen
properly. The entire wheat growing areas of India
can be categorized into six major zones based on
climatic and soil edaphic factors (Table 1).
North eastern plains zone and central zone
are capable of contributing significantly in future
although north western plains continue to dominate
in wheat production likely to increase further due to
changes in food habits.
Wheat species
Only three species of wheat are commercially
important:
1. Triticum aestivum– bread wheat or common
wheat. This hexaploid wheat is the most
widely grown in the world.
2. Triticum turgidum cv.durum– durum wheat.
These tetraploid wheat is hard wheat (from
Latin, durum, meaning ‘hard’). Flour from 1. Canopy construction - to construct the right
these wheat holds together well due to high
gluten content, so cultivars are usually used 2. Canopy duration – to maintain the size and
for making pasta and bread products.
3. Triticum compactum– club wheat. This
hexaploid wheat is identified by their compact,
club-shaped head. This species is sometimes
considered a subspecies of common wheat.
These are usually soft grained wheat often
used for cake flour. Wheat and all other grasses
have a common structure which provides
the basis for understanding the growth and
development of the crop and the reasons for
particular management practices.
Improved technology for cost effective wheat
cultivation
To enhance wheat productivity at farmers’
field, specific technologies have to be developed
for establishing a proper crop stand, irrigation
management, fertilizer management, weed
management, new resources conservation
42
technologies and farm mechanization (Mukherjee,
2017 a).The selection of a suitable variety by the
farmer is the first and primary aspect of package to
enhance yields through matching technology. The
fundamental aim of crop production is to convert
Photo synthetically Active Radiation (PAR) into
dry matter that can then be utilised in the form of
nutritious food, animal feed or feedstock for energy
production. There is a classic linear relationship
between light interception and total dry matter
produced with wheat. It is also known that in wheat
varieties currently grown, there is a harvest index
of 50-55% i.e. 50-55% of total dry matter will be
converted to grain yield (Mukherjee, 2014 a). These
simple relationships form the basis from which
we develop our agronomic principles in growing
wheat. In order to intercept the radiation we need to
develop a sufficiently large canopy (not too big) of
healthy green leaves to capture 90% of the incoming
PAR. This canopy must remain green and healthy
during the grain filling period. There are therefore
two distinct objectives: 
size canopy as quickly as possible. 
health of the canopy through to harvest.
Present research work of breeder and agronomist
should be in above two directions, because these
two are the major bottlenecks to wheat production.
With modification of this one can easily jump to
production and productivity levels. The following
management option under cultivation, can change
the above two bottle necks.
Soil
Care should be taken to avoid very porous and
excessively drained soils. Soil should be neutral in
its reaction i.e. the pH of soil should range from 6.5
to 7.5. Heavy soils with good drainage are suitable
for wheat cultivation under dry conditions. These
soils efficiently absorb and retain longer rain water.
For good and uniform germination, the wheat crop
requires a well pulverised but compact seedbed.
The wheat seeds should be healthy and have a
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

good germination capacity. Make sure the seeds for
sowing don’t contain any seeds of weeds. The pure
seed of high yielding wheat varieties may produce
vigorous and healthy plants that would ultimately
increase crop yield.
Proper land preparation
The precision land levelling is one of the
important agronomic practices to remove ups and
downs of the soil and to achieve better seed bed
conditions for the uniform distribution of irrigation
water and better supply of other inputs to the
growing crop. Presently in many part of India laser
land levelling technique is using for weed seed
bed preparation which iseconomical in large area
cultivation. Cultivation and levelling are required
before sowing. Delay in sowing causes drastic
reduction in yield . In certain areas crops are attacked
by white ants and gujhia weevil. To protect young
seedlings from these pests, mix Aldrin 5 % dust in
soil at the rate of 25 kg per hectare at the time of last
ploughing. In rainfed areas, field preparation should

Table 2 :Recent variety suitable under different agro-ecological zone for wheat in India.
Variety Source Year of Av. Yield Production condition
Release (q/ha)
Hills Zone (NHZ)
HS 490 IARI, RS,Shimla 2007 31.0 Limited irrigation, Late sown
VL 892 VPKAS, Almora 2007 37.6 Limited irrigation, Late sown
VL 907 VPKAS, Almora 2010 28.0 Rainfed, timely Sown (5500 feet
height)
North Western Plains Zone (NWPZ) :
WH 1021 CCSHAU, Hisar 2007 39.1 Irrigated, Late sown
PBW 590 PAU, Ludhiana 2008 37.0 Irrigated, Late sown
PBW 314(Durum) PAU, Ludhiana 2010 50.3 Irrigated, Timely sown
North Eastern Plains Zone (NEPZ)
HD 2888 IARI, Delhi 2005 23.0 Rainfed, Timely sown
K 307 CSAUAT&T, Kanpur 2006 45.6 Irrigated, Timely sown
CBN 38 DWR,Karnal 2008 44.4 Irrigated, Timely sown
RAJ 4120 RAU, Durgapura 2008 41.8 Irrigated, Timely sown
DBW 39 DWR,Karnal 2010 44.1 Irrigated, Timely sown
Central Zone (CZ):
HD 2932 IARI, Delhi 2007 42.0 Irrigated, Late sown
MP 1203 JNKVV, Powarkheda 2008 41.2 Irrigated, Late sown
MPO 1215 (Durum) JNKVV, Powarkheda 2009 47.8 Irrigated, Timely sown
Peninsular Zone (PZ):Maharashtra, Karnataka, A.P. & Plains of Tamil Nadu
MACS 2971(Dicoc- ARI, Pune 2008 46.5 Irreigated, Timely sown
cum)
*PBW 596 PAU, Ludhiana 2008 37.0 Rainfed, Timely sown
MACS 62222 ARI, Pune 2010 47.7 Irrigated, Timely sown
AKAW 4027 PDKV, Akola 2010 42.8 Irrigated, Late sown

43
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
be done with great care as conservation of moisture
is a very crucial factor. Fields are usually prepared
by giving one deep ploughing with iron plough
followed by 2-3 ploughings with local plough and
planking after every ploughing. In these areas,
ploughings should possibly be done in the evenings
and furrows should be left undisturbed for whole
night in order to absorb some moisture through the
dew. Planting should be done in the morning. All
the possible steps should be taken to conserve the
moisture for sowing the wheat crop.
Selection of variety and sowing times
Only healthy seeds of right varieties which are
recommended for the particular locality should
be selected for sowing (Brar, 2014). There should
not be any mixture of seeds of other varieties of
wheat or weeds in it. The seed should be obtained/
purchased from a reliable source and it is advisd to
use certified seeds. If the seed is untreated, it should
be treated before sowing with Vitavex or Thiram
or Agrosan G.N. @ 2.5 g/kg of seed. Few of the
following enlisted wheat cultivar play vital role
to improve productivity in different zone of India
(Table 2).
Rainfed wheat is generally sown in the second
fort night of October and beginning of November.
The normal time for sowing of high yielding dwarf
varieties of wheat in irrigated areas starts in the
beginning of November. Long and medium duration
varieties (135- 145 days) should be sown in the
first fortnight of November, while short duration
varieties (120-125 days) should be sown in the
second fortnight of November. If a variety is sown
later than its normal sowing time, there is adverse
effect on yield. Under specific circumstances,
wheat is sown in the month of December too. In late
sown wheat, short duration varieties like Sonalika
and UP-262, should be sown because there is
comparatively less reduction in their yield. When
wheat is sown in the month of December, drastic
reduction in yield occurs. November onwards delay
in sowing by each day causes reduction of about
50 kg/ ha/ day in north eastern parts of the country
44
and about 40 kg/hectare/day in north western and
central parts of the country. Under exceptionally
late conditions, transplanting of wheat seedlings
can be practised, but this is feasible only in a small
area. Time and method of sowing may be the major
cause of low yield in wheat. In normal course, the
sowing of wheat must be completed in the month
of November. But in some cases, wheat grown
after Cotton, Rice, Sugarcane and fodder crops
in rotation may be delayed up to December. The
zero tillage technology may be adopted in rice-
wheat growing area, where wheat is grown on
residual moisture after rice, without initial tillage
practices. This greatly saves sowing time, and
help to maintain production levels great extent
(Mukherjee, 2017; Mburum et al., 2014). The seeds
may be drilled directly using zero tillage drill in rice
areas, after soil comes in condition. This method
would show better yield performance. The work
by Tripathi et al. (2013) in Haryana compared the
economics of wheat production in Haryana with
zero tillage and conventional methods and assessed
the contribution of technology and inputs to the
increased productivity due to zero tillage (ZT). The
net income has been found higher in ZT method,
mainly due to lower cost of production compared
to that in conventional method. The study has
observed that ZT technology has potential to
provide additional income to farmers and help in
conservation of scarce resources. Despite several
economic and environmental advantages, adoption
of ZT technology has been limited and one major
constraint identified is the difficulty in accessing a
zero-till seed drill machine during sowing period
(Kahloon et al., 2012). The study has suggested that
ZT technology should be disseminated on a wider
scale and availability of zero-till seed drill should
be ensured at least through custom-hiring basis.
Seed rate and spacing
Seed rate varies with variety used depending
on the seed size, germination percentage, tillering
ability, time of sowing, and moisture content in the
soil at the time of sowing, and method of sowing.
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Usually, a seed rate of 100 kg/ha is sufficient
under favourable conditions on normal sowing. In
case of FIRBS seed rate can be reduced to75 kg/
ha. For late sown wheat and bold seeded varieties,
seed rate should be increased by 25per cent, i.e.,
125 kg/ha (Sharmaet al, 2013). For normal sown
crop, a spacing of 20 to 22.5 cm between row to
row is recommended. When sowing is delayed, a
closer spacing of 15-18 cm should be adopted. For
timely sown and irrigated wheat, a row spacing of
15 to 22.5 cm is followed. 22.5 cm is considered to
be the maximum spacing (Mukherjee, 2017). For
late but irrigated wheat, row spacing of 15-18 cm is
the maximum, and it should be adjusted as pr land
availability and improve techniques.
Rotations and mixed cropping
In India many crop rotations involving wheat
are feasible. In the irrigated areas a variety of
crops like paddy, jowar, bajra, maize, cotton, toria,
arhar, moong, urd, etc are grown in rotation with
wheat (Manan et al., 2015). Some of most common
rotations are:
1 year: Paddy-wheat, Maize-wheat, Arhar-wheat
and Bajra-wheat
2 years: Maize-wheat-cotton-berseem and Paddy-
wheat-jowar-gram
3 years: Maize-wheat-sugarcane-ratoon and Maize-
wheat-free manuring-potato-sugarcane
In the recent past, intercropping with autumn
sugarcane and potato is also becoming popular in
some parts of northern India. Potato-wheat relay
cropping can increase the yield of wheat. It is
observed that in potato - wheat relay cropping if the
seed rate is increased to 80 kg/ha and 60 kg N/ha
is applied, 4.5 tonnes /ha of wheat can be obtained
which is almost the same as that in pure stands of
wheat. In this condition, potato is planted in mid-
October while wheat is sown by early December in
the furrows of standing potato crops. Wheat inter
row spacing is 50-60 cm.
Fertilizer scheduling
A crop of wheat yielding 50 q/ha removes 100-
150 kg nitrogen, 70-80 kg phosphorus and 125 to

Table 3: Nutrient requirement based on different situation

Condition Zone Recommended dose Time & method of application
(kg/ha)
N P2O5 K2O
Irrigated timely sown All zones 120 60 40 Half of N and full amount of P2O5 and
crop K, should be drilled about 5 cm below
the seed at the time of sowing. The re-
maining half N should be top dressed at
first irrigation
Irrigated late sown All zones 80 30-40 30 -do-
crop
Irrigated followed All zones 80 40 20 -do-
by a legume crop as
follow in Kharif
Rainfed Peninsular 30 20 0 Total quantity of N and P2O5 should be
and central applied 0-10cm deep in soil at or before
zones sowing
Other zones 40 30 0 -do-

