Contents

1 Tiles....................................................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Process of manufacturing ceramic tiles......................................................................................... 2
1.3 Manufacture of porcelain tiles. ..................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Types of tile .................................................................................................................................. 4
1.4.1 Types of Tiles based on Application..................................................................................... 4
1.4.2 Type of Tiles based on Materials and Manufacture .............................................................. 4
1.5 General Specifications on Tiling................................................................................................... 8
1 Tiles

1.1 Introduction

Tiles are manufactured furnishing materials commonly used to cover internal walls, ceilings and
floors. They can be simple and functional or decorative and elaborate (such as mosaics). Tiles
can be manufactured from a wide range of substances, both hard (e.g. ceramic, porcelain, stone,
marble, clay, slate, glass, etc.) and soft (e.g. timber, vinyl, cork, etc.).

Tiles are often used as an interior furnishing for rooms where a certain amount of water may be
present, such as bathrooms, kitchens, laundry rooms, and so on, where they protect surfaces from
moisture damage. Tiles can also be used to improve the acoustics of a room by adding to its
sound-absorbing properties and they are often specified in the design of theatres, recording
studios, and so on.

1.2 Process of manufacturing ceramic tiles

All ceramic tiles are created from natural products extracted from the earth that are shaped into
tiles and then fired in kilns at extremely high temperatures.

There are 2 main types of tile construction: glazed and unglazed.

When you look at a glazed tile from the side you can see 2 layers. The body of the tile, or largest
layer, is called the bisque. The top layer is called the glaze, as in glazed donut.

Glazed tiles have a hard non-porous, impermeable surface after firing. They are more stain
resistant than unglazed tile and are easy to clean. Something to consider for those more active
areas of your home like the kitchen and baths.

Unglazed tiles add a whole different beauty to your home. They are solid colored all the way
through and do not have a top layer of glaze. This is often referred to as through-body
construction.

They have no additional surface applications and are typically more dense and durable than
glazed tile. Thus they are more suitable for interior and exterior applications where wearability is
a concern.

If your home has areas of heavy activity or kid “zones,” unglazed tile may be just the answer.

There are 5 steps in the ceramic tile manufacturing process: Mining, Blending and Mixing,
Pressing, Glazing, and Firing.

Step 1 is basic and organic.

The process begins with the mining of the raw materials, which is a mixture composed of mostly
clay and minerals.

Step 2 transforms mud into fine sand.

The clay and mineral mixture is blended and mixed into a semi fine powder.

Water is added to form a wet slurry or mud-like consistency. Then the slurry is pumped into a
large dryer. The result is a fine clay powder that feels like warm, fine sand.

Step 3 sees a form take shape.

Next, the clay is pressed or formed into a tile shape. These pressed tiles are called green tiles at
this stage.

There is also another method called extrusion which can replace the pressing step. Extruded tiles
are formed by forcing the clay material through a mold for the desired shaped versus pressing the
tile.

However, pressing is the more common method used today. And after the green tiles are formed
they are dried to remove some of the moisture.

Step 4 is the glaze phase.

It’s the next step in the manufacturing process for those tiles that will have a glaze.

If the tile is to remain unglazed it skips this step and goes directly to the firing kiln.

The glaze liquid is prepared from a glass derivative called frit and colored dyes. The glaze is
applied by either a high-pressure spray or is poured directly onto the tile.

Step 5 really heats things up.

The ceramic tiles are now fired in the kiln at temperatures around 2000 degrees Fahrenheit. Tiles
that are fired once after the glaze is applied are called monocoturra tile or single fired.

The other type is called biocuttura or double fired tile. Biocuturra tiles are first fired after the
green tile is dried and then fired again after the glaze is applied.

1.3 Manufacture of porcelain tiles.

Porcelain tile is made up of 50% feldspar and is fired at a much higher temperature than regular
ceramic tile. This makes porcelain tile much harder and denser than other tile products.
Their high performance and low water absorption ratings of less than 0.5 percent make these tiles
a worthy choice for your home.

Additionally, porcelain tile can be used for interior and exterior applications as well as heavy or
commercial areas.

After the finished tiles have been inspected for quality assurances, they are packaged, crated and
ready to be shipped.

1.4 Types of tile

The most common types of tiles include:

1.4.1 Types of Tiles based on Application

There is a different type of tiles used in building construction which are unique to the type of
surface where it must be applied. Following are the types of tiles based on surface of application:
 Roofing tiles,
 Flooring tiles,
 Wall tiles, and
 Partition tiles.

