LEVEL 4

GRAMMAR PACK

2022-2023

1
 UNIT 1 - PRESENT TENSES

A VANISHING PROFESSION: BROOM-MAKING

İzzet Koçmarlı lives in a small village near Kırklareli, and he rides his bike to city center
every morning to open his small shop. He has been making brooms for 52 years ever since
his father taught him. While he is holding a piece of broom bush at his hands, he smiles:
“Even though I am old, I am working in a fast pace. See? I have made 50 brooms today.”
Although he continues to make brooms, he knows that technology has already killed this
profession and there is no future for old traditions.

After You Read

Look at the highlighted forms in the text and write them in the correct categories.

Present Simple: ____________________________________________________________

Present Continuous: ________________________________________________________
Present Perfect: ____________________________________________________________
Present Perfect Continuous: __________________________________________________

Which tense/tenses is/are used for:

Action which talks about general: ______________________________________________
Action which talks about the moment of speaking: _________________________________
A recent action: ____________________________________________________________
Action which started in the past and still continues: _________________________________

2
1.1 SIMPLE PRESENT

Simple Present: Base form of the verb or verb+-s/-es

Habits and Repeated Activities

The board meets regularly on the first Tuesday of every month.

Facts and General Truths

Over one billion people worldwide speak Chinese.
Young children learn foreign languages more easily than adults.

States or Conditions
We know a lot about changes in language learning.

• The simple present is used to make general, timeless statements and talk about repeated or
habitual activities. It is often used with stative verbs to talk about states and conditions.

1.2 PRESENT CONTINUOUS/PROGRESSIVE

Present Continuous: am/is/are + verb+-ing

Activities in Progress Now or Over a Period of Time

It’s Tuesday, December 1. The board is meeting right now.
Listen! Those people are speaking Chinese.
More and more children are learning foreign languages in elementary school these days.

***The present continuous is used to talk about what is happening at the exact moment of
speaking or over a period of time (this week, these days). The continuous form can imply that the
activity is temporary or changing. Verbs with stative meanings (like know and have) are not usually
used in the continuous.
X We are knowing a lot about changes in language learning (INCORRECT as ‘know’ is a stative
verb)

EXERCISE 1: Use the verbs with the correct form, Present Simple or Present Continuous.

1. My husband _________(always / taste) the food while I'm cooking! It's very annoying.
2. What ____________(you / think) about the war?
3. She ___________(have) a headache.
4. I __________(not / see) anything, I can't work the telescope?
5. ______ you______(have) a good time at the moment?
6. The chef always ________(taste) the food before he serves it.
7. I ________(think) too much about my ex-boyfriend.
8. Luke ________(see) the doctor now.

3
EXERCISE 2: Simple Present and Present Progressive. Complete the account of a day in the life
of James Marx, magazine writer and internet blogger. Circle the correct answers.

Today is Monday, one of the two days a week that (I telecommute)/ I’m telecommuting. On
these days, I walk/ I’m walking about 50 steps to my home office, turn on/ am turning on the
computer, and start/am starting writing. For some reason, my computer printer gives/ is giving
me problems today, so at the moment, I try/ I’m trying to fix it. Ah, here we go. It works/ It’s
working again.

This week, I write/ I’m writing on my blog about the dangers of the text messaging. Currently,
our state legislature considers/ is considering a law that would prohibit texting while
driving or operating machinery. I think/ I’m thinking it would be a good idea to pass the law.

It’s now 12.30 p.m., time for lunch. On these days I spend/ I’m spending time at home, I
make/ I’m making my own lunch. On the other days, I have/ I’m having lunch in the company
cafeteria.

It’s 3.30 p.m. I finished my blog an hour ago, and now I do/ I’m doing some Internet research
for an article. I ‘m going to write in a few days. I love/ I’m loving these quiet days at home.

1.3 PRESENT PERFECT

Present Perfect: have/has + past participle

Activities and States Completed Recently or at an Indefinite Time in the Past

I’ve just visited China. I know a lot of Chinese words now.
(His trip is finished. He now knows Chinese words because of the experience)
He’s written 30 pages of the book. (How much)
I’ve travelled to China twice. (How many times)

Activities and States Beginning in the Past and Continuing in the Present

I’ve known about it since last week. (How long)

He’s had the same teacher for two years. (How long)

The present perfect: The present perfect is used to show how something that happened in
the past relates to the present. It provides background information for present events and
situations. Recent and indefinite past time: The present perfect is often used to talk about
activities and states that were completed recently or at an indefinite time in the past. These
sentences can answer the questions: How much? or How many times?
Because it is a present form, the present perfect is not used with specific past time markers.
X I’ve visited China last year (INCORRECT)
X He’s written 30 pages on the book last night. (INCORRECT)

4
Continuing past time: The present perfect can be used to express activities that began in the
past and continue up to the present, usually with time expressions like for, since or all. These
can answer the question: How long? Stative verbs (like be, have and know) and other verbs that
express duration (like wait and keep) are commonly used with this meaning. Other verbs that
express completion are not used with for and since.