45
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
150 kg potash from the soil (Mukherjee, 2013).
Fertilizer doses for wheat should be related to the
fertility status of the soil as indicated by the soil
testing. In case soil recommendations are not
available, the general guidelines for fertilization of
high yielding dwarf varieties grown under different
agro-climatic conditions laid down by the all India
coordinated wheat improvement project should be
followed. These are presented in table 3.
To realize the potential yield of wheat following
strategies may include:
• Site specific nutrient management for
targeted yields
• Integration of crop residues, bio fertilizers
etc with inorganic fertilization
• Tillage techniques like FIRBS for increasing
nutrient use efficiencies
• Remote sensing for efficient Nutrient
management
• Nutrient management, straw quality vis-à-
vis human and animal health
Site specific nutrient management
In developing world, most of the nutrient
management practices are based on general blanket
Source:http://software.ipni.net/package/D56F6FAFBB9C613B85257C430053009B)
Fig1: Nutrient–Expert decision support systems for wheat crop
46
recommendations or the site–specific nutrient
management approach for different field crops
keeping in view their genetic potential and the
specific crop management practices in a given agro-
ecological situation. But, it is observed that even
after considering above factors, the efficiency of
applied nutrients is quite low and the in-situ losses
are relatively higher resulting in low productivity
than expected levels. In this direction, SSNM–
nutrient expert assisted decision-support system
recent development, which takes care of the
efficient nutrient management in the field crops.
Adopting best fertilization management practices
by following the SSNM-NE concept have shown
improvement in yields and it is based on estimations
of crop need-based nutrient-supplying capacity as
per target yield.
The SSNM-NE is the appropriate answer to
above resource drifts which are putting the crop
productivity and environmental quality at the stake.
SSNM-NE was officially launched for public domain
in South-Asia in general and India in particular in
the year2013jointly by IPNI and CIMMYT (http://
www.ipni.net). SSNM approaches like soil-test crop
response (STCR) require more analytical data like
soil test values etc. For final fertilizer requirement
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
of a specific crop for desired yield levels (Paul et
al. 2011); thus, makes the conventional approaches
away from the reach of resource-poor farmers’. A
study showed that the average use of N, P2O5,and
K2O by farmersis193,89,and114kg/ha, but,
fertilizer application based on NE reduces N,P2O5,
and K2O use by 32,50,66 kg/ha and indicating
17,56 and 58% reductions in fertilizer use over
farmers’ practice (Satyanarayana et al.,2013).
Agronomic bio-fortification
Zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) deficiencies are well-
documented public health issue affecting nearly half
of the world population especially in developing
countries like India. Zinc and Fe are the common
micronutrient deficiencies in light textured soils
of North Gujarat and few other pockets of India,
limiting both crop production and nutritional
quality. Further, very low concentrations and poor
bioavailability of Zn and Fe in the commonly used
cereals aggravated the micronutrient deficiencies.
Addition of organic material with Zn and Fe, had
beneficial effect on crop growth, productivity
by sustaining soil health (Mukherjee, 2016b).
The enrichment of organics with micro nutrients
not only improve the quality of organics but also
reduced the quantity of both inorganic chemicals
and as well as quantity of organics. A significant
impact of iron and zinc enriched organics were
found on soil properties as well as wheat quality
and production.
Irrigation scheduling
The optimum water quantity must be applied to
wheat for reducing water losses. The excess water
may cause lodging problem in wheat. In total, wheat
crop requires 40cm water and it needs external water
supply when available soil moisture percentage falls
below 50-60 per cent of the field capacity. The crop
requires 4-6 irrigations depending upon rainfall
and water use of the crop. Under limited supply of
water the following schedule of irrigation should
be observed for the best utilization of available
water. Where only one irrigation is available, give
it at crown root initiation stage (CRI stage) i.e.
20-25 days after sowing.Where two irrigations
are available, first should be given at crown root
initiation stage and second one at flowering stage.
Where three irrigations are possible, first irrigation
should be given at CRI stage, second at late jointing
(boot stage) and the third one should be given at
milk stage.
Weed management
Weed infestation is one of the major biotic
constraints in wheat production. Wheat is
infested with diverse type of weed flora and
the few to mention are ., Anagallisarvensis
(Krishananeel), Argemonemexicana (Satyanashi),
Asphodelustenuifolius (Piazi), Avenaludoviciana
(Jangli Jai), Cannabis sativa (Bhang),
Carthamusoxycantha (Pohli), Chenopodium album
(Bathu), Cirsiumarvense (Kateli), The yield losses
due to weeds vary depending on the weed species,
their density and environmental factors. This
emerge with the emerging crop seedlings and if
uncontrolled, they may cause, severe reduction in
the crop yield varying from 10-40 % (Mukherjee,
2005) depending on the intensity and type of weeds
present in the locality. In wheat some broad and
narrow leaved species of weeds, are found, which
crease serious problem of competition with crop
in food nutrients, water, sunlight, air and space,
make crop weak and poor in growth and also
cause decrease in yield. Weeds must be uprooted
and controlled before first irrigation and/or after
first watering to the crop (Mukherjee, 2017 b).
Weed management is possible by various means
i.e cultural, mechanical and chemical methods.
The cultural method is laborious and time consigns
one. Whereas, chemical method is easy, cheap and
less time consuming. In addition to this biological
control of weed are in progress (Mukherjee, 2005).
For the control of complex weed flora
combination of herbicides should be applied.
sulfosulfuron + metsulfuron and isoproturon with
2, 4-D or metsulfuron can be used as tank mixture.
Grass herbicides (clodinafop, fenoxaprop, and
pinoxaden) should not be tank mixed with either 2,
47
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
4- D or metsulfuron and to avoid antagonism the
grass and broad-leaved herbicides should be applied
sequentially. For post emergence weed control,
metribuzin may be used with care in combination
with grass herbicides like Fenoxaprop, Clodinafop
and Pinoxaden.
Resource conservation technologies (RCTs)
Yield advantage of >15 per cent has been
observed after laser levelling the field. In addition
to higher yield, the water saving is35-45per cent
due to higher application efficiency, increased
nutrient use efficiency by 15-25 percent and reduced
weed problem (Mukherjee, 2010). Zero tillage is
direct drilling in untilled condition, a simple, and
affordable technology which advances sowing
time, seeds at comparatively higher moisture, saves
more than 70% fuel energy and time for sowing/
establishment and yield advantage too. Furrow
Irrigated Raised Bed (FIRB) technology works as
catalyst for diversification of rice-wheat system. In
this planting method, crop is grown on top of bed
and irrigation is applied in furrows (Mukherjee,
2016 b).
Technique to improve wheat yield under
changing climate
Crop diversification has proven to be one of
the most popular farm level responses to climatic
variability and change particularly in countries
which are predominantly of rural economics and
are at most risk (Bradshaw et al., 2004). Apart
from buffering crop production from the effects of
greater climate variability and extreme events, crop
diversification such as paddy-wheat-jowar-gram
or wheat-green gram-rice-short duration vegetable
etc effectively improves resilience by engendering
a greater ability to suppress pest outbreaks and
dampen pathogen transmission, which may worsen
under future climate scenarios, (Lin, 2011). In
India, review from the published reports suggested,
that fewer attempts have been made to quantify
the benefits of diversification in relation to coping
with climate change and its risks. Diversification
is commonly studied to meet demand fluctuations
48
and stabilize farmer’s income. Attempts are needed
to identify least impacted cropping systems and
promote those which improve carbon sequestration,
like maize-wheat and agro forestry systems had
65–88% higher soil organic carbon stocks than
the rice-wheat system, Benbi et al., (2012), under
other conditions it can add to them (Waha et al.,
2013). Results from study by Saha (2013) has
shown that crop diversification in India has taken
place in western and south-western states, while as
crop specialization has occurred in states like West
Bengal, Assam, Manipur and Mizoram. Because
of changing rainfall patterns and water resources
depletion, the traditional cropping pattern is
becoming less productive. Thus crop intensification,
through mixed cropping and integration of high-
value crops such as horticultural production, is
gaining prominence as a climate change adaptation
strategy. A re-evaluation of cropping patterns with
respect to wheat cultivation can provide higher risk
security. As detected by Lobell and Field, 2007
between 1961 and 2002, it was found that rising
temperature had an negative effect on wheat yields.
High temperature particularly during November
sowing accelerates its growth by making the crop
to enter into jointing stage too early, thus reducing
tillering period (Syed et al., 2015).This results in
reduced number of tillers, in turn reducing total
crop yield and disease incidence (Mukherjee, 2014).
Likewise, high temperature at flowering and grain
filling stage shortens the duration of grain filling
resulting in early maturity, thus reducing the crop
yield. High temperature between flag leaf stage
and flowering reduces sink period, reducing grain
size. An increase of 0.50C temperature resulted
in decrease in duration of crop by seven days,
reducing yield by 0.50t ha-1 in north India (Sharma
and Tondon, 1997).
Agronomic manipulation help to improve
yield under temperature stress situation or high
temperature (Mukherjee, 2016). Adjustment
in sowing time is one of the most important
agronomic strategies to counteract the adverse
effect of temperature stress. In addition, tillage crop
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

establishment methods, residue retention, selection with recent techniques and tools help to enhance
of heat tolerant varieties, water management, and wheat productivity in the farm levels. The world
foliar spray of KNO3, KCl, 1-Methylcyclopropene would require around 840 million tonnes of wheat
(1-MCP) and GA canal so help mitigating the by 2050 from current production level of 642
temperature stress effects. million tonnes and it has to be achieved with less
land and resources through genetic, physiological
Future research programme on wheat and agronomic interventions particularly resource
In intensive cropping areas, legumes should be conservation technologies. Their impact on
introduced in the cropping system to trade-off the agricultural economy is tremendous. Climate
soil fatigue. For areas with marginal soil condition, change phenomenon is more acute for wheat
researchers should focus on developing a variety production at regional level, where they are likely
for low input conditions. Among the prioritized to increase in ensuing decades, posing additional
research activities, conventional breeding coupled threat to food security. The future strategies to
with biotechnological methods followed by mitigate adverse effects of climatic change, threat
cultural methods with advance agronomic tools and of new and emerging diseases, pests and weed
discovery of new formulation of plant protection flora, including the issue of increased herbicide
chemicals emerge to be a preferred method in resistance, deteriorating soil health need to be
solving a majority of the production constraints. implemented to enhance genetic yield potential and
Future advance wheat research programme should sustainability. The researchers also need to explore
have following priority: options to increase yield components through
• To identify suitable promising genotypes of photosynthetic capacity an deficiency, introduction
wheat under different agro-climatic zones of C4 like traits–carbon concentrating mechanism,
and situations with special emphasis on improving light interception, optimizing spike and
irrigated timely sown, rainfed timely sown canopy photosynthesis in future genotypes.
and irrigated late sown conditions.
• To develop agro-techniques for raising REFERENCES
Anonymous. 2016. Progress report of All India Coordinated
wheat crop under irrigated and rainfed
Wheat and Barley Improvement Project 2015-16,
situations at timely sown and irrigated Director report. Ed. G.P.Singh, ICAR- Indian Institute of
related sown conditions. Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, India.P 96.
• To work out the technologies for enhancing Benbi D K, Brar K, Toor A S, Singh P and Singh H. 2012. Soil
productivity of wheat based multiple carbon pools under poplar-based agroforestry, ricewheat,
and maize-wheat cropping systems in semi-arid India.
cropping sequences.
Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 92(1): 107-118.
• Evaluation and screening of wheat Bradshaw B, Dolan H and Smit B. 2004. Farm level adaptation
germplasms against biotic and abiotic to climatic variability and change: crop diversification in
stresses the Canadian prairies. Climate Change. 67: 119-141.
• To transfer and popularize the proven Brar R S. 2014. Wheat variety HD 2967 gains popularity
among farmers. Hindustan Times, Nov 10, 2014.
technologies to the farmers through
extension activities by organizing training Kahloon M H, Iqbal M F, Farooq M, Ali L, Fiaz M and Ahmad
I. 2012. A comparison of conservation technologies and
and Front Line Demonstrations.
traditional techniques for sowing of wheat. J Animal
Plant Scis 22(3): 827-830.
CONCLUSION Kundu A, Kundu C K, Khan N R, Roy S, Majumdar A,
From the foregoing discussion it is clear that Mukherejee D and Lamana MCL. 2017. Effect of 2,
episodes of improved agronomic manipulation 4-Dethyl ester 80% EC on weed control in wheat. J Crop
Weed 13(1):203-205.
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Lin B B. 2011. Resilience in agriculture through crop
diversification: Adaptive management for environmental
change. Biolog Scis 61(3): 183-193.
Lobell D B, Field C B. 2007. Global scale climate– crop yield
relationships and the impacts of recent warming. Envi
Resh Letter 2: 14-21.
Manan J, Sharma M, Singh G and Singh G. 2015. Package
of practices followed by farmers and its effect on wheat
yield in district Kapurthala. J Krishi Vigyan 4(1):67-71
(DOI: 10.5958/349- 4433.2015.00063.X).
Mani JK and Mukherjee D. 2016. Accuracy of weather
forecast for hill zone of West Bengal for better agriculture
management practices. Indian J Res 5(10): 325-328.
Mburum S, Chris Ackello O and Mulwa R. 2014. Analysis
of economic efficiency and farm size: A case study of
wheat farmers in nakuru district, Kenya. Econo Res
International Article ID 802706, 10 pages.
Mukherjee D. 2005. Eco-friendly tools for weed management
in rice and wheat. In: Trends in organic farming in India.
Purohit, S.S. and Gehlot, D (ed). Agrobios India, Jodhpur
pp 372-379.
Mukherjee D. 2010. Productivity, profitability and apparent
nutrient balance under different crop sequence in mid hill
condition. Indian J Agric Scis 80 (5): 420-22.
Mukherjee D. 2013. Nutrient use efficiency for maximization
of crop productivity. In Advances in plant physiology- An
International Treatise Series -14. Hemant aranjan, A.(ed).
Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, India. 14: 173-209.
Mukherjee D. 2014. Climate change and its impact on Indian
agriculture. In Plant disease management and microbes.
Nehra, S. (ed). Aavishkar Publishers, Jaipur, India. pp
193-206.
Mukherjee D. 2014 a. Consequences of planting date and seed
rate on yield and economics of wheat (Triticumaestivum)
under rainfed terraced situation. Indian J Crop Eco 2 (2):
29-34.
Mukherjee D. 2016. Impact of alteration of climate on hill
agriculture and its mitigation. Indian Horti J 6(2): 249-
256.
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Mukherjee D. 2016 a. Yield maximization of wheat
cultivars through improved water management strategy.
International J Bio resource Scis 3(2): 67-72.
Mukherjee D. 2016 b. Influence of fertility levels on the
performance of wheat cultivars under new alluvial zone
of West Bengal. Journal Agro eco and Natural Resource
Management, 3(3): 206-208.
Mukherjee D. 2017. Evaluation of performance of new wheat
cultivar under different row spacing. International J
Current Microbiology and Applied Scis 6(6):3186-189.
Mukherjee D. 2017 a.Popularization of high yield variety
of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in West Bengal state
through front line demonstration. Agric Ext J 1 (1): 7-15.
Mukherjee D. 2017 b. Rising weed problems and their effects
on production potential of various crops under changing
climate situation of hill. Indian Horti J 7(1) : 85-89.
Saha J. 2013. Crop diversification in Indian agriculture with
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SatyanarayanaT, Majumdar K, Pampolino M,Johnston A M
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Sharma I, Singh G, Tyagi B S and Sharma R K. 2013.
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Sharma I, Tyagi B S, Singh G, Venkatesh K and Gupta O P.
2015.Enhancing wheat production-A global perspective.
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Review Article Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Boron Deficiency in Soils and Plants and its Management for

Sustainable Agriculture
*aRuma Das, aDebarup Das, aShrila Das, bRenu Singh,
a
Mandira Barman, aSunanda Biswas and aAbir Dey
a
Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi-110012
b
CESCRA, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi-110012
Corresponding Author: rumadas13@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Boron (B) is the second most important deficient element in soils of India. Deficiency of B causes
visual symptoms in plants and significant yield loss. The availability of B to plants is controlled by
many soil properties like soil texture, organic matter content, pH, presence of Fe and Al oxides etc. The
eastern and north eastern parts of India are highly affected by B deficiency. The management of B is
very important for agriculture in the sustainable point of view because it is related to soil health. The
toxicity and deficiency limit of B is very narrow, hence, all the soil parameters and plant type must be
considered before recommendation of B fertilizer rates for different soils. This paper is a review of the
boron deficiency in soils and plants in India and also the trends in management for sustainable agriculture.
Key words: Boron deficiency, Soil plant management, Sustainable Agriculture.

INTRODUCTION that 20.6% soils of India are potentially deficient

Boron (B) is an essential micronutrient for plant
growth and development. Boron is necessary for
many plant functions such as cell wall formation,
cell expansion and lignification, pollen tube growth
and pollen germination in cereals and oilseeds,
increasing sugar and hydrocarbon transport in
tuber crops (potato, sugar beet), drought tolerance,
facilitating transport of K in guard cells etc.
Deficiency of B produces abnormalities in crops,
e.g. shorter internodes in tomato and mustard,
chaffy grain in wheat, hollow stems in cauliflower,
cracked stem in carrot etc. Deficiency of B in soils
is more extensive than the deficiency of any other
micronutrients throughout the world. Its deficiency
commonly occurs in light-textured soils having low
pH status such as acidic Inceptisols and Entisols,
in soils containing low amount of organic-matter
and high amount of B adsorbing surfaces like,
calcium carbonate or Iron (Fe) and Al oxides and
hydroxides. A recent study it has been indicates
in B and that the major portion of soils in eastern
and north eastern parts of our country are severely
affected by B deficiency (Behera et al., 2009, Sarkar
et al., 2008; Takkar and Sukla 2015). Some of the B
deficiency in certain crops are presented in (Fig:1)
Extent of B deficiency in Indian soils
In Indian soils total and available B content
range from 2.6 to 630 mg kg–1 and trace to
3 mg kg–1. Deficiency of B in some soils become
a major problem for sustainable agriculture. Boron
deficiency is more critical in calcareous soils,
sandy, leached soils, limed acid soils and reclaimed
lateritic soils. Soils of the eastern part of India are
severely affected by B deficiency. Recent analysis
of soil samples indicated that B deficiency is more
common in highly calcareous soil of Bihar and
Gujarat as well as acidic soils of Odisha, Jharkhand
and West Bengal. Around 18% of the soils from
Gujarat and 53% of the soils from Odisha were
found to be B deficient (Shukla et al., 2014).

