LUBRICANTS

INTRODUCTION
In all type of machines, the moving surfaces rub against each other. Due to this
rubbing, a resistance is offered to their movement. This resistance is known as Friction. This
friction will cause a lot of wear and tear of surfaces of moving parts. Due to the friction
large amount of energy is dissipated in the form of heat, thereby the efficiency of machine
gets reduced.
DEFINITIONS
Lubricant
Lubricant is a substance used in between two moving surfaces to reduce the friction.
Lubrication
Lubrication is a process of reducing friction and wear between two moving surfaces
by adding lubricant in between them.
FUNCTIONS OF A LUBRICANT
1. It prevents the direct contact between the moving surfaces and reduces wear,
tear and surface deformation of the concerned parts.
2. It reduces wastage of energy so that efficiency of the machine is enhanced.
3. It reduces the factional heat and thus prevents the expansion of metals.
4. It acts as a coolant by removing the frictional heat generated due to the rubbing
of surfaces.
5. At some time, it acts as a seal preventing the entry of dust and leakage of gases
at high pressure.
6. It reduces the maintenance and running cost of the machine.
7. It minimizes corrosion.
Requirements (or) Characteristics of a lubricant
1. A good lubricant should not undergo any decomposition, oxidation,
reduction at high temperature.
2. A good lubricant should have higher flash and fire points than the
operating temperature.
3. A good lubricant should have high oiliness, viscosity index, aniline
point.
4. A good lubricant should not corrode the machine parts.

CLASSIFICATION OF LUBRICANTS
Lubricants are classified on the basis of their physical state as follows :

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1. Liquid lubricants
(a) Vegetable oils - (e.g): Palm oil, castor oil, etc.
(b) Animal oils - (e.g): Whale oil, tallow oil, etc.
(c) Mineral oils - (e.g): Petroleum fractions.
(d) Synthetic lubricants - (e.g): Silicones, polyglycol ethers, etc.
(e) Blended oils (or) Compounded oils - (e.g) Mineral oils with various additives.
2. Semi-solid lubricants
(e.g): Greases, Vaselines, etc.
3. Solid lubricants
(e.g): Graphite, molybdenum-disulphide, etc,
4. Emulsions
(a) Oil in water type - (e.g): Cutting emulsions.
(b) Water in oil type - (e.g): Cooling liquids.
LIQUID LUBRICANTS (or) LUBE OILS
Vegetable and Animal oils
These are glycerides of higher fatty acids and have very good oiliness. However,
these oils cannot be used effectively, because
(i) They undergo oxidation at higher temperature and forms gummy and acidic products.
(ii) Also, they get hydrolyzed easily under moist conditions. Actually, they are used as
"blending agents" with other lubricating oils.
Mineral oils (or) Petroleum oils
It is obtained by fractional distillation of crude petroleum oil. The length of the
hydrocarbon chain varies from C12toC50. It is cheap and quite stable under normal operating
condition. But, it possesses poor oiliness. The oiliness of which can be improved by mixing
it with animal (or) vegetable oils.
The mineral oil obtained cannot be used as such, because it contains a lot of
impurities such as wax, asphalt, oxidisable impurities etc. These impurities have to be
removed from the mineral oil before using it as a lubricant. The impurities are generally
removed by the following methods.
Synthetic lubricants
Under severe operating condition (-50°C to 250°C) for example; in air craft the
lubricants are pumped at -50°C, but during takeoff and landing they get heated up to 120—
150°C petroleum oils cannot be effectively used, because they tend to get oxidized at higher
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temperatures while wax separation will occur at lower temperatures. So synthetic lubricants
have been developed which can be used effectively in the temperature range of (-50°C to
250°C).
Examples
Silicones, polyglycol, ethers, etc.
Blended (or) Compounded oils (or) Additives for lubricating oils
To improve the properties of the lubricating oils, certain substances called additives
are added to the lubricating oils. The oils thus prepared are known as "Blended oils (or)
Compounded oils".
Some of the important additives used to enhance the property of lubricants are listed
below:

Important additives and their functions

Name of the
Examples Functions
additive
(i) Oiliness carriers. Fatty acids such as stearic They increase the oiliness or adhering
acid, palmitic acid, oleic property of lubricants.
acid.
(ii) Extreme Organic chlorine compounds, They react with metal surface
pressure additives. organic sulphur compounds, forming surface film of lower shear
organic phosphorous strength and high melting point.
compounds.
(iii) Viscosity n-hexanol, poly isobutylene, They prevent the oil from thinning at
index improvers. poly alkyl benzene. higher temperatures and thickening
at lower temperatures.
(iv) Pour-point Phenols, poly alkyl They prevent separation of wax from
depressants. benzene. the lubricating oil.
(v) Thickeners Polyesters, polystyrene. They increase the viscosity of the
lubricants.
(vi) And oxidants Aromatic ammo compounds, They retard the oxidation of the
phenolic compounds. oil and prevent the formation of
gum-like substances.
(vii) Deflocculents Salts of phenols, salts of They prevent foreign particles and
and detergents (or) carboxylic acids, sulphonates. carbon deposits in engines which
Deposit inhibitors. block the passage of oil.
(viii) Corrosion Tricresyl phosphates, organic They are adsorbed on metal surfaces
preventers (or) compounds of there by protecting the surface from
Corrosion inhibitors. phosphorous (or) antimony. attack by moisture.