1.4 PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Present Prefect Continuous: have/ has + been+ verb+ ing

Activities Beginning in the Past and Continuing in the Present

I’ve been visiting China, so I’m learning a lot of Chinese words.
(She is still making trips to China and is continuing to learn Chinese.)
He’s been writing a book. (He is still writing it or has just completed it.)
I’ve been reading this report for two hours. (How long)

• The present perfect continuous is also used to show how something that happened in the
past relates to the present. It is not used as often as the present perfect.

• The present perfect continuous is used to express activities that began in the past and
continue up to the present, or activities that were in progress but have just ended. It
emphasizes that the activity is ongoing. It can imply that the activity is temporary.

• With time expressions like for and since, present perfect continuous sentences can answer
the question: How long? Verbs with stative meanings are not usually used in the continuous.

Present Perfect Simple or Present Perfect Continuous?

We use both of these tenses for finished and unfinished actions.
The present perfect simple can be used with both action and stative verbs:
• I've known John for three years.

The present perfect continuous can also be used to talk about unfinished actions that started in
the past and are still true in the present. (Of course, we don't use the present perfect continuous
with stative verbs):
• She's been living here for three years.
• X I’ve been knowing about it since last week (INCORRECT)

Sometimes there's really no difference in meaning between the two tenses. This is especially the
case with verbs such as 'live', 'work' and 'study':
• They've lived in London since 2004.
• They've been living in London since 2004.
• I've studied French for ten years.
• I've been studying French for ten years.

5
Sometimes, there is a difference in meaning:
The present perfect continuous can be used to emphasize the length of time that has passed.
The present perfect simple is generally neutral:
• They've been waiting for hours! (This emphasizes the length of time).
• They've waited for hours. (This doesn't emphasize the length of time).

On the other hand, the present perfect simple is often used when we're talking about how much
or how many. This isn't possible with the present perfect continuous:
• She's drunk three cups of coffee this morning.
• She's drunk at least a litre of coffee today.

The present perfect continuous often focuses on the action itself, while the present perfect simple
focuses on the fact that the action is completed:
• I've been reading the book you recommended. (I'm enjoying it, but I'm not finished).
• I've read the book you recommended. (I've finished it, so we can talk about it).

We use 'yet' and 'already' with the present perfect simple:

• Have you read the book yet?
• She's finished her work already.

This difference is often used to talk about different kinds of results in the present. The present
perfect simple is used when the action is finished, and the result comes from the action being
finished:
• I've eaten dinner, so let's go out.
• She's done all her homework, so she can relax this evening.
• I've made a cake. Would you like some?

The present perfect continuous is used when the result comes from the action itself. It doesn't
matter if the whole action is finished or not. The result is often something we can see, hear, smell,
or feel:
• I've been eating dinner, so there are plates all over the table.
• She's been doing her homework, so she's tired.
• I've been making a cake, that's why the kitchen is such a mess.

Finally, the present perfect continuous can be used to emphasize that something is temporary:
• She's been running a lot recently. (She doesn't usually do this).
• Usually I study at home, but I've been studying in the library for the last week.

6
EXERCISE 3: Write the correct form of the verbs. Use present perfect simple or present perfect
continuous.

A: 1 _______________ (you/take) the dog for a walk yet?

B: No, I haven’t. I 2 _____________ (work) all day. I 3 ____________ (come) home from work
and I 4 ____________ (have) the time to walk the dog yet.
A: So how long 5 ___________ (you/be) home alone?
B: For about 6 hours. You 6 __________ (walk) the dog zero times since last weekend. Why
don’t you take him for a walk?
A: Well, I 7 ___________ (do) things all day too, you know. I have a very important meeting
tomorrow and I 8 ____________ (finish) my presentation yet.

Action Verbs
Action verbs (also called active or dynamic verbs) describe actions. Action verbs carry the
suggestion that the subject is in front of the action.

Use simple verb forms (without -ing) to describe all of an action – the action in general.
• I write articles for psychology magazine.
• Computers perform tasks quickly.

Use progressive verb forms (with -ing) to describe past of an action -in progress at a specific
time.
• Right now, I’m writing my blog.
• Today, my computer is performing well.

Non-Action Verbs
Non action verbs describe states such as appearance, mental states, perceptions, possession,
and wants. We most often use non-action verbs in the simple form and not in the progressive.

Appearance You look stressed.

Emotions Elena loves email.
Mental states I know the answer to that question.
Perceptions We hear that all the time.
Possession They own four computers.
Wants and preferences I need a new phone.