51
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Table 1. Region-wise periodic trends in B deficiency status of Indian soils

Region 1967–1999 1999–2009 2009–2015
No. of Sample defi- No. of Sample defi- No. of Sample deficient
samples cient (%) samples cient (%) samples (%)
East 20612 32.2 29000 51.7 22528 33.6
North 312 14.7 11100 16.8 16843 13.5
West 5293 12.6 12670 13.9 10693 12.4
South 22593 30.5 10341 10.1 37966 18.3
India 48810 28.8 63111 31.1 88030 20.6
Source: AICRP-MSPE database (1967–2015), Takkar and Sukla 2015

Factors affecting B availability in soils
Parent material: The most important factor
which affects the B supplying capacity of soils is
the type of parent material present. Concentration
of B is generally high in the soils formed from
marine shale enriched parent material. Whereas,
soils derived from acid granite and other igneous
rocks, fresh-water sedimentary deposits are usually
low in B content.
Soil texture: Adsorption of B increases with
increase in fineness of soil texture. Coarse-textured
soils often contain less available B than fine-
textured soils, primarily due to lower levels of soil
organic matter and clay particles.
Soil pH: Soil pH is one of the most important
factors affecting the availability of B in soils. Boron
availability is the least below pH 5.0 and between
7.2 and 8.7. Sometimes application of lime increases
the pH level beyond the optimum and decreases B
availability to plants.
Organic matter: Boron associated with organic
colloids is the principal B pool for plant growth

52
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Figure1. Deficiency status of hot water extractable B in soils of different states of India
(Source: Shukla et al., 2014)
in most of the agricultural soils (Jones, 2003). A
positive correlation between SOM and the amount
of hot water-soluble B has been reported by Shafiq
et al. (2008). Oxides of Al and Fe: Aluminium (Al)
and iron (Fe) oxides also play an important role in
B adsorption behaviour in soils (Ren et al., 2009).
The mechanism of B adsorption on Al and Fe-oxide
minerals is considered to be ligand exchange with
reactive surface hydroxyl groups (Goldberg et al.,
1993). Oxides of Al have a greater affinity for B
than Fe-oxide compounds.
Calcium carbonate content: Retention of B
on calcium carbonate (CaCO3) occurs via an
adsorption mechanism in which carbonate groups
are exchanged with borate ions. The CaCO3 acts
as an important sink for B adsorption in calcareous
soils (Goldberg and Forster, 1991).
Management of B deficiency in soils
The range of B toxicity and deficiency is very
narrow in soil and plants (Singh and Goswami, 2013),
hence a precise recommendation for application of
B fertilizers is very important. Soil application of
borax or sodium tetraborate (Na2B4O7, 10H2O,
fertilizer grade, 10.5%) is the comonly employed
method to correct B deficiency. Basal soil
application of 0.5–1.5 kg B ha–1 to alternate crops
was found optimum and better than foliar sprays on
cereals, oilseeds and pulse based cropping systems
(Singh 2006). Application of 0.75–1.25 kg B ha–1
to soil markedly increased the yields of pigeon pea
and cauliflower (Singh et al., 2008). In B deficient
soils of Bihar, West Bengal, Assam and Punjab,
soil application of 0.5–2.5 kg B ha–1 to cereals,
pulses, oilseeds and cash crops helped in sustaining
high productivity (Shukla et al, 2012). Mondal et
al (2012) reported that foliar application of 0.2%
B gave an optimum yield of summer mungbean on
a sandy loam alluvial soil in West Bengal. Ansari
et al (2013) concluded that both soil and foliar
applied B have positive effects on growth and
yield of groundnut. Sarkar et al (2007) reported
that split applications of B either to soil or through
foliar sprays had an edge over a single application
in mustard and potato, whereas, a single late
application of B in wheat was more effective than

53
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

the early or split applications in increasing yields. Jones J B.2003. Plant mineral nutrition. In: Agronomic
Growing tolerant crops like sesame and mustard is handbook: Management of crops, soils and their fertility,
CRC Pres, Boca Raton, FL, USA. pp. 325.
another aprroach of managing B deficient soils for
sustainable cropping. Mondal C, Bandopadhyay P, Alipatra A and Banerjee H.2012.
CONCLUSION
The B deficiency in calcareous and acidic
soils of India is one of the major constraints in
maintaining sustained high yields of crops in those
areas. Availability of B to plants is affected by
different physicochemical properties of soil which
may vary with soil type. Rates of B application
also vary depending on the soils and the crops
grown. Deficiency of B restricts crop growth and
yield, sometimes may even lead to crop failure.
Therefore, proper information and knowledge
about the different soil properties and crop types are
required for formulating appropriate B management
strategies. At the present context of Indian
agriculture, management of B deficient soils is very
important for maintaining higher productivity in a
sustainable manner.
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18 th World Congress of Soil Science, July 9-15, 2006-
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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NPK fertilizer in correcting boron deficiency in some
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54
Review Article Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Review on Integrated Pest Management in Muskmelon

Gurmeet Singh and Manoj Sharma
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kapurthala 144620 (Punjab)
Corresponding Author: gsghai75@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION muskmelon crops are red pumpkin beetle, melon

Muskmelon, also known as cantaloupe. Its
high water content helps to stay hydrated during
the hot season. Melons are divided into two groups
namely Citrullus (water melons) and Cucumis
(muskmelon-cantalupe group). The muskmelon is
a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also
includes cucumbers, watermelons and honey dew,
Persian, Casaba, and Crenshaw melons. Muskmelon
(Cucumis melo L.) is one of the most important
crops grown all over the world (Kaur et al., 2017).
It is highly relished because of its flavour, sweet
taste and refreshing effect. It is a good source of
dietary fibre, beta-carotene, folic acid, potassium,
vitamins C and A. Muskmelon not only helps to
stay healthy but is also good for skin and hair. A
number of muskmelon hybrids and varieties are
grown in different regions of India which are highly
variable in shape, size, colour, netting, sweetness
and flavour.
Muskmelon is grown in limited commercial
acreage in Punjab. The main muskmelon producing
districts are Kapurthala, Jalandhar and Patiala from
where produce is exported to different parts of the
country namely Mumbai, Kolkata and Jammu and
Kashmir. Kaur et al (2017), reported that the total
area under muskmelon crop in district Kapurthala
during 2016-17 was about 1700 ha and per cent area
under different hybrids was found to be 35 % (Farm
Glory), 30 % (Madhu), 25 % (Golden Glory), 7 %
(Kesar) and 3 % (Bobby, Muskan, Inthanon, Sunny
and Sharda Chand). All these varieties were found
highly susceptible to the attack of insect pests and
diseases and a number of insect pests and diseases
cause serious damage to the muskmelon crop.
The important insect pests and diseases attacking
fruit fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae, fusarium wilt,
mosaic virus, downy mildew and leaf miner as
reported by Kaur et al (2016). A brief review of
these insect pests and diseases in given below.
Attack of red pumpkin beetle (Aulacophora
foveicollis, Lucas)
Kaur et al (2016) reported that farmers enquired
about the management of red pumpkin beetle in the
months of February and March which indicates that
this pest is a main problem during the early stage
of the crop. Both adults and grubs cause damage
to the crop. The grubs damage the plants by boring
into the roots, underground stems and sometimes
into the fruits touching the soil. The beetles are
also very destructive to cucurbitaceous vegetables,
particularly during March-April when the creepers
are very young. The beetles injure the cotyledons,
flowers and foliage by biting holes into them. To
manage this pest, farmers usually apply carbofuan
at sowing time which is systemic in nature (Kaur
et al., 2016). The adult stage of this pest is highly
mobile particularly during the mid day when the
temperature is high in the environment. Hence, the
adult stage cannot be easily managed by spraying any
insecticide. Carbofuran, being systemic in nature,
when applied at the time of sowing take care of both
the grubs and adult stage of the pest irrespective of
the time and stage of the pest and hence is effective
even during the mid day. At the same time, hidden
stages of the pest are difficult to manage by the use
of contact insecticides. Hence, spray treatment with
any of the contact insecticide remains ineffective
for the control of grubs living in the soil. Also, for
effective management of the adult stage of this pest,
spray should be planned during the early hours of

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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

the day with the use of contact insecticide Sevin/ Leaf miner attack
Hexavin which appears to be only the weak link in This pest feeds on a large number of cruciferous
its life cycle (Anon, 2017). Besides the chemical plants. Its attack appeared in the field in the month
control, following non-chemical control measures of April (50% samples) and May (50% samples) as
are also helpful for its management. is reported by Kaur et al (2016). This insect becomes
Cultural control: The creepers should be removed a pest when urea is applied at a higher quantity than
and destroyed at the end of the season with a view recommended. With the result, the leaves become
to prevent the beetles from overwintering among succulent and hence more prone to the attack of
them in the field. The crop should be sown early in leaf miner. Larvae make prominent whitish tunnels
the season so that the plants pass the cotyledonary in the leaves and interfere with photosynthesis
stage by the time the beetles become active. and proper growth of the plants making them look
unattractive. For effective control of any pest, it is
Mechanical control: The orange red beetles, important to study the life cycle of the pest and find
being conspicuous, can be easily collected in the the weakest link in the life cycle. The adults are
morning when they are sluggish. Such an operation two winged flies having greyish black mesonotum
is feasible in the initial stages in situations where and yellowish frons. The minute slender larvae
the area involved is small. The collected insects can can be seen feeding within the tunnels. The adults
be killed by putting them in water with a layer of lay eggs singly, in leaf tissues. The eggs hatch
kerosene oil on it. and the larvae feed between the lower and upper
Attack of Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) in epidermis by making zig-zag tunnels. The larvae
muskmelon when full grown pupate within the galleries and the
It is a polyphagous pest and attack appears in adults emerge from the pupae later on. As the egg,
the field on the muskmelon crop in the month of larval and pupae stage of the pest remains hidden
April (16.7% samples) and May (83.3 % samples) inside the leaf; these stages are difficult to manage
when the crop was at its flowering stage (Kaur et al., with the application of any contact insecticide and
2016). The adult lays majority of eggs on the upper hence results in poor control. For effective spray,
and lower surfaces of the leaves. The larvae scrape spray one litre of dimethoate 30 EC in 250 litres
the foliage until early or late second in star larvae of water per ha and repeat spray at 15 d interval.
stage and then reach into the flowers and feeds there. A recommended waiting period should be observed
The full grown larvae pupate in the soil. As the egg for picking the melon fruits.
and larval stage of this pest remains exposed, hence Downy mildew in muskmelon
pest is easily managed at the farmer’s own level. The disease is caused by Pseudoperonospora
The following practices should be followed for its cubensis which is a biotroph. Maximum number
effective management. of samples was received by the KVK infected with
Mechanical control: Hand picking of the older this disease (48.4% samples) as reported by Kaur
larvae during early hours of the day is helpful et al (2016). The disease appeared in the field from
as these are less susceptible to the insecticides. April to June but was more severe in the month of
Spraying should be carried out in the evening hours. May (60.0% samples). As far as the symptoms of
Chemical control:- Use 250 ml of fenvalerate 20 the disease are concerned, the pale green areas are
EC or 200 ml of cypermethrin 25 EC or 400 ml separated by islands of darker green. Soon these
of deltamethrin 2.8 EC in 625 litres of water per spots become well defined. They are angular, yellow
hectare at the start of flowering when the attack and often restricted by veins on the upper surface.
appears and repeat after two weeks, if necessary. On the lower side of these spots a purplish downy

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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

growth appears in moist weather which is not as Fusarium wilt and mosaic virus in muskmelon
conspicuous as in other downy mildew diseases. Both these diseases appeared in the month of
The entire leaf quickly dies. On infected vines fruits April. Wilt is a disease which is more prevalent
are few and small with poor taste. at higher temperature conditions when the
Cultural control: Some of the cultural practices temperature goes beyond 28° C. As the chemical
that help in reducing losses from the downy mildew control measure of this disease is not yet available,
are early sowing, destruction of weed hosts, proper hence it resulted in huge loss in the fields where
nutrition (high N and P and low K) and reducing the it occurred (Kaur et al., 2016). Although the plants
amount of moisture among the vines. are attacked at any stage of the growth, yet the
disease appeared in older plants probably may be
Chemical control: Although the chemical control due to rise in temperature in the month of April. The
measures are available but this disease could not be disease appeared as small, ill-defined, dark green
managed effectively, may be due to development or brownish spots on the leaves, drooping off the
of some more powerful resistant strain of this plants, and shrivelling of the leaves followed by
pathogen in the district Kapurthala as reported by death of the plants. The disease appears very late
Kaur et al (2016). Chemical control of the disease at the time of fruit development and hence the only
can be achieved through protectant and systemic symptom is premature ripening of the fruits.
fungicides. Among the protectant fungicides sprays
of mancozeb, zineb and Tricop-50 have been Management of the disease: Crop rotation
recommended. These fungicides do not eradicate provides some protection from the disease but is
the established infection hence prophylactic spray not very effective since the fungus can survive in
is essential for complete protection. Since infection soil for very long durations or it may exist on its
can occur at any stage of plant growth, spraying alternate hosts.
should be done at 5-7 days interval. Metalaxyl is Viral diseases are also difficult to control as no
effective in controlling the disease. However, quick chemical treatment is available till date. Hence it
emergence of resistant strains of the pathogen had results in 100 % cent loss in virus affected plants.
limited its use. In addition, fast growing nature of When it appears early in crop stage in the month of
the crop and difficulty in covering the lower sides of March, the farmers had to go for re-sowing of the
the leaf also makes chemical sprays uneconomical. field. It happened in the year 2012 when farmers
Frequent rains during the cucurbit season reduce had to go for re-sowing of their muskmelon field.
the fungicidal deposit on leaves. Under Punjab
conditions, spray of 750-1500g Indofil M-45/ The melon fruit fly (Bactrocera cucurbitae)
Kavach (Mancozeb) in 250-500 litres of water per The melon fruit fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae
hectare is recommended. First spray of the fungicide (Coquillett) is distributed widely in temperate,
should be done in the second week of April before tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. It has
the appearance of the disease. Six more sprays of been reported to damage 81 host plants and is a major
the fungicide are recommended after the first one at pest of cucurbitaceous vegetables, particularly the
an interval of one week. Do spray immediately after bitter gourd (Momordica charantia), muskmelon
the rain. In case of severe infection, instead of third (Cucumis melo) and snake gourd (Trichosanthes
and fourth spray of Indofil M-45, spray Ridomil anguina). The extent of loss varies between 30
MZ @ 1250g or Alliette @ 1500g per hectare in to 100% depending on the cucurbit species and
500 litres of water at an interval of 10 days. Give the season. Its infestation increases when the
last spray of M-45/Kavach (Mancozeb) @ 1500g temperature is below 32oC and the relative humidity
per hectare. ranges between 60 to 70%. Adult flies lay its eggs 2
to 4mm deep in the young, green and soft skinned