1.4.2 Type of Tiles based on Materials and Manufacture

a. Carpet tiles

Carpet tiles, also known as carpet squares, are a type of flooring which can be used as an
alternative to the more common rolled carpet. They are formed from an upper layer of pile
attached to a backing and are produced in a variety of sizes, materials, fibres, patterns and
colours. Carpet tiles are often used in commercial and public buildings such as airports, offices,
schools, libraries, and so on.
 b. Ceiling tiles

Ceiling tiles, also known as ceiling panels, are lightweight construction materials, which are used
to cover ceilings. Placed within a supporting grid, they can provide some thermal insulation but
are usually designed to improve the aesthetics and acoustics of a room. They are commonly used
in the commercial applications, such as offices, shops and so on.

c. Ceramic tiles

Ceramic tiles are a mixture of clays and other natural materials such as sand, quartz and water.
They are used in houses, restaurants, offices, shops, and so on, as kitchen, and bathroom
surfaces. They are easy to fit, easy to clean, easy to maintain and are available at a reasonable
price.

Following are the various types of unglazed and glazed forms of ceramic tiles:

 Earthenware tiles
 Terracotta and faience
 Fully vitrified tiles
 Glazed tiles
 Stoneware Tile

The earthenware tiles are made of clay while the stoneware tiles have a large quantity of silica
that is present in the form of sand, crushed stoneware etc. Silica in the stoneware tiles are added
to prevent the shrinkage when the fixing process is carried out. Terracotta tiles are
manufactured by the use of high-grade fired clay. When the firing is done twice unlike the case
of terracotta tiles, we obtain the faience. Faience initially is subjected to fire, that is initially
terracotta. After glazing the terracotta tiles, it is again fired. This will finally give Faience. The
Faience is available in large variety of color change. This would help for improving the terracotta
works.

 Glazed and Vitrified Ceramic Tiles

Glazed and vitrified tiles ceramic are developed presently. The glazed tiles were only used for
walls, at initial stages. Glazed ceramic tiles are mainly manufactured by two processes.

 Step 1: With the help of special white clay that is fired at a temperature of 1200 degree
Celsius, the body of the tiles are made. These final elements are called biscuits.

 Step 2: The biscuits are accompanied by glazing and decorations if any, and are fired in
the oven.

The glazes in ceramic tiles can be of two types:

 Earthenware glazes, and

 Colored enamels.
The colored enamels are also of different types.

 Bright or glossy surface

 Eggshell, vellum finishes
 Matt finishes
For different types of floor and different abrasion due to traffic, the glazing techniques can be
improved.

Vitrified ceramic tiles are tiles that are made from clay materials plus other finely ground
materials. These are subjected to a higher temperature firing. Fully vitrified tiles are those tiles
whose whole thickness are also vitrified. Vitrified ceramic tiles have higher abrasion resistance
and can be employed in the areas of heavy traffic. These tiles are said to hard as granite. These
are polished with the help of diamond abrasive tools.
When compared to vitrified tiles, the glazed tiles are not long lasting.

d. Porcelain tiles

Porcelain tiles are similar to ceramic tiles, but tend to be denser and hard wearing and so are used
for internal and external flooring.

The manufacture, absorbing capacity and the breaking strength of porcelain tiles differ from the
ceramic tiles. The porcelain tiles are also made from clay. But compared with the ceramic tiles,
they make use of heavy or denser clay. Porcelain tiles during manufacture are subjected to heavy
temperature for a longer time. This baking is carried out until all the water present in the element
is evaporated. This unique method of manufacture makes these tiles harder and denser compared
to ceramic tiles. This is the reason why porcelain tile is regarded as a superior product when
factors of durability, design, color and value factors are considered. Porcelain tiles are highly
impervious to water. It has a water absorption rate lesser than 0.5%.

The cost of porcelain tiles is higher when compared to the ceramic tiles. The porcelain tiles gain
more application in surface areas that have high traffic. These tiles are a type of vitrified tiles. It
is sometimes referred to as porcelain vitrified tiles. The porcelain tiles demand special cement
for their installation. These tiles are harder and denser compared to ceramic tiles. So, when these
tiles are used for wall surfaces, the cement that has high adhesive property are used. The
porcelain tiles that are polished are also available in the market. After firing of the tiles, they can
be polished. This would bring a shine in the tile, without any glazing.

e. Natural stone tiles

Natural stone tiles have been used for interior surfaces for a very long time, and remain popular
today due to their ability to withstand wear and tear and for their appearance.

Commonly-used natural stones include; Marble, Serpentine marble, Granite, Limestone,

Travertine, Slate, Sandstone, Onyx, Shell stone and Quartz.
 f. Vinyl tiles

Vinyl tiles can be used as an alternative to sheet flooring in spaces such as kitchens or bathrooms
or in industrial spaces where spills are likely or regular cleaning necessary. They are are flexible,
hard wearing and resilient to degradation. They are available in a very wide range of colours, are
relatively easy to lay and can be polished to a high-gloss finish.

g. Mosaic tiles

More recently, a variety of decorative composite tiles have been manufactured, such as pebbles
embedded in resin, glass or metal tiles bonded onto mesh and so on.