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SEMI-SOLID LUBRICANTS (GREASES)
Preparation
Greases are semi - solid lubricants obtained by thickening of lubricating oil by the
addition of metallic soaps. Soaps are prepared by saponification of vegetable oils (or) fats
with alkali (like NaOH, Ca(OH) 2 , etc.) usually Na, Ca, Li soaps are used as thickener (or)
gelling agents.
CH2COOR CH2-OH
| |
CHCOOR + 3 MOH > CH - OH + 3 R COOM
| | metallic soap
CH2COOR CH2-OH

Examples
Preparation of Lithium grease
I Step
Lithium soap is prepared by the saponification of vegetable oils (or) fats
with lithium hydroxide.
II Step
Lubricating oil is thickened by adding lithium soap.
The nature of the soap determines,
(a) The temperature up to which the grease can be used.
(b) It acts as a thickener.
(c) Its water and oxidation resistance.
(d) It enables the grease to stick to the metal surface firmly.
Different greases, their properties and uses
Type of greases Properties Uses
1. Sodium soap grease (i) Slightly soluble in water. It can be used up to 175°C
(soda - base grease). (ii) Dropping point of it is in ball bearings.
very high.
2. Calcium soap greases (i) It is water It is a general purpose grease,
(lime - based grease, resistant. used for lubricating water
cup grease). (ii) Beyond 70°C the grease pumps, tractors, etc.,
separates into soap and oil.
(iii) Lesser dropping point
3. Barium soap greases. than
(i) Itsoda
is - base
watergrease.
- . Used for
resistant. lubricating
(ii) Possesses good auto motives.
adhesiveness.

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4. Lithium soap grease.
(i) It is a resistant to water It is used at lower
and heat. (ii) Expensive temperatures; used for
and superior to all other lubricating engines.
5. Aluminium -soap grease. types.
(i) It possesses very high Used for
adhesiveness. (ii) Expensive lubricating chains and
and water resistance. oscillating surfaces.
6. Axle – grease (Resin It is cheap and water Used for less delicate
grease). resistant. equipments under high
load and low speed.

Greases are used under the following situations

(i) Where oil is squeezed out due to heavier load or low speed.
(ii) Where the bearings and gears that work at high temperature.
(iii) Where the bearings need to be sealed against the entry of dirt, grit, dust, etc.
(iv) Where frequent application of lubricant is inconvenient, as in automobile wheel
bearings.
SOLID LUBRICANTS
Solid lubricants are used under the following situations.
(i) Where the operating temperature and load is too high.
(ii) Where contamination of lube oils or greases by the entry of dust or grit particles are
avoided.
(iii) Where combustible lubricants must be avoided.
The most widely used solid lubricants are graphite and molybdenum disulphide.
Graphite
Graphite consists of flat layers of hexagonal arrangement of carbon atoms. The
carbon atoms in hexagons are bonded together by strong covalent bonds. The adjacent
layers are held together by weak van der Waals forces (Fig.). Since the distance between the
adjacent layers is high (3.41 A), the layers can slide easily one over the other with little
friction. As a result graphites possess very low co-efficient of friction. This property makes
use of graphite as a lubricant.
Graphite is very soapy to touch and non - inflammable, it can be used up to 375°C
and above this temperature it gets oxidized. Graphite is used either as a dry powder or as a
colloidal dispersion. A dispersion of graphite in water is called Aqua dag and a dispersion
of graphite in oil is called Oil dag.

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 The structure of graphite
Uses
i. Oil dag is used in internal combustion engines.

ii. Aqua dag is used in air compressors and in food processing equipments.

iii. Graphite is, as a lubricant, generally used in lathes, machine shop works, railway

track joints, open gears, chains.

Molybdenum disulphide (MoS2 )
MoS2 has a sandwich like structure in which a layer of Mo atoms lies between two
layers of S atoms. The atoms in the layer are bonded together by strong covalent bonds but
the layers are held together by weak van der Waals forces of attraction.
The Mo layers and S layers slide over one another. As a result MoS2 possess very low co-
efficient of friction. It is also used either as a dry powder or as a colloidal dispersion. It gets
oxidized above 800°C. It is mainly used in heavy machineries working under heavy load
and high temperatures.

The structure of MoS2

Uses
(i) Pure MoS2 is used in the vacuum of outer space.
(ii) It is also used in heavy machinery working at higher temperatures.