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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

fruit tissues and maggots feed inside the fruit. The melon fruit fly management is the field sanitation.
developed maggots come out of the ripened fruit To break the reproduction cycle and population
and bury themselves into the soil where pupation increase, growers need to remove all unharvested
occurs at 0.5 to 15 cm below the soil surface. After fruits or vegetables from a field by completely
about a week time, they emerge as flies and reach burying them deep into the soil. Burying of
the ripened fruit for further multiplication. The damaged fruits 0.46 m deep into the soil prevents
pest hibernates under the soil in the winter season adult fly eclosion and reduces population increase
as pupa and during the whole winter remains as Klungness et al (2005).
pupa in the soil. Most of the insecticides available Monitoring and control with parapheromone
in the market are contact insecticides and are able lures: It is a technique in which males are eliminated
to kill the exposed stages of the pest. As no stage by mass trapping them in pheromone traps. The
of the fruit fly is exposed and hence the pest in combination of male annihilation technique and
not killed by spray of any contact insecticide and bait application technique of fruit fly control proved
hence results in huge loss. Therefore, there is a highly effective with 37-61 % decrease in fruit
need to explore alternative methods of control, and infestation and 20-30.3 per cent increase in yield. A
develop an integrated control strategy for effective total of 25 traps/hectare containing synthetic fruit fly
management of this pest in cucurbits. lure were used at each location. Roomi et al (1993)
The fruits of muskmelon, of which the melon reported that melon fruit fly can be controlled by
fly is a serious pest, are picked up at short intervals using Ocimum sanctum as border crop sprayed
for marketing and self consumption. Therefore, with protein bait containing spinosad as a toxicant.
it is difficult to rely on insecticides as a means of Biological Control: There are no reports on the
controlling this pest. In situations where chemical successful use of bio-control agents against the
control of melon fruit fly becomes necessary, one has melon fruit fly. Srinivasan (1994) reported Opius
to rely on soft insecticides with low residual toxicity fletcheri Silv. to be a dominant parasitoid of B.
and short waiting periods. Therefore, keeping in curcurbitae, but the efficacy of this parasitoid has
view the importance of the pest and crop, the melon not been tested under field conditions in India.
fruit fly management could be done using local area Different authors reported variation in parasitisation
management. The aim of local area management is of B. cucurbitae by O. flatcheri to a great extent.
to suppress the pest, rather than eradicate it. Under Thus there is a need to reevaluate the parasitisation
this management option a number of methods such potential of O. flatcheri before its exploitation
as bagging of fruits, field sanitation, protein baits as biocontrol agent for the management of B.
and cue lure traps, host plant resistance, biological cucurbitae.
control and soft insecticides can be employed to
keep the pest population below economic threshold. Host plant resistance: It is an important component
These management practices avoid crop losses in integrated pest management. It is an environment
without health and environmental hazards, which is friendly method with no extra cost to the farmers.
the immediate concern of the today’s time. Unfortunately success in developing high yielding
and fruit fly resistant varieties has been limited but
Bagging of fruit: Bagging of fruit with 2 layers of there is a distinct possibility in developing resistant
paper bags at 2 to 3 day intervals minimizes fruit fly cultivated genotypes by transferring resistant genes
infestation and increases the net return by 40 to 58I from wild relatives of cucurbits.
(Jaiswal et al., 1997). It is an environmentally safe
method for the management of this pest. Chemical control: Chemical control of melon fruit
fly is relatively ineffective whereas insecticides
Field sanitation: The most effective method in such as malathion, dichlorvos, phosphamidon and

58
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
endosulfan are moderately effective against the
melon fly. Bhatnagar and Yadava (1992) reported
malathion to be more effective than carbaryl and
quinalphos on bottle gourd, sponge gourd and ridge
gourd. The application of molasses + malathion
and water in the ratio of 1:0.1:100 provides good
control of melon fly (Akhtaruzzaman et al, 2000).
Chughtai and Baloch (1988) reported dichrotophos
at 600 g/ha and trichlorfon at 1920 g/ha effective
for the control of B. cucurbitae in muskmelon.
Diflubenzuron and triazophos has been reported
to be effective against this pest (Mishra and Singh,
1999 and Reddy, 1997). The bait spray containing
0.05 per cent malathion plus 1 per cent sugar/gur
at the rate of 20 l/acre may be sprayed at weekly
interval, if the fruit fly is a serious pest. Since
the fruit flies have a habit of resting on the near
underside of the maize leaves, therefore, spraying
of the maize plants, grown near the cucurbitaceous
plants in the kitchen gardens, is also an effective
method for reducing the incidence of the pest.
CONCLUSION
Muskmelon (Cucumis melo L.) is one of the
most important crops grown all over the world and
is highly relished because of its flavour, sweet taste
and refreshing effect but due to its susceptibility to
the attack of insect pests and diseases, these agents
cause serious damage to the muskmelon crop and
hence reduction in yield. Both grubs and adults
of the red pumpkin beetle cause damage to the
muskmelon. As grubs remain hidden in the soil,
hence soil treatment with carbofuran is effective.
Carbofuran, being systemic in nature, when applied
at the time of sowing take care of both the grubs
and adult stage of the pest. The crop should be
sown early in the month of November so that the
plants pass the cotyledonary stage by the time the
beetles become active. Also, the orange red beetles,
being conspicuous, can be easily collected in the
morning when they are sluggish and killed by
putting them in water with a layer of kerosene oil
on it. Bigger larvae of H. armigera are resistant to
insecticides, hence hand picking of the older larvae
during early hours of the day is helpful. To increase
efficacy of insecticides, spraying should be done
in the evening hours. As far as the management of
leaf miner is concerned, this insect becomes a pest
due to increase in leaf succulence by more urea
application, hence nitrogenous fertilizers should be
applied at the recommended doses. Secondly, egg,
larval and pupal stage of the pest remains hidden
inside the leaf and hence are difficult to manage
with the application of any contact insecticide and
hence good control can always be achieved by
application of systemic insecticides. Crop rotation
is the only alternative method for the control
of fusarium wilt. Cultural practices that help in
reducing losses from the downy mildew are early
sowing, destruction of weed hosts, proper nutrition
(high N and P and low K) and reducing the amount
of moisture among the vines. At the same time,
chemicals are also effective for its management.
Melon fruit fly Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett)
is a serious and most damaging insect pest and
requires scientific knowhow for its management.
To break the reproduction cycle and population
increase, field sanitation by removing and burying
all unharvested fruits or vegetables deep into the
soil is required. Also burying of damaged fruits
0.46 m deep into the soil prevents adult fly eclosion
and reduces population increase. Use of pheromone
traps for monitoring of the pest as well as for mass
trapping is helpful.
REFERENCES
Akhtaruzzaman M, Alam MZ and Ali-Sardar M M.2000.
Efficiency of different bait sprays for suppressing fruit
fly on cucumber. Bulletin of the Institute of Tropical
Agriculture, Kyushu University, 23: 15-26.
Anonymous.2017.Package of practices for vegetables
cultivation, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana,
pp 30-31
Bhatnagar K N and Yadava S R S.1992. An insecticidal trial
for reducing the damage of some cucurbitaceous fruits
due to Dacus cucurbitae Coq. Indian J Ent 60: 417-419
Chughtai C G and Baloch V K.1988. Insecticidal control of
melon fruit fly. Pakistan J Ento Res 9: 192-194.
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Jaiswal J P, Gurung T B and Klungness L M.1998. Depth of
pupation in four species of fruit flies in sand with and
without moisture. J Economic Ento 91: 138-142.
Kaur A, Sharma M, Manan J and Bindu.2017. Comparative
performance of muskmelon (Cucumis melo) hybrids at
farmers’ field in district Kapurthala. J Krishi Vigyan 6(1):
24-31.
Kaur G, Singh G, Sharma M, Singh G and Manan J .2016.
Use of plant Disease Diagnostic laboratory in identifying
insect pests and diseases of fruit and vegetable crops. J
Krishi Vigyan 5(1): 107-113.
Klungness L M, Jang E B, Mau R F L, Vargas R I, Sugano
J S and Fujitani E.2005. New approaches to sanitation
in a cropping system susceptible to tephritid fruit flies in
Hawaii. J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Mgt. 9: 5-15
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Mishra P N and Singh M P.1999. Studies on the ovicidal
action of diflubenzuron on the eggs of Dacus cucurbitae
damaging cucumber. Annals of Pl Prot Sci 7: 94-96.
Reddy AV.1997. Evaluation of certain new insecticides against
cucurbit fruit fly on bitter gourd. Annals Agril Res 18:
252-254.
Roomi M W, Abbas T, Shah A H, Robina S, Qureshi A A,
Hussain S S and Nasir K A.1993. Control of fruit flies
(Dacus spp.) by attractants of plant origin. Anzeiger fur
Schadlingskunde, Aflanzenschutz, Umwdtschutz 66:155-
157.
Srinivasan K .1994. Recent trends in insect pest management
in vegetable crops. In: Dhaliwal GS, Arora R eds. Trends
in Agricultural Insect Pest Management, pp. 345-372.
Commonwealth Publishers, New Delhi, India.
Review Article Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Roles, Values and Rights of Indian Women in the

Prospective of Modern Agriculture – A Review
Sunita Kushwah
Subject Matter Specialist (Horticulture) KVK, Banka
Corresponding Author: sunita17kk@rediffmail.com

ABSTRACT
Rural women are the main producers of the world’s staple crops - rice, wheat, maize - which provide up
to 90 percent of the rural poor’s food intake. Women sow, weed, apply fertilizer and pesticides, harvest
and thresh the crops. Their contribution to secondary crop production, such as legumes and vegetables, is
even greater. Grown mainly in home gardens, these crops provide essential nutrients and are often the only
food available during the lean seasons or if the main harvest fails. Women’s specialized knowledge about
genetic resources for food and agriculture makes them essential. In the livestock sector, women feed and
milk the larger animals, while raising poultry and small animals such as sheep, goats, rabbits and guinea
pigs. Also, once the harvest is in, rural women provide most of the labour for post-harvest activities, taking
responsibility for storage, handling, stocking, processing and marketing An advisor to the Chennai-based
M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF), on education, communication and gender, she had
conceived the idea and worked on developing such a curriculum since 1999. The agricultural universities,
the ICAR or the research system, the Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK) the entire agricultural bureaucracy is
gender insensitive. FAO studies demonstrate that while women in most developing countries are the mainstay
of agricultural sectors, the farm labour force and food systems (and day-to-day family subsistence), they
have been the last to benefit from - or in some cases have been negatively affected by - prevailing economic
growth and development processes. Gender bias and gender blindness persist: farmers are still generally
perceived as ‘male’ by policy-makers, development planners and agricultural service deliverers. For this
reason, women find it more difficult than men to gain access to valuable resources such as land, credit
and agricultural inputs, technology, extension, training and services that would enhance their production
capacity. Images of rural India carry pictures of graceful women balancing fuel wood on their heads, or
bent over double, weeding, transplanting, collecting forest produce, often with a baby slung over her back.
But the reality is that of a backbreaking and endless cycle of work, invisible, unheard, and with no control
over access to the means of production or the fruits of her labour. The rural woman’s lack of access to and
control over resources, an increase in the daily vulnerabilities that arise from the outmigration of males into
urban centre’s and into other professions, endemic poverty and her location in a deeply patriarchal society
— all increasingly demand gender - sensitive policies in the agriculture sector (Mehta and Ghosh, 2004).
Key words: Rural women, gender mainstreaming, gender sensitization, women labour.

INTRODUCTION services, technologies, information or remunerative

Gender issues in agriculture have become
important areas of discussion and debate among
researchers, development experts and policy makers
as well. To be precise, it is the prevailing inequities
between men and women that are causes of concern
for all of us. Whether it is low productivity of
workers, access to productive resources and
opportunities and benefits from agriculture, gender
differences are quite discernible. It is apprehended
that such inequities, if allowed to persist and
perpetuate, would push a large section of workers
particularly women into a vicious circle of poverty,
poor health and low productivity. Certainly, this
would not augur well for Indian agriculture that