7
 Here are some common stative/non-action verbs:

Like, know, belong, love, realize, fit, hate, suppose, contain, want, need, understand, seem,
prefer, believe, depend, agree, remember, matter, mind, recognize, see, own, appear, be,
look=seem, sound, taste, smell, hear, disagree, promise, think=have an opinion, wish, have, feel=
have an opinion, owe, possess.

Some verbs can be both stative and action

Be
Be is usually a stative verb, but when it is used in the continuous it means 'behaving' or 'acting'.
• you are stupid = it's part of your personality
• you are being stupid = only now, not usually

Think
• think (stative) = have an opinion - I think that coffee is great
• think (action) = consider, have in my head - what are you thinking about? I'm thinking
about my next holiday.
Have
• have (stative) = own- I have a car
• have (action) = part of an expression- I'm having a party / a picnic / a bath / a good time /
a break
See
• see (stative) = see with your eyes / understand- I see what you mean. I see her now,
she's just coming along the road
• see (action) = meet / have a relationship with- I've been seeing my boyfriend for three
years- I'm seeing Robert tomorrow
Taste
• taste (stative) = has a certain taste- The coffee tastes really bitter
• taste (action) = the action of tasting- The chef is tasting the soup

EXERCISE 4: Choose the correct option.

1. Wait! I need some more time. I am thinking/ think about the answer.
2. I have never eaten passion fruit before; it is tasting/ tastes too sweet.
3. She has/ is having a baby! Her husband is waiting in front of the surgery room.
4. Why don’t you stop doing that? You are being/ are a jerk and she won’t like you.
5. The blind man is feeling/ feels the Braille Alphabet on the ticket machine in order to
understand what it says.
6. Sally is/ is being a very calm person; she never gets angry.
7. I am supposing/ suppose that hat is belonging/ belongs to Suzanne.

8
EXERCISE 5: Write the correct form of the verbs. Use present simple, present continuous,
present perfect and present perfect continuous tense.

1. I _______ (never come) across such a big snake in my life. What about you?
2. My wife and I _____ (have) a few problems recently and I have to admit that our
relationship______ (get) a bit boring since our daughter left for university.
3. I _______ (lead) a very busy life these days. I _____ (prepare) for my final exams and at the
same time I ______ (try) to move to my new apartment. You can't imagine how tired I am.
4. The digestive system _________(be) a group of organs that ________(function) primarily to
convert ingested food into metabolically useful substances.
5. Anatomy ________ (be) the branch of biology that _______ (deal) with the structure and
organization of living things.
6. Most people ________ (not like) being disturbed when they ______(work).
7. Because anxiety often ______(have) more than one cause and is experienced in highly
individual ways, its treatment usually _________(require) more than one type of therapy.
8. How many of these questions (you/manage) ________ to get right so far?
9. He's an awful driver. He (have) _________ four accidents in the last three months.
10. So, what (you/do) ___________ since I last saw you? What's new?

EXERCISE 6: Choose the correct option

1. I ………... the new museum yet. Is it 9. I can’t buy those shoes because…….
nice? all my money.
a. don’t visit a. already I’ve spent
b. haven’t been visiting b. I’ve been spending already
c. haven’t visited c. I’ve already spent
d. am not visiting d. already have I spent
2. Monica hasn’t finished her 10. She needs to go for a walk. She…….
homework………... at her desk all day.
a. already a. has been sitting
b. still b. has sat
c. yet c. is sitting
d. recently d. sits
3. Toby is happy because he………. 11. I………. anything like it before. It’s
his dream job. amazing!
a. is finding a. don’t see
b. finds b. am not seeing
c. has been finding c. haven’t been seeing
d. has found d. haven’t seen

9
 4. Marie’s in a rock band. She………. 12. You should help Lucy because
the electric guitar. she……. it before.
a. has played a. hasn’t done
b. is playing b. doesn’t do
c. plays c. hasn’t been doing
d. has been playing d. isn’t doing
5. Oh no! There……. the last bus! 13. We……. them several emails, but
a. has gone they still haven’t responded.
b. has been a. are sending
c. goes b. send
d. is going c. have been sending
6. There you are! I……… for you all d. have sent
morning! 14. Call her at the office. She is ………
a. have looked there at this time.
b. am looking a. seldom
c. have been looking b. usually
d. look c. rarely
7. ……… lunch yet? Would you like to d. regularly
join us? 15. Karen……… to driving lorries. She
a. Are you having has been doing it since she left
b. Do you have school.
c. Have you been having a. gets used
d. Have you had b. is getting used
8. Jack doesn’t use the car during the c. is used
week because he………. to work. d. has been getting used
a. is walking
b. walks
c. has been walking
d. has walked

Exercise 7: Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence,
using the word given. Do not change the word given. You must use between two and five
words, including the word given.

1. Jack’s in Italy; he’ll be back next week. has

Jack _____________________; he’ll be back next week
2. This is the first time I’ve gone for a ride on a camel. ridden
I’ve _____________________before.
3. Karen went to sleep ten hours ago, and she still hasn’t woken up! sleeping
Karen _____________________ ten hours!
4. Jane started her diet last summer and she is still on it. dieting
Jane _____________________ last summer.
5. Mary has been a professional tennis player for eight years. played
Mary _____________________ for eight years.