1.5 General Specifications on Tiling

a. Surfaces of beds and backings

Screeded beds for in-situ finishings of floor finishings bedded in mortar, shall be left rough from
the screeding board.

b. Preparation of surfaces

Concrete surfaces to receive paving without screeds shall be prepared as described herein.

c. Cement and sand paving

Cement and sand paving shall be in the proportions and to the thicknesses described, shall be
finished with a steel trowel unless otherwise specified and shall be protected and kept wet until
hard.

d. Tyrolean finish

Tyrolean finish shall be applied by machine in accordance with the instructions issued by the
Cement Marketing Company. The colour of the cement shall be selected by the Architect. If
required to do so by the Architect, the Contractor shall provide a sample panel or panels of
Tyrolean finish the cost of which shall be deemed to be included in the Contract Sum. All
adjoining areas and finishings shall be masked and protected so as to prevent staining whilst a
applying the Tyrolean finish.

e. Mortar for bedding and pointing

All materials for mortar, their storage, testing and mixing shall be as described in
“Plasterwork”.

f. Preparation of surfaces

All surfaces to receive the finishings in this section shall be thoroughly cleaned. Screeds to
receive finishings bedded in mortar shall be well wetted before laying is commenced.

g. Glazed ceramic wall tiles

Glazed ceramic wall tiles shall comply with B.S. 1281 and shall be of the sizes and colours
described and have cushion edges.

The tiles shall be soaked in clean water for at least half an hour before fixing tacked on edge
tightly together and end tiles turned glazed face outwards and fixed as soon as the surface water
has gone. The tiles shall be bedded in cement and sand, (1:3), with straight joints 1.5 mm wide
pointed in white cement, after scratching the surface of the backing screed to form a key.

Alternatively, tiles shall be wiped clean and fixed dry with “Richafix” or other approved
adhesive, all in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations, with straight joints 1.5mm
wide pointed in white cement.

h. Cement interlocking tiles

Cement interlocking tiles shall be 20 mm thick of natural colour with bevelled top arrises on all
sides and shall be bedded horizontally and vertically in hot bitumen when to roofs, or in cement
mortar (1:4) coloured to match the tile when to floors. They shall comply with B.S. 1197.

All cement stains shall be carefully removed and sawdust shall not be used as protection until the
joints are set.

i. Quarry tile paving

To be hard well burnt tiles to B.S.1286 of the sizes given herein and laid on prepared screeds.
The tiles are to be soaked in clean water for at least six hours before use and bedded in cement
and sand (1:4) approximately 3 mm thick with straight joints in each direction. Upon completion
grout in coloured cement to match tiles and wash and clean down. Tiles are to be cut with an
electric tile cutting saw.

j. Ceramic tile pavings and accessories

Ceramic tiles and accessories of the types described herein are to be fixed in an adhesive to
comply with B.S. Code of Practice 202:1972 “Tile flooring and slab flooring”. Tiles are to be
laid with close straight joints in each direction and upon completion grouted in matching
coloured cement and washed and cleaned down. Tiles are to cut with an electric tile cutting saw.

k. Vinyl asbestos tiles

Vinyl asbestos tiles shall be of the types and sizes described and of a colour to be selected by the
Architect. Samples of all tiles and sheet shall be submitted to the Architect for his approval. No
flooring shall be laid until plastering and painting of walls and ceilings is complete. All vinyl
asbestos tiles shall be laid by a firm or firms to be approved by the Architect in writing. The
Contractor shall obtain from the flooring specialist before laying is commenced, and forward to
the Architect:-

 A written statement to the effect that the trowelled bed is in all respects satisfactory to
receive the flooring
 Guarantee that any defects due to faulty workmanship or materials occurring within six
months of the certified date of completion of the whole of the works, wil be made good
by the Specialist at his own expense, and to the satisfaction of the Architect.

l. Wood block flooring

Wood block flooring shall be obtained from a supplier approved by the Architect and shall be of
the timber and finish described. The flooring shall be laid by a specialist firm approved by the
Architect in writing.

The Contractor shall provide the Architect with samples for his approval before any tiles are
ordered or laid.

No flooring shall be laid until plastering of walls and ceilings is complete. The Contractor shall
obtain from the flooring specialist before laying is commenced, and forward to the Architect:-

 A written statement to the effect that the trowelled bed is in all respects satisfactory to
receive the flooring and
 A guarantee that any defects due to faulty workmanship, or materials occurring within six
months of the certified date or completion of the whole of the works, will be made good
by the specialist at his own expense, and to the satisfaction of the Architect.
The adhesive used for the wood blocks is to be approved by the Architect before commencement
of the work and in the case of the wood block flooring being laid on a surface bed the adhesive is
to be of the waterproof variety.