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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

is waiting for a second green revolution to usher. 3. The watershed development programmes
Considering the fact that women are an important provide for the involvement of women farmers
segment of agricultural work force supporting in the constitution of watershed associations and
the sector has also a bearing on development of other institutional arrangements and formation
agriculture sector as a whole. That is why gender of women SHGs.
mainstreaming in agriculture is accepted as a 4. Mechanization and Technology: Under the
process that can free the agriculture sector many of scheme, ‘Outsourcing and Demonstration of
its ills rooted in gender biasness and blindness of Newly-developed Agricultural Equipment
the system (Rasheed Sulaiman, 2003). including Horticultural Equipment at Farmers’
The Planning Commission, Government of Fields’, the gender friendly equipments are
India, constituted a Working Group in the field of distributed among farm women. Besides,
Agriculture focusing on Gender Issues, Panchayat the farm women are also benefited through
Raj Institutions, Public Private Partnership, and the subsidy/component of gender-friendly
Innovative Finance & Micro Finance in Agriculture agricultural implements and hand tools.
for the Eleventh Five Year Plan on 14 August 2006. 5. Cooperation: Four exclusive projects are being
The Working Group was the last to be set up for the run under the special scheme “Intensification
Eleventh plan and it covered four separate areas of Cooperative Education in the Cooperatively
related to Agriculture under its purview. Under-developed States” for bringing rural
What is required is conscious and concerted women into cooperative fields.
efforts To push forward the process that would 6. The Way Forward: The foremost mandate of
help generate and promote technologies, policies the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation
and institutions based on realistic assessment of is to improve production, productivity and
gender roles and needs. In such an endeavor it is agricultural growth rate. Action has been
the scientists and extension specialists that have a initiated to revisit the schemes / programme to
larger role to play and hence need to equip them learn the current status of ‘gender impact’ of
with new knowledge, skill and tools to face the these programmes; identify components having
challenge (Mehta, 2004). better potential for involvement of women;
Role of government in gender mainstreaming in earmark specific targets and allocations for
agriculture in India involvement of women in those components
1. The State Horticulture Missions have been and revise related reporting formats.
directed to earmark at least 30 per cent of the Ways of gender main streaming in agriculture
budget allocation for women beneficiaries in • To Strengthen Skills, Capacities, Access to
all ongoing programmes under the National Technology and Empower Women: Women
Horticulture Mission and Technology Mission participate in all activities related to agriculture,
for Horticulture in North-Eastern states, Sikkim, except ploughing. Farmwomen continue to be
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and poorly skilled, low paid and prone to exploitation.
Uttarakhand (TMNE) in India. Women are left out of many formal training
2. The scheme, ‘Support to States Extension programmes and excluded from coverage of
Programme for Extension Reforms’, aims to extension services, thereby relegating them to
provide demand-driven extension services secondary positions in agricultural work, in
through the active involvement of farmers/ families, farms and the community. In many
women farmers/subject matter specialists/ cases, landless women get left out of training
NGOs/KVKs, etc. programmes (Dhawan,2006).
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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Indian states – there should be special recruitment

of women agricultural/ veterinary/fishery officers
to overcome the social barrier faced by male
officers.
Engendering Agriculture through Access to
Land and Assets: Women face severe disadvantages
as farmers due to their lack of access to land
(property) and title to it. The Indian Constitution
accepts basic equality between men and women.
However, women were discriminated against men
in several ways. (Amendment) Act (HSAA) 2005
is a landmark act that confers gender equality in
Paddy cultivation through SRI, District - Nalanda (Bihar) property right over land, joint family property,
There must be an increased focus on landless women, parental dwelling house and certain widows’ rights.
so as to include them in various technical and other The HSAA 2005 brings all agricultural land on par
training activities. There must be a reorientation of with other property and makes Hindu women’s
schemes targeted for the poor, towards more long inheritance rights in land legally equal to men’s
term inputs and services. The methodologies, time across states, overriding any inconsistencies in state
duration, location and other factors of programme laws. This can benefit millions of women dependent
design must be appropriate to the needs of women. on agriculture for survival. The act also includes
One example is improved tools for transplanting that all daughters, including married daughters, as
eliminates constant bending down. More drudgery- coparceners in joint family property, and provides
reducing technology for women must be introduced equal rights to daughters and sons to the family
so that it may reduce women’s workloads, leading dwelling house. It will reduce vulnerability and
at the very least to, better health. poverty of women, as it will empower women to
control over decision making process at par with
A number of women graduates are coming men. In short, ownership of land by women can
from our agricultural universities and they should make significant improvement in terms of poverty
be given opportunities in employment in the reduction and agricultural growth.
villages. The women workers should also be trained
in managerial and entrepreneurial capabilities toSome Additional Recommendations for gender
lead the village women in modern technology and main streaming: In addition, we recommend the
agriculture. The Indian Council of Agricultural following for empowering women in agriculture:
1. Special component plan should be
Research is operating 540 KVKs distributed all over
India and the number may be go to 589 in the 11th strengthened, by adapting the holistic approach
Five Year Plan. The Planning Commission should of the UNDP-Project. The relatively higher cost
give a directive that officials in the KVKs be genderin the UNDP-project could be met by pooling
sensitized and activities of KVKs engendered resources from the ongoing schemes of other
(Kushwah et al., 2015) and (Bandyopadhyay, 2004). departments or, adopting a commonly shared
There should be special thrust and direction approach with coordinated strategy for project
for women scientists to work in the villages implementation so as to cover a large number
and also train the rural women in particular. of beneficiaries with substantial impact on each
To encourage increased enrollment of girls in of them.
agricultural education – especially in the North 2. Involvement of NGOs in project design, setting

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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

up of priorities with respect to areas and group of enabled groups of women farmers to take
beneficiaries, and project execution, and setting their own decisions and (2) a well designed
up priorities in terms of marginal areas (such as programme at the local level can ensure food
arid-semiarid; forest based; hilly; coastal; and security and empower local (women) farmers
flood prone) and segments of women (widows groups. In short, food security and women’s
and women headed; Scheduled castes and empowerment are closely linked with each
tribes; and landless/land poor). other.
3. Promotion of group cultivation (consisting of 3. Livelihood Security Approach: It needs
women’s groups) by providing special subsidies to be underlined that though information
in order to overcome investment constraints. dissemination, training and capacity building,
Providing CPLRs on lease to women’s groups credit etc are necessary for women’s
on lease for 20-30 years. empowerment, they are not sufficient to
4. Promotion of grain and seed banks, especially ensure their empowerment. That is, women’s
in highly poverty stricken and remote areas. empowerment needs women’s land rights,
access to credit, skills, technology etc, and
5. Identify the processes/technology for reducing support services to reduce work load and
drudgery. drudgery.
Enhance special subsidy for promoting 4. Price Support and PDS: Price support at
sustainable farming: practices involving low present is limited to a few crops and therefore
external inputs, especially in areas where poor it covers only a few states. There is a need
households are already abstaining from using to expand the number of crops so as to cover
chemical inputs due to higher cost (organic by larger number of farmers and states. Also,
default). Need is to provide these poor households procurement should be done in all the regions
a special support for increasing the productivity in a decentralized manner. Inclusion of coarse
without increasing the use of chemical inputs. cereals in the PDS will help here.
1. Reforms in Agricultural Extension: We 5. Technological Empowerment of Women
agree here with the recommendations of the in Agriculture: A unique attempt for
Working Group on Agricultural Extension technological empowerment of women
that has tried to incorporate gender concerns. in agriculture initiated under the National
A major recommendation of the Working Agricultural Technology Project of the Indian
Group is a holistic approach, which had been Council of Agriculture Research. The faculty
missed till now. The recently introduced in its approach conducts trainings in the
cafeteria approach provides scope for villages rather than in the training centers.
undertaking location specific activities from The result of this specific design of training
a large menu of schemes. What is needed is programme has resulted in the increase in
effective implementation & monitoring of the receptivity of these women to technology
this approach keeping in mind the interests of related information.
women workers.
2. Empowering Women through Food Women empowerment in Multiple States:
Security: Government of India and UNDP 1. Revolving Funds for Women Farmers UNDP
has initiated innovative projects for women in the states of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and
in agriculture. The projects have clearly Uttar Pradesh provides revolving fund to the
shown that (1) the project has facilitated and women’s groups in form of grant to groups and

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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

loan to members. Women’s farmer groups used 4. Women Engaged in Cash Crop Cultivation:
these funds for leasing of land, land up gradation A state level pilot project, Lokshakti is involved
and purchase of agricultural inputs. The in Jatropha cultivation implemented by a
communities give support for seed banks, 15-member women group in Mayurbhanj and
grain banks, biogas plants, solar lanterns. Such Keonjhar district of Orissa. The women are
investments and capacity building, have built involved in beetle leaf and paddy cultivation
an enabling environment for women farmers. along with golden grass cultivation in Puri
2. Kisan Credit Cards for Women Farmers: The district. The women SHGs are active in
government has commenced promoting ‘kisan vegetable cultivation also. Similar initiatives
credit cards’ pro-actively in parts of Nainital engaging women in cash cropping had positive
district. As per the National Agriculture Policy a positive impact on their income levels.
announced in July 2000, the Kisan credit cards 5. Recommendations for minimum and equal
provide cover incase of accidental death and wages: Article 43 states the state shall endeavor
permanent disability (Khatkar et al., 2004). It by suitable legislation or economic organization
offers reduction in the rate of interest as per the or in any other way, to give all workers,
scheme on bank loans. The scheme provides agricultural, industrial or otherwise, a minimum
scope for women farmers to gain from the wage and conditions of work ensuring a decent
incentive offered. standard of living. Despite these regulations,
3. Women Friendly Agricultural Tools : wages tend to be grossly unequal and activities
The Lakshmi Ashram in Kasauni works on of women remain undervalued.1 It is therefore
environmental and education programme in recommended that Planning Commission
surrounding areas for disadvantaged girls and should ensure the enforcement of minimum
women. They have developed farm tools & wage and equal wage legislation so that all
machinery for reducing the burden on women. agricultural workers get the minimum wage and
These tools target women who toil hard on the conditions of work ensuring a decent standard
fields and are engaged in various farm activities. of living.
Cheap and light sickles developed especially 6. Integrated Farming Systems Approach
for women have proved to be extremely useful.  by Women: Women in the SAID program
in Madhya Pradesh in Chindwara and Betul
districts have sought to restore the balance in
their communities through a multipronged
approach. They have made efforts towards
improved land quality for agriculture, water
availability and access through small water
structure construction. They set up community
owned grain and seed banks. Women manage
and control the produce, and also undertake
supplementary activities like Goat rearing.
7. Decentralized Food Production and
Distribution: Deccan Development Society is
implementing a food security programme with
Tribal women cultivating Chilli through SHG,
2000 women. In this programme they grow,
Block-Chandan, District- Banka, Bihar store and consume food locally. Due to the

65
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
initiative the food security and the nutritional
status of dalit women, children and men has
been enhanced. Alternative methodology of low
input agriculture with bio-fertilizer, including
vermi-compost  are practiced and women
trained in adopting non-chemical practices for
pest management. (Mehta and Ghosh, 2005).
8. Promoting Micro – Entrepreneurship among
Women : The Kudumbashree model facilitates
participation of poor women in the planning,
implementation and monitoring of several
poverty reduction programmes, which includes
farming and allied activities. It provides resource
support and facilitates forward/backward
Bandyopadhyay A. 2005.  National Agricultural Technology
linkages to promote micro-entrepreneurship
among poor women
Women today play a pivotal role in agriculture
- as female agricultural labour, as farmers, co-
farmers, female family labour and (with male out-
migration, widowhood, etc) as managers of farms
and farm entrepreneurs. Three-fourths of women
workers are in agriculture. Women work extensively
in production of major grains and millets, in land
preparation, seed selection and seedling production,
sowing, applying manure, fertilizer and pesticide,
weeding, transplanting, threshing, winnowing and
harvesting; in livestock production, fish processing,
collection of non-timber forest produce (NTFP)
etc. Keeping milch animals, small ruminants and
backyard poultry is an important source of income
for poor farm families and agricultural labourers.
Landless women agricultural labourers play a
pivotal role as they are involved in most of the
agricultural operations. Landless women also lease
in land for cultivation. The majority of workers
66
involved in collection of non-timber forest produce
(NTFP) are women, particularly tribal women.
Women also augment family resources through
tasks such as collection of fuel, fodder, drinking
water and water for family members and
domestic animals. So gender main streaming
can be done by the livelihood promotion of rural
women, to provide property rights, education,
food security, adoption of integrated farming
systems, equal wages etc. Government can
be played an important role for the gender
mainstreaming in agriculture in India.
REFERENCES
Project, ICAR, New Delhi) Indian Council of Agricultural
Research; Annual Report 2004 – 2005.  
Dhawan S. 2006. National Research Centre for women in
Agriculture, Bhubaneswar & Bhopal. http://www.
nrcwa.org/
Khatkar R K, Singh V K, Luhach V P and Kharinta S K. 2005.
Role of Kisan Credit Cards and self help groups in rural
financing in Haryana. Indian J Agril Econ 60(3) : 393-94.
Kushwah S, Mondal S K and Maurya A K.2015. Role of
KVK’s retaining youth in agriculture for sustainable
development. Progressive Agri- An International J 10
(special IV): 2311-2313.
Mehta A K. 2004. The Budget: A Gender and Poverty
Sensitive Perspective, National Commission for Women,
2004, Climbing a Long Road, MSSRF, Chennai.
Mehta A K and Ghosh S. 2005. Globalization, Loss of
Livelihoods and Entry into Poverty, Alternative
Economic Survey, 2004-05, Daanish Books, New Delhi.
Pillai B. 2004. Gender and Food Security in Agriculture.
Center for sustainable Agriculture, Sweden .http://www.
cul.slu.se/english/index.html
Rasheed S. 2003. Cafeteria for Women in Agriculture. CRISP,
Hyderabad. NCAP Working Paper 4.
Review Article Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Socio-Economic Considerations of Valorization of Food

Processing By-Product
Ananth, P.N1#, Kalidoss Radhakrishnan 2, Natarajan, P3 and J.K. Sundaray2
Krishi Vigyan Kendra-Khordha, ICAR-Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751002
ICAR-Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751002
Department of Biology, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Hawassa University, Ethiopia
#Corresponding Author: ananthkvk100@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION public-private partnerships (PPPs) can be suitable

Valorization of wastes and byproducts has
become a desirable solution for efficient management
of voluminous wastes generated n various industries.
This is especially true for the food industry; in fact,
often its by-products contain high concentrations of
compounds with interesting properties, with many
possible uses. In short the concept is “recycling”
that makes waste a wealth”. It is significant for the
urban and rural sectors towards adopting innovative
techniques for different purposes viz., to manage
wastes and generate income through different
recycling methods. Convinced recycling methods
were very much confined to rural areas in earlier
days. However, in the recent days there has been
much concern from Research and Development
Centers to transfer recycling techniques to small
and subsistence rural communities for socio-
economic development in increasing farm and
animal production. It should be realized that the
process of economic and social value addition from
innovation and research is a complex and iterative
process. Some of the recycling techniques have been
“Miracles of science” adopting low and external
inputs with adequate scientific knowledge and skill.
Adoption of new technology requires dedicated
efforts to achieve the objectives through investment
of human and financial resources. Valorization can
be realized through various processes in various
institutional settings. We can distinguish between
valorization processes that lead to new business
opportunities of established firms and those that
lead to the start of a new company. For the first type,
instruments. PPPs are consortia of publically
funded research organizations (universities and
research institutes) and companies. With the above
background this paper attempts to review the socio-
economic considerations of Valorization of the food
processing by Products.
Food Processing Industry
Food industries, large and small, are multiplying
rapidly in many countries as a consequence of
globalization of markets and lifting of trade barriers.
Food processing industry generates wastes and
as by-products. The reduction of food processing
by-products and their environmental impact is
important for health, aesthetics and norms and
regulations of our society. In recent decades, due
to ever-increasing inputs of chemical energy and
advanced technology in food production, there is
growing concern about competition and the impact
of these on the local and global environment. With
population increase and the impact of global climate
change, food production has become the main
concern at present and in the future. In Europe,
food-processing activities produce large amounts
of by-products and wastes, about 2.5 x 108 ton
year−1 (AWARENET 2004). According to another
estimate, total organic waste produced in Europe,
about 2500 million tons per year, out of which food
processing by-products and organic household
wastes are 250 and 200 million tons respectively.
The cities of low- and middle income countries,
bio-degradable fractions range between 44 % and

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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