10
 UNIT 2 – PAST TENSES

Exercise 1: Read the text and choose the correct option in each pair below.

I had been working at JB Simpson’s for ten

years. It was a small company which exported
garden furniture. I was happy with my job, and I got
on well with the owner, Arthur Simpson but not with
his wife, Linda. She was a loud woman, who used
to turn up at the office regularly and start criticizing
us for no reason. Everyone disliked her.
One afternoon Mrs Simpson came in while I
was finishing a report. She looked at me and said,
‘If I were you, I wouldn’t wear that colour. It doesn’t
suit you at all.’ I was wearing a pink shirt that I was
fond of, and her comment really annoyed me. I
typed an email to Alan Simmonds in Sales. ‘Watch
out! The old witch is on the warpath!’ and pressed
‘send’. A couple of minutes later I was surprised to
receive an email from Mr Simpson asking me to
come to his office. When I opened the door, I saw
his wife glaring at the computer screen, and I
realized, to my horror, what I had done. I had
clicked on Simpson instead of Simmonds. 5
minutes later, I was packing my things. I had been
sacked! At that time, I didn’t know this would
change my life and that I was going to start my own
furniture company afterwards.

1. A. The owner’s wife, Linda, often visited the office.

B. She didn’t have a habit of visiting the office.

2. A. Before sending the e-mail, he didn’t realize he clicked on the wrong name.
B. He realized he clicked on the wrong name before sending the mail and corrected it.

3. A. He made a plan to set up his own business before he was sacked.

B. He didn’t know he would have a better future before he was sacked.

11
Past Time

Past Time: General or Specific (Definite)

Simple Past Past Progressive

Weinlick needed to find a bride. Was / Were + Base Form + -ing
He advertised on the Internet. He was looking for someone special.

Past Time: Not Specific (Indefinite)

Present Perfect
Have/has + Past Participle
The couple has chosen the date for the party.
They have already sent the invitations.

Past Time: Habitual or Repeated

Used to + Base Form Would + Base Form

She used to be a pharmacist. Some days she would work 12 hours

Past Time: Before a Time in the Past

Past Perfect Past Perfect Progressive

Had + Past Participle Had been + Base Form + -ing
He had met her before the wedding. He had been planning the wedding for
months.

Past Time: After a Time in the Past but Before Now (Future in the Past)

Was/Were Going to + Base Form Would + Base Form

He knew he was going to marry He knew when the wedding would be.
soon.

12
GRAMMAR NOTES
1. Use the Simple Past to express an
action, event or state completed at a
general or specific time in the past.
Remember that many of the most
common verbs have irregular past forms
and past participles.
2. Use the Past Progressive to express
an action that was in progress (= not
finished) at a time in the past.
3. Use the Present Perfect to express an
action, event, or state completed at an
indefinite time in the past.
!!! Be Careful: Do not use the present
perfect with a past time-expression.
Note: The simple past is the definite past.
The present perfect is the indefinite past.
Remember that the present perfect also
connects the past and the present.
4. Use used to + base form to Show a
habitual action, event, or state that was
true in the past but is no longer true.
You can also use would + base form to
express actions or events that occurred
regularly during a period in the past.
Be Careful! Used to and would are similar
in the meaning when they express past
actions. However, only used to can show
past location, state, or possession.
5. Use was/were going to/would + base
form to describe an action, event, or
state that was planned or expected in
the past (before now). Sentences with
was/were going to / would are
sometimes called future in the past.
EXAMPLES
• Runze wanted to get married. (General)
• She filled out an application form
several days before the wedding.
(Specific)
• Weinlick and Runze met five days
before they got married.
• Runze was studying pharmacy at the
University when she decided to get
married.
• How many Americans have ever
considered an arranged marriage?
• Weinlick got married a few years
ago.
NOT Weinlick has gotten married a
few years ago.
• The two met on June 8, 1998.
• They have already met.
• I have attended many weddings
since then.
• Kayoko used to play tennis a lot.
• When we were children, we would
spend every summer in Maine.
• I used to live in Chicago.
• Sarah used to be a marriage counsellor.
• We used to have a summer home.
NOT I would live in Chicago.
Sarah would be a marriage counsellor.
We would have a summer home.
• Weinlick knew that he was going to get
married on June 13, 1998.
• He knew where the wedding would be.
13
GRAMMAR NOTES
1. Use the past perfect to Show that
something happened before a specific
time in the past.
2. Use the past perfect progressive to talk
about an action that was in progress
before a specific time in the past. The
progressive emphasizes the continuing
activity, not the end result.
Remember! Non-action (stative) verbs are
not usually used in the progressive.
3. We often use the past perfect
progressive to draw conclusions based
on evidence.
4. Use the past perfect and the past
perfect progressive to show a
relationship with a past time or another
past event.
Use the past perfect or past perfect
progressive for the earlier event. Use
the simple past for the later time or
event.
BE CAREFUL! In sentences with when,
notice the difference in meaning between:
a. the simple past and the past perfect
b. the past progressive and the past
perfect progressive
EXAMPLES
• By 1994, Ang Lee had become
successful.
• It was 1994. He had already made
several films.
• By 2000, Lee had been directing films
for eight years.
• It was 5:00 pm. He had had a headache all
day.
• NOT He had been having a headache all
day.
• She was out of breath. It was clear that
she had been running.
• It was 1980. She had been an author for
two years.
(She was an author before 1980.)
• He had been working at home when his
script won a competition.
(He was working at home. Then his
scripts won a competition.)
• When the movie ended, she left.
(First the movie ended. Then she left.)
• When the movie ended, she had left.
(First, she left. Then, the movie ended.)
• When the filming started, it was raining.
(It was still raining during the filming.)
• When the filming started, it had been
raining and the streets were wet.
(It wasn’t raining during the filming. It
had already stopped.)
14
5. Use already, yet, ever, never, and just • Jason and I saw Crouching Tiger,
with the past perfect to emphasize the Hidden Dragon last night. Jason had
event which occurred first. already seen it.
• I had never seen it before.