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PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANTS
Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the internal resistance of a liquid during its flow. It is
expressed in centipoise.
The viscosity of oil is the time in seconds for a given quantity of oil to pass through a
standard orifice under the specified conditions.
Determination
The viscosity of an oil is determined by
(i) Red wood viscometer.
(ii) Say bolt viscometer.
The time required for 50 ml of the liquid to pass through the orifice of a red wood
viscometer is called as Red wood seconds. The time required for 60 ml of the liquid to pass
through the orifice of a say bolt viscometer is called as Say bolt universal seconds.
Significance
Good lubricating oil must have moderate viscosity.
(i) If the viscosity of the lubricating oil is too high, the movement of the machine is
restricted due to excessive friction.
(ii) If the viscosity of the lubricating oil is too low, the liquid oil film can't be maintained
and excessive wear will take place.
Viscosity Index
The viscosity of an oil decreases with increase in temperature. The rate of change of
viscosity with temperature is indicated by viscosity temperature curves or by a scal e known
as viscosity index (V.I). Viscosity index is defined as, "the average decrease in viscosity of
an oil per degree rise in temperature between 100°F and 210°F".

Viscosity - temperature curve

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(i) If the viscosity of an oil decreases rapidly with the increase in temperature it has low
V.I.
Examples
Gulf coast oil (consist of naphthenic hydrocarbons) exhibit a larger change in
viscosity with a increase in temperature and its V.I value is arbitrarily assigned as zero.
(ii) If the viscosity of an oil is slightly affected with the increase in temperature, it has
higher V.I.
Examples
Pennsylvanian oil (consist of paraffinic hydrocarbons) exhibits a relatively a smaller
change in viscosity with an increase in temperature and its V.I value is arbitrarily assigned
as 100.
Determination
The VI of a test oil is calculated by comparing with the above two standard oil. The
test oil is compared at 38°C (100°F) with zero VI oil (Gulf coast oil) and 100 V.I oil
(Pennsylvanian oil) both having the same viscosity as the test oil at 99°C (210°F).
The VI of the test oil is given by the following formula
L-U
VI = -------------------- x l00
L-H
where, U is the viscosity of the test oil at 38°C.
L is the viscosity of the low VI oil at 38°C.
H is the viscosity of the high VI oil at 38°C.
The viscosity temperature curve is flatter for the oil of high VI than the oil of low VI.
A good lubricant should have minimum change in viscosity for a wide range of
temperature and also it should have a high V.I.
V.I of a lubricant can be increased by the addition of linear polymers such as
polyisobutylene, n-hexanol, etc.
Flash Point and Fire Point
Flash Point
It is the lowest temperature at which the oil gives off enough vapors that ignite for a
moment, when a small flame is brought near it.
Fire Point

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 It is the lowest temperature at which the vapor of the oil burns continuously for at
least 5 seconds, when a small flame is brought near it. Generally the fire point is 5 -40°C
higher than flash point.
Significance
Good lubricating oil should have flash and fire points higher than the operating
temperature of the machine. A knowledge of flash and fire point is useful in providing
protection against fire hazard during transport and storage. Lubricating oils of paraffinic
base possess higher flash points than those of naphthenic base. Hence the determination of
flash and fire points is helpful in identifying the type of lubricating oil.
Determination
Flash and fire points can be determined using the same apparatus. Oil is heated at a
prescribed rate in an open cup (Cleve land's) apparatus or closed cup (Pensky Martin's)
apparatus of standard dimensions. A small test flame is periodically applied over the surface
of the oil. The temperature at which a distinct flash is seen is the flash point. The heating
and periodical applications of test flame are continued. The temperature at which the oil
vapor catches fire and bums continuously for 5 seconds is noted as the fire point.
Cloud and Pour Point
Cloud Point
When oil is cooled slowly the temperature at which the oil becomes cloudy in
appearance is called its cloud point.
Pour Point
The temperature at which the oil ceases to flow or pour is called its pour point .
Significance
Most of the petroleum based lubricating oils contain dissolved paraffin wax and
asphaltic impurities. When the oil is cooled these impurities undergo solidification which
cause jamming of the machine. So the cloud and pour points indicate the suitability of the
lubricants in\ cold condition. A good lubricant must have low cloud point and pour point.
Determination
Oil is taken in a flat bottomed tube enclosed in an air jacket and it is cooled in a
freezing mixture (ice + CaCl 2). Thermometers are introduced into the oil and freezing
mixture. As the cooling takes place via the air jacket temperature of the oil falls. The
temperature at which the cloudiness appears is noted as the Cloud point. The cooling is

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further continued. The temperature at which the oil does not flow in the test tube for 5
seconds on tilting it to the horizontal position is noted as the pour point.
A good lubricant should have low cloud point and pour point. Pour point of
lubricating oil can be lowered by (i) dewaxing (ii) adding a pour point depressant.
Examples
Poly alkyl benzene called 'para flow' is a commonly used pour point depressant.
Oiliness
Oiliness is the capacity of lubricating oil to stick on to the surface of the machine
parts under heavy load or pressure.

Significance
Lubricants which have high oiliness stay in between the lubricated surfaces, when
they are subjected to high load and pressure. But lubricants with poor oiliness will be
squeezed out of the machine parts under this condition.
How to improve oiliness
Mineral oils have poor oiliness whereas vegetable and animal oils have high oiliness.
Hence oiliness of mineral oil is improved by adding vegetable oils and higher fatty acids
like oleic acid, stearic acid, etc. A good lubricant should have good oiliness.

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