87% in weight (Obeng and Wright 1987). Similar identification of techniques towards reduction on the
ranges upto 85 % are also reported by Cointreau costly external inputs. Barriers to commercialization
et al. (1985) for low-income countries. The degree should be analyzed for each innovation of
of urbanization and modernization tend to have a Valorization. Barriers for commercialization for
profound effect on the production and composition simple innovations like “Cotton wastes can be
of solid waste. High content of organic matter (50- used for Mushroom Production” needs to critically
90%) proved suitable for composting (Allison et al, analyzed for scaling up. Such kind of works have
1998, Asomani-Boateng and Haight, 1999). Organic been carried out by a Cell developed by Indian
matter in municipal solid waste in selected African Institute of Science the “Application of Science and
cities were 56 % in Ibadan, 75 % in Kampala, 85 Technology Rural Areas (ASTRA)”.
% in Accra, 94 % in Kigali and 51 % in Nairobi Food Wastes and By-Products
(Asomani-Boateng and Haight 1999). However, the In many urban and rural areas, the local
volume and composition of solid waste also vary community has long been suffering from a
with season (GFA-Umwelt, 1999). Also, in recent problem of unmanaged solid and liquid food
years, most countries of Asia, Africa and Latin processing by-products and wastes. The situation
America numerous small farmers engaged in food has been worsening with population increase and
production are struggling to sustain because of fuel
economic development. For proper management,
and economic crisis, and under this circumstance, it is important to analyze the food processing by-
valorization or utilization food wastes and by- products and wastes for the identification of the
products can be a stimulus for regional developmentsources and estimation of quantities of all kinds of
which can increase the number of jobs and quality materials (Alvarez et al, 2008). It is observed that
of life. Many studies have established correlationsroughly half of all domestic wastes is organic and
between quantities and types of waste generated results mainly from food processing. The results of
and different socio-economic/ demographic factors. a survey in the Kiribati Island (Roniti 2005) showed
It has been found that there is a positive correlation
that the organic matter constituted more than half
between the level of income of the population and (51.3%) of the household waste with a mean daily
the quantity of waste generated (Dayal et al. 1993,generation of 2.55 kg/household/day. In Ethiopian
Hockett et al. 1995). It has also been reported that
cities and towns, household waste generation
the quantity of undesirable waste increases linearly
surveys indicated similar amounts and types
as population density increases and that household (Solomon 2011, Zuberi et al 2011). Of the domestic
income levels increase, the quantity of the organicwaste generated, wastes from food processing
waste fraction increase (Daskalopoulos et al.1998).constitutes around 20 to 40% depending on the
Many findings (Solomon 2011, Zuberi et al, 2011, economic status of the households, food wastes
Gangaiya 1994, ADB-1996, 1997) reported that arising from food manufacture and catering outlets
organic matter is a major component, above 50 %, is also of appreciable amounts. Compositional
of municipal wastes in many developing countries analysis of food processing by-product and waste
like South Tarawa (Kiribati Island), in Bangladesh,from characteristic industry, sites and user is
the food and vegetable waste was 68% (Enayetullah necessary for efficient utilization and re-processing.
and Hashmi, 2006) and in Ethiopia (Solomon, Typical source and valorization scope of the food
2011), and that composting and recycling of these waste and factors influencing yield, capture rates
wastes are feasible and economically viable. and conversion efficiency are key to successful
It is quite evident that certain valorization management. In case of certain commodities,
techniques are found to be high capital intensive like milk and milk products, processing results in
and skilled, hence the requirement will be towards production of by-products of a fixed nature in large

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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
quantities. Disposal of such wastes are difficult
and cause major environmental pollution. Recent
research on the valorization of high polluting liquid
wastes from dairy industry resulted in the production
of starter culture for cheese ripening. Similar
bioconversions of rapeseed meal, wheat milling
by-products and a host of other food processing
by-products have been achieved (Koutinas et al
2007, Wang 2010). These are examples of progress
already made. Food waste generation rates and
scale of production for on-site valorization vary
widely for specific communities especially in case
of domestic sources. Rural, peri-urban and urban
households, households belonging to different
economic strata and to different cultural/religious
origin may influence the type and amount of food
processing by-products and in the adoption of
technology. Thus, any valorization should consider
data and information on these socio-economic
aspects.
Another serious problem associated with crop
based food processing is the seasonality of crops,
fruits or vegetables. Production of the raw material
often may be limited to a certain period of the year
or in certain agro-ecological regions. So that the
activity has to be down-streamed in a short period
or multiple raw materials are to be accommodated
in the system. Scope of valorization was there and to
solve these problems, a number of food processing
industries in Bangladesh have diversified their
raw materials and products including fruits and
vegetables. There arose problems of ensuring a
steady, large enough and high quality raw material
supply, a large number of local farmers, large and
small, were involved as ‘contract growers’ – they
receive support from the processing companies
and supply products at predetermined price. Thus,
these food processing industries now play an
important socio-economic role in the sustainable
development of these localities; also there is further
scope of valorization regarding the food processing
by-products and wastes. Many such industries
are not treating or value adding the wastes, rather
disposing them off in the local environment creating
pollution problems. Also there are some specific
problems with food processing by-products, like
high water content of food wastes. Only through
biochemical conversion high conversion efficiency
can be obtained here, i.e. by anaerobic digestion
for methane. Profitable energy potential of the
bioconversion depends on (a) effective collection,
(b) efficient pre-processing and (c) selection of
optimum fuel conversion technology. Socio-
economic considerations for integration of these
aspects improving conversion efficiencies can
maximize the net energy gains.
Valorization: A Traditional Perspective
Rural community, now-a-days, offer a rather
heterogeneous food waste source for valorization
when integrated agriculture was replaced by
intensive mono crop system in many countries. Also
true, that often the homesteads in rural areas are of
mixed quality, ranging from the relatively few and
better serviced rich houses to the many impoverished
private houses with limited services. The social
structure and community organization are based
on rural economy dominated by agriculture and
traditional social systems. It is a general rule that
the domestic waste contains about 50 % of organic
food processing by-products, the remaining include
metals, glass, plastics, paper and others (Zuberi
et al. 2011, Roniti 2005). Also there is lack of
appropriate and proper waste management systems
in most of the towns and villages of Asia, Africa
and Latin America generally having detrimental
impact on health and environment (Solomon,
2011). Many food producing and processing
industries and companies are now located near
the raw material sources in rural settings, and
are adopting the principles of integrated farming
system, opting for useful outlet for by-products
and waste streams contributing to the sustainability
as well as economical and ecological health of
their processes. Such valorization of by-products
is illustrated by a number of cases such as corn,
vegetable oils and biodiesel production. On a site
soybean or rapeseed can be extracted and refined
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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

to produce edible oil which is used either for food Jaffe, 2004). Recycling not only improve waste
or the production of biodiesel. The cake is used for management process but also brings economic
feed, power or biogas and at the same site process benefit to those involved in it. A development
for food and for bio-ethanol via fermentation and project helped women from rural areas to set up
distillation corn and wheat. The residual waste micro-enterprises based on vermiculture technology
products after processing be used or sold as feed or and also to improve crop productivity by increasing
transformed into biogas. Also the blending of bio- soil fertility through ecological methods of farming
fuels with the fossil fuel is performed on the same (Wani, 2002). An analysis on the Nile Perch
location. A good example was the production of processing waste along the Lake Victoria in East
biodiesel (4000 l/day) in palm oil refineries in IvoryAfrica conducted by Gumisiriza et al ( 2009) infers
Coast and Cameroon. The communities associated that the current fish waste management system was
with palm oil production became less dependent on neither efficient not profitable. It is reported that
imported diesel oil by using the biodiesel without along Lake Victoria, there are 31 fish processing
disturbing the food supply, the palm oil fractions industries located in the major urban centres and
less suitable for human consumption are being used generate a lot of fish waste and large volumes of
as fuel, and valorization can be effective. fish processing wastewater. The waste management
methods employed is not efficiently treating the fish
But one of the major difficulty in utilizing the waste generated. With the currently limited options
food processing by-products and wastes in the less available for reuse or recycle fish wastes generated,
developed and developing countries is that recovery businesses in the fish processing sector are losing
of the wastes are not selective, so valorization of out on potential revenue from by-products from
very heterogeneous wastes is difficult in practice. fish waste and, waste disposal charges from perhaps
Most of these countries are socio-economically not unwittingly, illegal disposal of fish waste material.
equipped to adopt the habit of segregating wastes,
introduction of the knowledge and awareness In recent years, food industries in many countries
generation is needed. Also there is difference in like India, have been suffering from low growth.
food and food waste management within a society, The prices of processed food are much higher than
for example in USA differences were reported in that of fresh food, thus processed food faces strong
food quality between high and low socio-economic competition. One major strategy here is to increase
status areas (Koro et al 2010.) Recycling of wastes production efficiency by re-processing food wastes
is one of the prominent appropriate technologies and by-products. For many developing countries,
suggested for long term sustainability. The recovery the cost of the required technology for re-processing
of food processing by-products to be used again, food wastes is still too high, mostly due to the
after some cleaning or reprocessing is a very fact that the industry dealing with the integrated
common practice in many societies (Tchobanoglous valorization of food processing by-products, waste
et al, 1993), which ensures reduction in raw material and effluents is still underdeveloped and dominated
consumption, saves energy, reduces pollution and by processing costs. Besides, the technological
prevents the generation of waste. A reuse program developments to increase production yields and
saves money, in developing countries, due to poor lower operating costs, a detailed life cycle analysis
economic conditions, reusing of materials and of the valorization options should be undertaken
products is a standard practice and generally people to determine the most efficient combination
in the developing countries reuse much more than of valorization options to be implemented as a
people living in the developed countries. Recycling function of prevailing local conditions . For efficient
is usually the most environmental conscious and competition and sustainability, cost reduction
cost - effective method of waste disposal (Nas and maintaining efficiency and quality is critical for

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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

every industry including food. The widest possible • Capture rates; carbon and energy foot prints
means for valorizing the available technology and • Collection methods: costs and efficiency
research results on food processing by-products
utilization are to be adopted. Different aspects of • Processing/value addition/conversion costs,
the valorization of food processing by products efficiency and profitability
utilization to achieve cost reduction and increase • Environmental impacts/ pollution: mitigation
income, separation and selection of quality fractions cost
can be easily done from many fruit and vegetable
Social and Economic Issues in Promotion Of
processing by-products in many tropical production
Valorization
systems where seasonal fruits are abundant. Many
Effective valorization results in efficient waste
simple but advanced technologies are available
management in the urban and rural communities.
now for treating the waste in order to increase its
Studies indicated that the level of education,
value, also waste valorization reduces the overall
employment levels of the population and the
GHG emissions when diverted from landfills or
level of well being contribute to the effectiveness
direct release into the environment and makes waste
of waste management in a society (Alvarez et al,
management less expensive, thus increase income.
2008). The social and economic state of a society
One such example is to further the development of
influence the feeling and appreciation of the need
low-cost small-scale biogas upgrading technologies,
of valorization and also the success of the efforts of
for valorization of biofuel from organic wastes. In
valorization will also depend on the socio-economic
Tanzania coffee bean processing liquid by products
status. There are a number of serious obstacles
are processed by a new biogas convertor producing
for wide scale promotion of valorization in food
clean methane fuel Similarly, chocolate wastes
processing by-product management as well as in
from the factory in Birmingham (UK) are used to
other important aspects of development. Lack of
feed bacteria producing hydrogen, a high quality
awareness and very scarce scope of education and
fuel. In the Philippines portable biogas digester is
research on valorization is one key obstacle. Very
developed which can convert kitchen wastes into
few universities and research/training organization
gas used as fuel through fermentation. Also, there
offer courses/opportunities of education and
are attempts to create enabling environment too for
research on valorization. The objectives and aims
valorization, FP7 offers support dealing with useful
of curriculum development on valorization may be:
waste valorization through improved technology.
Many important aspects are to be considered • To provide training in new developments in the
for valorization of food processing by-products bio-production and by-product management
ultimately resulting in cost reduction, such as: chain, providing technical and scientific
education for the implementation of integrated
• Issue of scale, how much by product produced,
food, non-food and energy production.
spread over the year
• To enable candidates to a critical evaluation of
• Feasibility of recovery, how much material is
the introduction, adoption and popularization
recovered for reuse/reprocessing/treatment
of interdisciplinary technologies, new products
• Feasibility of processing, how much cost, how and evaluation of the environmental impact.
high technology, how pollution generating
• To train to understand and to analyze the
• Community/public/private: ownership and differences in quality, efficiency and safety of
responsibility production systems and technologies and to
• Composition: analysis of food processing y select the appropriate technology.
product, constituents
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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

• To provide knowledge of the importance of opportunities of university research and degree).

global environment, sustainable production and Knowledge creation, dissemination and utilization
technologies, consumer perception and ethics are key factors in valorization. For more successful
Another important social issue is the willingness and efficient utilization of food processing by-
of the community to accept the very idea of reuse, products and for effective valorization to that
recycling or re-processing of food and organic by- effect, the following steps are important: Fostering
products or the consumers’ willingness to consume environmental friendly solutions for food processing
food or other items recovered from by-products. by-products and wastes, residues, and effluents
This consumer rejection may be more common in • Promoting knowledge dissemination and
case of food or health food or medicinal items and technology transfer among members, end-users,
may be based on wrong ideas like ‘by-products are stakeholders and to the researchers
wastes’ and ‘wastes are to be rejected’. Here a strong • Improving and demonstrating the feasibility
need is indicated for involving the user or consumer and economic sustainability of the proposed
to the valorization process, so that public attitudes solutions.
and concerns regarding the technology and products
can be improved, as they are already informed about • Creating working links with relevant national/
all positive aspects of by the product. international bodies, scientific organizations
and industrial partners.
In a sense, valorization involves innovation, a
case of linear innovation- from science and research • Assisting policy-makers in promulgating more
to technology, to industry, to consumer; but in rational and uniform laws and regulations for
modern times it is more an interactive type. Thus, food waste management.
for the origin of innovation and for its successful • Assisting in the identification and adoption of
adoption require a close interaction with the socio- best available technologies
economic environment of the community. So, The consumers of the present century are
successful valorization depends on the involvement becoming more and more aware about health and
of various stakeholders, who should participate sustainability of environment. Therefore, they only
and assess the whole process of technology will accept new products generated from food
development, adoption and use. There should be processing wastes, if a clear and positive relationship
effective communication among the researchers, between the innovative industrial technology and
industrialists, technology users, investors, product sustainable practices are evident, only valorization
consumers for effective valorization for efficient can enable this.
management and utilization of food processing by-
products. This will also introduce transparency in CONCLUSION
the entire process, which is of crucial importance. Valorization of food processing byproducts has
In the food sector, consumer perception that food immense potential not only in effective management
waste recycling is done in a non-transparent manner of the voluminous byproducts and wastes generated
may hinder acceptability of the value added product. in various food industries towards reuse and
Future Needs and Developments in the Area of recycling and consequent saving in profit but also
Valorization of Food Wastes would greatly contribute in spin off endeavors and
There is a wide appreciation of the needs of diversification of products in food industry sector
valorization both in developing and developed and there by provide for employment generation,
countries, and a large number of positive growth of bio-entrepreneurship, evolution of non
developments are currently noticeable (FP7, voluntary organizations who will collect byproducts

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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

from food industries and help rural entrepreneurs Bruvold W and Crook J. 1981.What the public thinks:
and small scale industries to flourish. Ultimately reclaiming and reusing wastewater.Water Eng. Manage
128: 65-71.
there will be socio economic development at all
levels of society and sustainable development, Cointreau S. 2006. Occupational and Environmental Health
Issues of Solid Waste Management, Special Emphasis on
irrespective the countries that are determined to Middle- and Lower- Income Countries. Available from:
adopt the emerging trends in food science. Future http://www.wiego.org/occupational_groups/pdfs.
prospects are very bright for self employment and Cointreau S J, Gunnerson Ch G, Huls J M and Seldman N
employment in food industry sector which is going N. 1985. Integrated Resource Recovery:Recycling
to exploit the evolving science and technologies from Municipal Refuse: A State-of-the-Art Review and
that holds promise to yield new range of products Annotated Bibliography. (UNDP Project Management
derived from byproducts obtained from food Report No. 1.). The World Bank Washington & UNDP,
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Review Article Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Urea Molasses Mineral Block Feeding to Animals - An Effective

Technology for Dairy Farmers
Manoj Sharma1 Gurdeep Singh2 and Rohit Gupta3
1 Associate Director ( Training) , Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kapurthala 144620 (Punjab)
2 Assistant Professor (Extension Education), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Mansa 151508 (Punjab)
3 Assistant Professor (Animal Science), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jalandhar 144039(Punjab)
Corresponding Author; drmanojsh1@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION poor quality roughages for feeding of dairy animals.