6. When the time relationship between two
past events is clear (as with before,
after, and as soon as), we often use the
simple past for both events.
• After Lee had directed Eat, Drink, Man,
Woman, he worked on Hollywood
movies.
OR
• After Lee directed Eat, Drink, Man,
Woman, he worked on Hollywood
movies.

7. We often use the past perfect and the • By 1985, Lee had gotten married.
past perfect progressive with by (a • By the time I got home, he had been
certain time). waiting for an hour.

Exercise 2: Read each numbered situation. Decide if the description that follows is true (T),
false (F) or if there is not enough information to know, write a question mark (?).

1. When I found a seat, the movie started.

----- First the movie started. Then I found a seat.

2. When I found a seat, the movie had started.

----- First the movie started. Then I found a seat.

3. Christina invited the director on her show because he had won an Oscar.
----- The guest won the Oscar after his appearance on the show.

4. Before the break, the guest had been explaining why he had made the film.
----- The guest’s explanation was finished.

5. When I saw Mei Ling, her eyes were red. She had been crying.
----- She wasn't crying when I saw her.

15
Exercise 3: Complete the story by circling the correct forms.

Ellen Rossetti and Mark Stevens 1) were married / have been married for almost a
year now. Their marriage almost 2) didn't happen / wasn't happening, though. They 3) were
meeting / met on a blind date when Ellen’s friend Alice 4) had / has had two extra tickets for
a concert.

At first, Ellen 5) thought / was thinking Mark was the most opinionated man she had
ever met. A couple of weeks after the concert, Mark 6) called up / was calling up and 7) had
asked / asked Ellen out. Ellen 8) wanted / has wanted to say no, but something 9) made /
was making her accept. After that, one thing 10) had led / led to another. Today Mark says,
“Ellen is unique. I 11) have never met / didn't meet anyone even remotely like her.”

Ellen says, “At first glance you might have trouble seeing how Mark and I could be
married. In certain ways, we’re as different as night and day. I'm an early bird; he is a night
owl. He's conservative; I'm liberal. He12) was always loving / has always loved sports and I
13) have never been able / was never able to stand them. I guess you might say we’re a
case of opposites being attracted to each other.”

Exercise 4: Put the verbs into correct forms.

1) After I (find) ______ the wallet full of money, I (go, immediately) ______ to the police
and (turn) _____ it in.
2) Sebastian (drive) _____ at Susan’s house a little before 9:00 PM, but she (be, not)
______ there. She (study) ______ at the library for her final examination in French.
3) Samantha (live)_____ in Berlin for more than two years. In fact, she (live)______ there
when the Berlin Wall came down.
4) By the time I got to the office, the meeting (begin, already) ______without me. My boss
(be) ______ furious with me, and I (be) ______ fired.
5) When I (turn) ______ the radio on yesterday, I (hear) ______ a song that was popular
when I was in high school. I (hear, not) ______ the song in years, and it (bring) ______
back some great memories.
6) Last week, I (run) ______ into an ex-girlfriend of mine. We (see, not) ______ each other
in years, and both of us (change) ______ a great deal. I (enjoy) ______ talking to her so
much that I (ask) ______ her out on a date. We are getting together tonight for dinner.
7) When Jack (enter) ______ the room, I (recognise, not) ______ him because he (lose)
______ so much weight and (grow) ______ a beard. He looked totally different!