The rearing of livestock plays an important
role in the development of rural economy. The
livestock husbandry not only provides milk, meat,
wool, manure, urine energy etc. but also provides
self-employment for unemployed youth. At present
about more than 60-65 % of the rural population is
engaged in rearing of livestock. It is evident that
the average productivity of milch animals is quite
low. This may probably be due to low genetic
potential for milk production, poor nutrition
and poor management and care of the animals.
Therefore, proper feeding of the animals is essential
for improving their productive potential. Since,
there is a shortage of 63.5 % green fodder, 23.56
% Dry fodder and 64 % concentrate feed for Indian
livestock (Dikshit and Birthal, 2010) so, small dairy
farmers face great difficulty in feeding their dairy
animals for getting optimum production. Under such
situation, crop residues such as rice straw, wheat
straw, maize stalks and natural herbage like grass,
tree leaves etc. are fed to the animals along with a
small quantity of costly concentrate. Such feeding
practice does not provide adequate nutrients to the
animals for improving their growth and exploiting
their productive potential. In general, low quality
crop residues are deficient in fermentable nitrogen,
carbohydrates and important minerals. Various
attempts have been made to make use of locally
available feed resources so that crops and livestock
can be produced more efficiently and profitably.
Consequently, feed supplementation strategies have
been developed to correct the nutrient deficiency of
Earlier, the main focus was on increasing the
straw utilization by ruminants. However, straw
is available in large quantities but it is low in its
nutritive value due to presence of high lignocellulose
content, small amounts of crude protein and
essential minerals. Infact, the feeding value of poor
quality straws have been shown to be improved by
using physical, chemical and biological treatments,
but none of these treatments became popular
amongst farmers because of the extra cost and
extra work involved. In order to find out suitable
supplements for optimizing rumen fermentation
so that enhanced production and reproductive
performance can be achieved, another technique
used was to supplement the diet with more readily
available energy and protein that were lacking in
the basal diet. The enrichment of such poor quality
roughages with urea and other NPN resources like
UMMB improved the nutrient utilization (Wadhwa
and Bakshi, 2011) and improved milk production
(Lamba et al, 2002). The technology thus identified
as use of Urea molasses mineral block lick.
The urea molasses mineral block (UMMB)
contains urea, molasses, proteins, minerals and
binding agents. All these ingredients are thoroughly
mixed and compressed under pressure with a
hydraulic machine to form of block by using binding
agent. The UMMB is a feed supplement which
provides soluble nitrogen, fermentable energy and
minerals to the micro-organisms existing in the
rumen of the animals. The UMMB feeding to the

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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

animals helps in maintaining certain concentration of 5. Licks are hard enough to control gradual intake
ammonia in the rumen which enhances digestion and by the animal.
therefore there is an improvement in the digestive 6. UMMB is comparatively cheaper source
efficiency of ruminants, utilization of dry fodder, of energy, protein and minerals than the
minimum wastage of fodder by the animals, increase conventional source of proteins like mustard or
in milk yield and its fat content, better physical cotton oil cakes and concentrated feeds.
growth and improved reproductive efficiency etc.
Prospects of supplementation of UMMB Precautions for using UMMB
1. An UMMB cannot be used as a supplement for
The unique ability of the ruminants to synthesize younger animals (less than 6 months) because it
enough protein for maintenance through microbial contains urea and non ruminants can’t use this
action permits the use of urea as a NPN source, until rumen is fully developed.
provided ready source of energy available. Thus
it is now well established that urea molasses mix 2. UMMB should not have more than 10%
can provide additional nutrition and enhance the moisture and should be stored in a dry place
utilization of roughages. and protected from rainwater so that it does not
soften.
The primary objective of these blocks is to
provide supplementary nutrition to animals in the 3. UMMB should be offered to the animal in the
village, subsisting on straws and crop residues. dry manger. Likewise, consumption of UMMB
However, the whole purpose is defeated if the blocks in large quantity must be prevented. Moreover,
are not hard enough and hence utmost care needs fresh and clean drinking water must be made
to be exercised that these blocks are meant only to available to the dairy animals.
serve as licks. It should release the urea nitrogen Supplementation of feed with UMMB:
more slowly and frequently so as to minimize
A. Optimum level of UMMB for Livestock
the chance of ammonia toxicity. In addition, such
It is most important to quantify the amount of
a system can also facilitate the supply of other
serving UMMB per head per day basis, so livestock
nutrients such as minerals and vitamins. UMMB
can fully utilize its contain. Scientist name...... has
also helps in overcoming the malnutrition/under
conducted an experiment to find out the effect of
nutrition of our livestock and generate better returns
different feeding level of UMMB on milk yield and
at the village level on farm produce.
reproductive performance of crossbred cows reared
Advantages of technology fed a rice-straw-based diet. UMMB block was
1. Feed ingredients being used in the formation of made up by cold process using 39 % molasses, 20
UMMB are easily available in the market. % wheat bran, 20 % rice polish, 6 % lime powder
2. The method of its preparation is very easy. (CaO) and 5 % of common salt. Four levels of
Farmers can make UMMB for themselves as UMMB 0, 350, 500, and 650 g/head/day were fed to
well as can sell them in the market. the crossbred cows in treatment groups T0, T1, T2
and T3, respectively to assess the optimum amount
3. UMMB can be stored for a long time under dry of UMMB required for maximum production. The
conditions. Similarly, it can be transported to average body weight of crossbred cows was 300 kg
long distance without difficulty. and fed 2.75 kg/head/day of homemade concentrate
4. UMMB are more suitable for supplementing mixture. Average initial milk production was
dry fodder based diets for sustainability of about 6 kg/day. It was observed that on feeding of
ruminants especially during droughts and UMMB, milk yields of dairy cattle increased by
floods. 1- 1.5 kg/day. The optimum level of UMMB for
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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

crossbred cows to achieve higher milk production Replacement of concentrate by UMMB

and better reproductive performance was found to
be 500 g/head/day. Cows and calves with access
to UMMB licks gained more body weight than
their counterparts without access to UMMB. The
intervals from calving to initiation of luteal activity,
oestrus was shorter while conception was higher
in UMMB-fed lactating cows. It was interesting
that the difference between first progesterone rise
and first detectable oestrus were 66 to 80 days in
groups T0 and T3 (Table 1), which indicated that
the farmers were unable to detect heat at its first
occurrence, resulting in 3 to 4 heats lost without
insemination. The calving interval of cows was
reduced by 64 days in group T2, which has an
economic value as more calves are produced over
the total reproductive life of a cow. Taking 10 years
as a typical reproductive life of a cow, it is expected
that a cow in the T0 group will produce 7 calves in
her total reproductive life, while each cows in group
T2 group will produce 8 calves. The additional calf
and lactation from each cow earns more profit in
the T2 group of animals. Hendratno (1999) had also
found that the postpartum reproductive intervals of
cow can be reduced by feeding of UMMB, which is
of economic significance.
Generally, concentrate feeds are costly and
therefore, dairy farmers are reluctant to feed
costly ration to their animals especially when milk
production goes down at the end of the lactation.
Many farmers rear cows on very small amount
of concentrate to minimize feed cost. To study
the effect of replacing concentrate by UMMB,
60 multiparous crossbred dairy cows reared on
straw-based diets. Three diets, comprising a daily
ration per head of 2.75 kg concentrate (T0), 2.45
kg concentrate + 0.30 kg UMMB (T1) or 2.25 kg
concentrate + 0.50 kg UMMB (T2), were fed to
three groups of 20 lactating cows each. Rice straw
was fed as roughage, with a very small amount
of cut-and-carry grass (1.4 kg/head/day) under
zero grazing conditions for 180 days. The animals
in group T2 had significantly (P <0.001) higher
roughage intake, and milk yield was also improved
significantly (P <0.05) (6.94 vs. 5.6 kg/head/ day).
The fat content of milk increased in T1 (45.8 g/
kg) and T2 (48.4 g/kg) groups compared with the
control, T0 (40.4 g/kg). The highest content of
fat was in the T2 group, which resulted in higher
economic return. Body weight gain of calves was
improved significantly (P <0.05). Calving interval
was also reduced by 60 days. The highest profit was

Table 1: Mean values for milk yield, body weight change in cows and calf weight gain.
Parameter Diet composition SEM Level of sig-
T0 T1 T2 T3 nificance

Milk yield (kg/day)

180 days average 5.42 5.49 6.81 6.83 0.009 S
Lactation average 3.33 3.38 4.19 4.20 0.055 S
3.5 percent FCM (2) 5.95 6.38 8.16 8.16 0.106 S
Lactation yield (kg) 1115 1196 1527 1531 19.85 S
Body weight change of cow (g/day) 9.4b 65.9ab 88.1a 88.4a 4.302 S
Calf weight gain (g/day) 159b 167b 215a 228a 2.717 S
Note : (1) The diets were T0 = control (no UMMB), T1 = 350 g/head/day; T2 = 500 g/head/day; T3 = 650
g/head/day, (2) FCM = fat-corrected milk. (3) a, b = means with different superscripts differ significantly
(P < 0.05)

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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Table 2: Effect of UMMB supplements on intake, milk yield and body weight change of cows and
calves
Parameter Diet(1) SEM Level of sig-
T0 T1 T2 nificance
Roughage intake (kg DM/ Day 6.9 8.0 9.2 0.177 S
Total DM intake (kg /day) 9.4 10.5 11.3 0.29 NS
Milk yield (kg/day) 5.6 5.8 6.9 0.07 S
3.5 % FCM (kg/day) 6.1 6.9 8.5 0.09 S
Body weight change of cow (g/day) 6.1 13.7 42.9 5.46 NS
Calf weight gain (g/day) 160 181 248 4.74 S
Calving interval (days) 485 483 425 10.48 NS
Note: (1) *** = P < 0.001; Ns = not significant (P> 0.05), (2) The diets were T0 = 2.75 kg concentrate per
day, no UMMB, T1 = 2.45 kg concentrate + 0.30 kg/day UMMB g/head/day; T2 = 2.25 kg/day concentrate
+ 0.50 kg/day UMMB. Means with different superscripts differ significantly (P <0.05). DM = dry matter

in the T2 group, and derived mostly from replacing
concentrate by 500 g UMMB/head/day. Protein
content of milk increased with increasing amounts
of UMMB, and non-fat milk solids (SNF) and total
solids (TS) also increased when concentrate was
replaced with 300 g and 500 g UMMB in groups T1
and T2, respectively. Conclusively, supplementation
with UMMB resulted in improved milk quality
(Table 2).
Effect of UMMB licks on the productive and
reproductive performance of animals
In order to test the effect of UMMB lick intake
on the performance of animals, various field trials
has been conducted in various countries. It has
been indicated that the intake of UMMB licks
has affected the milk fat, milk yield, growth, and
reproductive performance of animals. Some of the
field trials conducted at various places have been
discussed here.
Productive Performance of Livestock
Milk fat
There is an inverse relationship between milk fat
and milk yield. This was evident from the farmers
data where only 11.5 per cent farmers informed that
fat percentage increased whereas 44 per cent farmers
informed that milk yield increased. Similarly, 61.5
78
per cent farmers told that fat percentage remained
same and 20 per cent informed that milk yield
remained same. 30 per cent farmers were of the
opinion that there was no effect on milk fat. It is
pertinent to note that since in Punjab milk is sold on
the fat per cent basis hence every farmer noted the
fat percentage and thus the value for not recorded
was zero (Sharma et al, 2014).
Milk yield
Sharma et al (2014) revealed that forty four per
cent of dairy farmers informed that there was an
increase in the milk yield varying from 1 to 2 l/d,
whereas 20 per cent informed that unlike previous
years there was no reduction in the milk yield during
the hot months ( April to June). This means that
feeding of UMMB helped in sustaining the milk
yield in milch animals during the period when there
is a shortage of green fodder and thus a reduced
dry matter intake. By supplementing UMMB, the
farmers could harvest a yield similar to that of
green fodder feeding. Only 8 per cent informed
that there was no effect of feeding UMMB on the
milk yield. Since at most of the dairy farms, major
dairy farm operations are being performed by hired
casual labourer so 28 per cent farmers reported
that they did not record the milk yield but showed
satisfaction on the performance due to the fact that
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Table 3. Efficacy of UMMB on yield and composition of milk of zebu cattle. (Source: Lawania and
Khadda (2017)
Parameter (Control) (UMMB)
Initial body weight(Kg) 350 ±10.75 352 ±10.50
Final body weight(Kg) 363 ±12.50 376 ±6.25
Body weight gain(Kg)* 13a ±1.07 24b ±3.21
Initial Milk yield (l/ d) 4.56± 0.15 4.61± 0.18
Milk yield (l/ d)** 4.70a ± 0.20 6.00b±0.21
4% FCM yield (l/ d)** 4.03a ±0.15 5.40b ±0.20
Lactometer reading** 28.20a± 0.32 30.30b ±0.20
Fat** 2.90a ± 0.01 3.31b ± 0.01
SNF** 7.80a ± 0.08 9.02b ± 0.05
Total solid % 10.70±0.23 12.33±0.15
Group mean with different superscripts differ significantly * (P<0.05) and ** (P<0.01)

they were of the opinion that animals relished the to UMMB licks had an average milk yield of 20.7
taste of UMMB. kg/d, which was 1.3 kg higher (P < 0.01) than the
Lawania and Khadda (2017) revealed significant average of the control group. In another trial by
increase in the milk yield by 27.65 per cent in Wang et al. (1995), 10 dairy cows supplemented
experiment group suggest that the supplementation with UMMB produced 1.1–1.5 kg (5.3–5.9 %) more
of UMMB improved the milk yield. Similarly, it milk than those without blocks. Xu., et. al. (1993)
also helped in improving lactometer reading from investigated the performance of Holstein dairy
28.20 to 30.30 in cows being statistically different cows in the middle stage of lactation and found that
(Table 3). Such type of results was also reported by when urea-containing lick blocks were provided,
Ramesh et al (2009) and Khadda et al (2014). The the cows produced 20.5 kg/ day of milk, which was
increase in milk production may be attributed to 4.1 kg (25 percent) higher than the average of the
higher availability of crude protein, energy and area control group.
specific minerals in the ration supplemented with Change in the body weight of animals:
UMMB which led to a subsequent maintenance of Various studies show that body weight gain,
rumen ammonia content and an improved rumen calf weight gain and body condition score increased
environment for micro-organisms and increased on providing UMMB licks for cows. When buffalo
digestibility of the ration (Tiwari et al, 2013 andheifers fed on rice straw diets were supplemented
Sharma et al, 2014). Fat and SNF components with UMMB, daily weight gain was 650 g. versus
of milk in animals fed with UMMB improved 620 g. for control animals (Lu et al., 1995). Similarly
considerably as compared to control. Similar results
use of UMMB increased live weight gain of buffalo
were also reported by (Ramesh et al,2009). heifers in a study conducted in Bangladesh. The
Wang et al (1995) reported that 10 dairy cows UMMB supplementation with straw-based diets for
supplemented with UMMB produced 1.1–1.5 kg indigenous cows resulted in 4.8 percent increased
more milk than those without supplement. Chen live weight gain after calving.
et al. (1993) observed that the cows having access