16
Exercise 5: Choose the correct option.

1- Mary ______ near the sea when she 9- People in this town are very friendly
was a little girl. and I made friends ______ I moved
a) was living here.
b) used to live a) while
c) would live b) as soon as
d) had lived c) since
2- The town flooded because it had been d) already
raining ______ 8 days.
a) since 10- They ______ home when their car
b) until broke down.
c) for a) were driving
d) by b) had driven
3- Frank ______ his finger while he was c) drive
playing basketball. d) would drive
a) was breaking 11- We didn't stop crying ______ the film.
b) had been breaking a) as
c) has broken b) while
d) broke c) during
4- They ______ by the time I got there. d) since
a) had eaten 12- Ian went to get a shopping trolley as I
b) have eaten ______ the car.
c) ate a) used to parking
d) had been eating b) was parking
5- When they move to France, they all c) would park
______ French lessons. d) had been parking
a) had been started 13- The twins ______ vegetables when
b) had been starting they were children.
c) started a) weren’t eating
d) used to start b) weren't eaten
6- Sara was excited because she ______ c) hadn't been eating
by plane before. d) didn't use to eat
a) didn't travel 14- It had been a long time ______ I had
b) hadn't travelled seen Mark.
c) wasn’t travelling a) ago
d) wasn’t travelled b) since
7- He paid for the window he ______. c) until
a) was breaking d) yet
b) had broken 15- They ______ our offer, so we aren't
c) had been breaking going to work together.
d) broken a) hadn't accepted
8- Linda ______ her homework for about b) hadn't been accepting
10 minutes when her friend called. c) aren't accepting
a) had done d) didn't accept
b) was doing
c) had been doing
d) did

17
Exercise 6: Read the text below and decide which answer (A, B C or D) best fits each gap.
There is an example at the beginning (0)

0) _____ I drove into my hometown, I felt very strange. I hadn’t been back 1) _____ more
than 20 years. Many things had changed 2) _____ I left, and I was wondering if our old
house still existed 3) _____ I turned into my old road and saw that everything was exactly
the same. Suddenly, I remembered how we 4) _____ play hide and seek and football and
tag on this street. It seemed like our road was the centre of the world. None of my family
lived here anymore; my last relative to leave was cousin Jake, and that was about five
years 5) _____ . Poor Jack always 6) _____ our town and wanted to leave as soon as he
could, but for some strange reason, we all left 7) _____ him. Life is very strange
sometimes. I stopped the car in front of our old house and looked at our front door 8)
_____ a few moments. It 9) _____ to be the busiest and noisiest house in the street. The
door 10) _____ always open and 11) _____ the end of each day, almost everyone on our
street 12) _____ been in and out of our house at least once. Now, there was just silence.

0 A during B as C until D since

1 A before B by C for D while
2 A as B since C during D just
3 A until B during C afterwards D lately
4 A used B had C did D would
5 A before B since C ago D already
6 A hating B hates C hated D hate
7 A then B before C after D recently
8 A since B for C until D while
9 A had B would C use D used
10 A would B was C did D been
11 A until B by C for D since
12 A would B were C had D could

18
EXTENSION: Watch the video ‘Queen Elizabeth II – Queen Mini Bio’ and choose the correct
option.

Link to the video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HFxlSVVcNXk

Queen Elizabeth II

1. Before her father, her uncle had been the king. Why did he give up the throne?
a. Because he was the second son.
b. He went to live in the U.S.A.
c. He wanted to marry a twice-divorced woman.

2. During World War 2 which of these wasn’t Elizabeth doing?

a. Volunteering at hospitals
b. Doing a radio show
c. Helping the soldiers after bombing

3. When her father died, she…

a. had already given birth to two children
b. had divorced from her husband
c. had four children

4. Which of these wasn’t she going to change after she became the queen?
a. To show the coronation ceremony on TV
b. To start a tradition of holding meetings with prime ministers
c. To change her security guards

5. Why would she call the year 1992 as “annus horribilis” (horrible year)?
a. Princess Diana died in a car crash.
b. Her children had family problems.
c. British public stopped believing in the royal family.

19
 UNIT 3- FUTURE TENSES
Read these excerpts from the script of a television documentary about the archaeologists’ fight to
save Zeugma’s artifacts.

THE SECRET TREASURES OF ZEUGMA

WEEK 1
AT THE ZEUGMA EXCAVATION SITE
NARRATOR: The story you are going to hear takes place in a remote region of eastern Turkey on
the banks of the Euphrates River. Over the past four years, French and Turkish archaeologists
have been exploring the ancient city of Zeugma. However, the site has never been properly
excavated. This is the team’s last chance to search the site; in six weeks the area you see here
will be flooded.
NEARBY, AT BIRECIK DAM
NARRATOR: I’m standing at Birecik Dam, which is now close to completion. It is going to produce
electricity and provide water for a huge area of farmland, but these benefits will come with a cost.
When the dam is finished, the whole valley will become a reservoir. The dam will flood villages
and displace more than 30,000 people. The hidden treasures of Zeugma will disappear forever
unless archaeologists can get to them first. The team has only six weeks to collect the artifacts.
Their work begins later today.