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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Table - 4: Effect of feeding UMMB on productive performance of indigenous cows and Calves.
(Source : Mazed, 1997)
Parameter Treatment Level of Significance
-UMMB +UMMB
Milk yield (Kg /day) 1.47 1.84 S
Body weight change of cow (g/day) -33 -4 NS
Calf ’s weight gain (g /day) 66 110 S
Body condition score of cow on 1-5 scale 2.31 2.51 S
Note : NS : Non significant, S : Significant

Table 5: Effects of feeding UMMB on postpartum reproductive performance of indigenous cows

Indicator Treatment Level of Significance
-UMMB +UMMB

Interval from calving to

Ist progesterone rise (days)
104 103 NS
Ist oestrus (days) 194 130 S
Conception (days) 199 162 NS
Calving interval (days) 480 443 NS
Note : NS : Non significant, S : Significant (Source : Mazed, 1997)
Table-6. Efficacy of UMMB on reproductive performance of zebu cattle. (Source: Lawania and
Khadda, 2017).
Particular (Control) (UMMB)

No. of cows 10 10
Post-partum estrus(days)* 130.6a ± 17.54 80.9b±11.66
Service period(days)* 171.4a ± 11.7 115.7b± 8.40
No. Of service per conception* 3.6a± 1.22 1.37b± 0.20
* Group mean with different superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05)

Reproductive performance of animals: The mean duration of postpartum oestrus

It has been shown that UMMB supplementation
resulted in early heat symptoms in cows after
calving. The first progesterone rise of a cow after
calving, first detectable heat, calving-to-conception
interval and calving interval were observed to be
shorter in UMMB-supplemented cows as compared
to unsupplemented indigenous cows (Mazed, 1997).
period and service period was reduced significantly
(P<0.05) in UMMB group as compared to the
control group (Table 6). The average number of
service per conception was found significantly
(P<0.05) higher in control group than the UMMB
group (Lawania and Khadda, 2017). Ramesh et al,
(2009) also reported that UMMB supplementation

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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Table-6: Effect of UMMB on postpartum reproductive intervals of cows.

Indices Diet(1) SEM Level of sig-
T0 T1 T2 T3 nificance
Interval from calving to – (d) Ist 96 87 82 62 3.486 NS
progesterone rise (days)
Ist oestrus (days) 162 132 123 142 4.555 NS
Conception (days) 234 187 170 170 5.702 NS
Next calving (days) 517 470 453 460 5.670 NS
Calving interval reduced (days) - 47 64 57 S
Service conception (No.) 2.67 a 2.0b 1.8 b 17.3 b 0.044 NS
Note: (1) The diets were T0 = control (no UMMB), T1 = 350 g/head/day; T2 = 500 g/head/day; T3 : 650
g/head/day, (2) FCM = fat-corrected milk. (3) a , b = means with different superscripts differ significantly
(P < 0.05)
has a positive effect on reproductive performance of higher than in the rumens of animals without block
cow maintained on straw based diets due to supply supplementation (Guan et al, 2001).
on nitrogen resulting in more intake and utilization
of straw. Digestion and utilization of the diets
Many investigators have observed that the
Effect of UMMB feeding on the Feed efficiency supplementation with UMMB can improve digestion
of Animals: and utilization of nutrients in the diets. Wu and Liu
Digestion and metabolism in the rumen (1996) studied the effects of giving an urea mineral
Zhang et al (1997) studied the effect of lick block on the kinetics of ruminal fibre digestion,
supplementary urea containing lick blocks on nutrient digestibility and nitrogen utilization of rice
NH3- N concentration and pH value in the rumen straw, ammonium bicarbonate (AB)-treated straw
of whethers. The pH did not alter, while rumen and hay prepared from wild forage. It was noted
NH3-N (P <0.01) concentration significantly that with block supplementation, the digestibility of
increased and approached or exceeded 13 mg/100 dry matter and organic matter of rice straw were
ml rumen fluid, the optimal level of NH3-N for increased by 13.1 and 12.7 percent, respectively
rumen microbial activity suggested by Hume, Moir (P < 0.05) and was comparable to that of the AB-
and Somers (1970). The improvement in the rumen treated straw, indicating that the effect of the blocks
ecosystem is beneficial to rumen microbial activity, on digestibility of rice straw may be similar to that
and hence rumen digestion. Xue et al. (1995) of AB treatment. The digestibility of the treated
observed that when the animals were supplied with straw was improved slightly when animals had
an additional urea block of 50 g per head per day, access to blocks. Nitrogen retention was highest in
the microbial protein yield was increased (11.87 vs. lambs on AB-treated straw alone, followed by hay
10.18 g/day) and synthetic efficiency was improved with blocks, and was lowest in animals on rice straw
compared to that of control. Further, it has also been with blocks. However, both the amount of nitrogen
reported that when rice straw, maize stover and retention and proportion relative to intake were
sugar cane bagasse were incubated in the rumen of increased by block supplementation in lambs fed
buffaloes supplemented with UMMB, the 48- hour on hay. The proportion of nitrogen retained to that
degradation of feedstuff nutrients was significantly digested decreased with block supplementation in

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 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

lambs on both untreated and treated straw. Access Farmer’s reaction about UMMB technology
to blocks did not significantly influence the rumen Sharma et al (2014) reported that 46.5 per cent
degradation of either dry matter or crude protein in farmers observed increased water intake in dairy
any of the three diets. From the results, it is inferred animals whereas 28.9 per cent farmers said there
that while the block is effective in increasing was no effect. Likewise, about 21.2 per cent did not
nutrient digestibility of low quality roughages make note of water consumption. It was mentioned
through improved ruminal fibre digestion, a that accidentally the animal of one farmer took
simultaneous supply of nitrogen and energy to about more than 1 Kg UMMB and went off feed
rumen microbes should be considered to improve for about 3 days. Therefore, he was not at all
the utilization efficiency of nitrogen when the basal satisfied with the use of UMMB. It was further
diet is ammoniated straw. The effect of the blocks revealed that the milk producers were not greatly
on digestibility of rice straw was similar to that of concerned about the long-term benefits of using
treatment with ammonia, and further improvement UMMB, for example the maintenance of a constant
in digestibility of ammoniated straw was obtained level of milk production, reduction in inter-calving
by supplementation with the blocks. Retention and period, maturity of calves, increase in food intake
net utilization efficiency of nitrogen were improved and improvement in animal health etc. As most of
more in the animals fed untreated rice straw than the milk producers were not engaged in systematic
in those fed ammoniated straw. It might be due to livestock care, they did not notice some of these
the oversupply of nitrogen when ammoniated straw benefits.
diets are supplemented with urea blocks.
Effect of dietary urea levels on intake of UMMB
and utilization of nutrients in livestock
Hosmani et al (2003) divided 16 adult male
Murrah buffaloes in to 4 groups and fed on diets
containing wheat straw and urea-molasses mineral
block (UMMB) lick ad libitum and crushed maize
grain to meet energy requirement plus urea 0, 15,
30 and 45 g/head daily. It was observed that there
were no significant differences in intake of UMMB,
wheat straw, total DM and total digestible nutrients
between groups but CP intake was higher (P<0.05)
in group 4 than in groups 1 and 2. Digestibility
of nutrients in all groups was similar, except that
for CP which was higher (P<0.01) in group 4.
Nitrogen balance was not significantly different
between groups. There was no significant effect
of different levels of urea supplementation on
blood urea, protein or ammonia. It appears that
the fermentable N from UMMB was not sufficient
to meet buffalo requirements when fed with dry
fodder. Supplementation of urea along with UMMB
improved N status.

82
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields

Dairy farmers’ perspective or consume in large quantities it can be a permanent

Research carried out in a laboratory or at an blockade in the adoption and diffusion process. So,
experimental station will be of significance only if it the technology has to be introduced at time when
is accepted by the farmers. A farmer will accept a new results are immediate i.e. time when there is dearth
technology only if he is convinced that the method of green fodder.
is suitable and profitable to him. The introduction
of innovation to small holder farmers, even if they Farmers have to be trained about the precautions
are “appropriate” is one of the most difficult tasks of needed to be taken while using the licks as from
research and extension personnel. A technology that the farmers’ observation and experience it has been
has been successful at Institute level or at an organized seen that in certain cases over feeding has caused
farm may not necessarily succeed at village level off feeding in cows for several days. There are
primarily because of small holding of farmers who rear various factors that can affect the adoption UMMB
livestock for supplementing income and are reluctant to lick among farmers so it is necessary to take farmers
change their traditional practices, especially when the
perspective into consideration.
innovations call for extra time and labour. The more
likely application of new technologies could perhaps Constraints influencing the adoption of UMMB
be with large-scale operations where benefits are clear technology
and sufficiently large to warrant the extra efforts. The • The prices of ingredients used in UMMB go
technologies evolved with regard to the animal nutrition
on fluctuating according to the season. For
areas have far-reaching consequences in bringing socio-
economic transformation of the rural and urban dairy
example, the price of molasses, maize etc in the
owners of this country. Thus, the key issue is as follows: local market are unstable, reflecting its seasonal
availability. Its availability is higher and price
Innovations for small-scale dairy farmers? lower in the sugar cane crushing season.
The diffusion of UMMB through extension will • Farmers are interested to purchase the UMMB
depend upon the various factors which are same licks from the local market, but there is no large-
for any proven technology for its dissemination scale manufacturer in the market.
among end- users. For any innovation, the
extension support or lack of it can speed up or • Level of education of the farmers is an
retard its rate of adoption. Institutional aspects of important factor. The technology was adopted
transferring research results are very important for more rapidly in those places having a higher
commercialisation and diffusion of new products. proportion of literate people.
The comparative evaluation of studies on • The economic condition of farmers affects
UMMB diffusion and adoption among dairy farmers technology adoption. Poor farmers are unable
shows that even an intensive extension approach to purchase UMMBs due to lack of money, as
is unlikely to be effective unless the innovation they purchase their food daily and often meet
that it promotes is perceived as relevant by the requirements by selling milk on a daily basis.
potential adopters and meets their needs or solves • Farmers having only one or two cows with
their problems. If the technology is introduced at low production levels are less interested in
time when there is abundance of green fodder or additional investment.
at stage where benefits of UMMB are not visible
to the milk producers, the technology will not be Factors for successful development and use of
adopted by the farmers as the milk producers are not UMMB technology
greatly concerned about the long-term benefits of The use of UMMB can be popularized among
using UMMB. Similarly, if for various reasons the farming community probably due to the following
animals did not lick adequate quantities of blocks reasons

83
 Journal for Reviews on Agriculture and Allied fields
Area under fodder crops is decreasing due
to preference of farmers for cereal crops which
has assured market. Due to poor soil health the
deficiency of micro nutrients has also been observed
in animals fodder and thus animals. Secondly,
severe scarcity of quality feeds. The quality of
feed available in the market is very poor. Very few
progressive farmers are making feed at their home
after taking training from the Krishi Vigyan Kendra.
Moreover the higher cost and rigorous labour
involved in preparation of feed at home will not
promote entrepreneurship in this area. So the diets
having N-containing supplement can increased
milk production and reproductive efficiency of the
animals.
Good demand for milk will encourage the
farmers to take the dairy farming on commercial
scale but for that productivity will be the key to
survive in globalized marketing. Farmers need
animals having good health, higher milk productivity
and less calving interval. This encourages farmers
to use a supplement, such as UMMB, that can be
produced at home using cheap, locally available, Chen Y Z, Wen
feed resources.
Future scope and conclusion
The fast increasing human population pressure
is reducing the land available for fodder production.
However, the increased cereal production leaves Guan Y Y, Wen Q Y, Huang F and Fang W Y. 2001c. Effect
abundant agro-industrial by-products, and UMMB
has a great role to play in the profitable utilization
of these by-products, simultaneously reducing
potential environmental pollution. Apart from
the importance of UMMB in reproduction, as
discussed earlier, there is a great potential role to
play in meeting the nutritional needs of animals.
The technologies developed by research
Scientists at experimental stations are transferred Hosamani S V, Mehra U R and Dass R S. 2003. Effect of
to farmers’ field by extension personnel. These
technologies are of importance only when farmers
find it useful in the field conditions. A farmer will
accept a new technology only if he is convinced that
the method is suitable and profitable to him. The Hume I D, Moir R J and Somers M. 1970. Synthesis of
diffusion of innovation to small farmers, even if they
84
are appropriate, is one of the most difficult tasks of
research and extension personnel. The technologies
evolved in the field of animal nutrition have far-
reaching consequences in bringing socio-economic
transformation of the rural and urban dairy owners
of this country. The UMMB lick technology has
potential to improve the productivity of animals.
The supplementation of animal’s diet with
UMMB is an effective mean of correcting nutrient
deficits observed due to feeding of poor quality
roughages. Its use as a feed supplement improved
productivity of buffaloes and crossbred cows
reared on straw-based diets. Similarly, high-cost
concentrates can be replaced by UMMB licks.
The studies showed that milk production could
be sustained by providing UMMB without any
concentrate up to outputs levels of 5 kg of milk
per day. There is a need to extend this technology
to a greater number of farmers through intensive
extension efforts.
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