WEEK 3
INSIDE THE VILLA
NARRATOR: Archaeologists now know they have found a wealthy house. As they brush away
mud from the wall, brightly coloured paintings are appearing. The archaeologists are going to
clean them and remove them from the site. Then specialists will restore the paintings, so they
won't deteriorate.

WEEK 6
INSIDE THE VILLA
NARRATOR: Time is almost up. By the end of the week, the team will have been working for 42
days without rest. With only two days left, they have discovered a beautifully designed mosaic
floor. Luckily, they have been given more time to excavate, so they’re going to remove the mosaic
and transport it to a local museum. Over the next three months, the waters of the Euphrates will
be gathering behind the dam.

A FEW WEEKS LATER

NARRATOR: Work on the site is ending soon. With the waters rising around the villa,
archaeologists have found more stunning mosaics, but there is only time to save some of them.
These mosaics will be sent to the local museum as well. These mosaics will hold a place of honour
and give visitors a unique perspective on the culture of the valley in ancient times.

A MONTH LATER
NARRATOR: The newly uncovered villa has disappeared under water. By October, the whole
area will have become a calm lake, and much of Zeugma will have vanished forever.

20
Think Critically About Form
Work in pairs. Look at the highlighted verb forms in the reading. Write them in the correct
categories. Then answer these questions for each verb form.

Simple future _________________________________________________

Be going to future ______________________________________________
Future continuous ______________________________________________
Present continuous as future ______________________________________
Simple present as future _________________________________________
Future perfect _________________________________________________
Future perfect continuous_________________________________________

1. Identify: What do you notice about the main verb? Is it in the base form, is there an ending, or
is the verb in another form?
2. Recognize: What auxiliary or auxiliaries, if any, come before the main verb?
3. Categorize: Which future forms begin with will? How is the future indicated without will?

Think Critically About Meaning and Use

Read each sentence and the statements that follow it. Check (🗸) the correct statement. Discuss
your answers. Then read the notes to check them.
1. Without special care, these artifacts are going to decompose quickly in the hot sun.
—— a. This is a prediction.
—— b. This is an informal plan.
2. When you arrive, they'll have been taking pictures for over an hour.
—— a. They'll still be taking pictures.
—— b. They'll be finished taking pictures.
3. There's something wrong with this computer. I'll go and check the connection again.
____ a. This is a plan made in advance.
____ b. This is a decision made at the moment of speaking.

Basic Future Forms

a) We use the Present Simple to talk about a fixed future event on a timetable, a
schedule, or a programme.
b) We use the Present Continuous to talk about a future arrangement often with a
time, date, and place.
c) We use be going to to talk about a future intention- something we have already
decided to do or to make predictions based on immediate evidence.
d) We use will / won’t to talk about spontaneous decisions when we react to
circumstances, or a future prediction based on our opinion. Sometimes together with
verbs and adverbs such as think, believe, hope, expect, promise, maybe, perhaps,
possibly, etc.
e) We use will be Ving to talk about actions in progress at a certain time in the future.
f) NOTE: When we talk about future, we use present tense after the conjunctions if,
when, as soon as, unless, before and after.

21
Exercise 1: Choose the correct forms in the sentences and match each sentence to the
appropriate rules on the table above.

1. We are buying essential pet supplies because we will/ are going to adopt a cat from the shelter
next week. ____
2. When I see/ will see her, I am going to apologize for my behaviour. ____
3. I got a day off! When you are at the office working at this time tomorrow, I will lie/ will be lying
on my bed. ____
4. We don’t need to hurry. The store is going to open/ opens at 10:00. __a__
5. Mom you have a backache! Why are you washing the car on your own? I am doing/ will do it
for you. ____
6. Look at the baby! She is going to/ will fall from the balcony! ____
7. In year 2030, I think there won’t/ isn’t going to be enough food for everybody. ____
8. Adam met a nice girl yesterday. Tonight, they will meet/ are meeting at the fancy restaurant
downtown. ____

PERFECT FUTURE FORMS

Future Perfect: will / be going to + have + past participle

Future Perfect Continuous: will / be going to + have been + verb + -ing
Earlier Events Later Events
She'll have lived here for two years... by the end of the summer.
She’ll have been living here for two years... by the end of the summer.
The class will have read most of the book... when they see the play.
They'll have been reading the book for a week... when they see the play.
We'll have finished the meeting... by the time he gets here.
We'll have been meeting all morning... by the time he gets here.
• The future perfect and the future perfect continuous are used to show a time relationship
between two future situations. These forms are not used as often as the other future
forms.
• The future perfect and future perfect continuous are used to express the earlier (first)
event.
• The later (second) event is expressed with a time clause (in the simple present) or a time
phrase (e.g., by the end of the summer).
• The future perfect continuous emphasizes that the first (earlier) event was ongoing and
often incomplete. This form cannot be used with verbs that have a stative meaning.
When the president steps down, he will have been in office for two terms.
X When the president steps down, he will have been being in office for two terms.
(incorrect)

22
Exercise 2: Choose the best form to complete each sentence.

1. I promise that I'll sign / I sign the contract tomorrow.

2. Look out! The cat will knock / The cat is going to knock the glasses over.
3. I can’t help you right now. Ask Joanna. She'll do / She's going to do it.
4. We're going to email our pictures to you immediately when we get / we're going to get home.
5. I’ve decided to remain in my current position. I don’t leave/ I'm not leaving this job yet.
6. At this time next week, I'm going to relax / I'll be relaxing on a beach in California.
7. Is everyone ready? The president will start / is going to start the meeting now.
8. How will life change / is life changing in the next century?
9. By the time we get to the airport, their plane will have landed / will have been landing and
they'll be waiting in the terminal.
10. By ten o clock, you'll be working/ you'll have been working for over twelve hours, so I'll be
happy / I'll have been happy to take over.

Exercise 3: Two British are watching a student protest march in Paris from their hotel balcony.
Circle the right verb tense.

ALICE: I expect that the students 1. will stop / are stopping in a moment to listen to speeches.
DAISY: Perhaps the police 2.are probably trying / will probably try to keep them in that
square when they get there.
ALICE: Wait a moment! That young woman at the front 3. is going to / will throw something,
isn't she?
DAISY: No, she's just raising her arm. But look, the police 4. will / are going to form a
barrier. ALICE: I doubt 5. they are succeeding / they'll succeed. Some of the students are already
pushing past them.
DAISY: That policemen's horse is raising its front legs. 6. He will / He's going to charge!
ALICE: Are you sure? I think the horse is just frightened. Anyway, the police are
moving backwards towards the bridge. 7.They're going to / They will retreat.
DAISY: It looks so. 8.They're probably letting / They'll probably let the students cross the
bridge in a few minutes. I don't think they want a battle.

Exercise 4: Complete the second sentence using the bold words in parentheses so that it has
the same meaning as the first sentence.

1. This time next week, we’ll be on the beach in Majorca. (lying)

This time next week ___________________________ on the beach in Majorca.
2. 6th May is our first wedding anniversary. (married)
On 6th May ______________________________ for one year.
3. There is a test for all classes tomorrow morning. (doing)
All the pupils ________________________________ tomorrow morning.
4. The new school will be ready by October. (built)
The builders ________________________________ by October.
5. I’m going to finish writing my third letter by Friday. (written)
By Friday __________________________________ my third letter.
7. By the year 2100 there will be no trees left in this town. (cut)
By the year 2100 they ______________________________ all the trees in this town.
8. That skier is going far too fast, and those trees are very close. (hit)
That skier ____________________________________ those trees.

23
 REVIEW OF TENSES
PAST
I ate pizza yesterday.
To indicate a past habit or an
action already completed.
Can be used with or without
Simple adverbs of time
I was eating pizza when you
arrived.
To indicate uncompleted
action of the past (with or
without time reference)
To indicate persistent habits of
Continuous
the past (with always,
continuously, forever, etc.)
I had eaten all of the pizza
when you arrived.
To indicate a completed action
of the past that happened
Perfect before another event took
place
I had been eating pizza for 2
hours when you arrived.
Perfect To indicate an action in the
Continuous past that began before a
certain point in the past and
continued up until that time
PRESENT FUTURE
I eat pizza every day. I will eat pizza tomorrow
To express habits or To indicate an action,
general truth condition, or circumstance
which hasn’t taken place
To indicate a future event yet.
on a designated date as
a part of a plan or
arrangement
With stative verbs: like,
want, need, believe, etc.
I am eating pizza right I will be eating pizza
now. when you arrive.
To indicate action going To indicate what will be
on at the time of going on at some time in
speaking the future
To indicate temporary To indicate planned future
action which may not be events
happening at the time of
speaking
With a habitual action
verb, especially to
indicate a stubborn habit
I have eaten all of the I will have eaten all of the
pizza. pizza by the time you
arrive.
To indicate a past action
which is not defined by a To indicate an action that
time of occurrence will be complete before
another event takes place
To indicate an action in the future
which started in the past
and has continued up
until now
I have been eating pizza I will have been eating
for 2 hours pizza for 2 hours when you
arrive.
To indicate an action To indicate an action that
which started at some will have happened for
point in the past and may some time and will not be
or may not be complete complete yet at a certain
point in the future
24
Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the correct tense.

Max 1._______________(just/move) to Brazil. He 2.______________(live) in England since he

was a child but his boss 3.________________ (offer) him a better position in Latin America two
months ago. Max 4._________________ (be) a recognized designer. His works
5.______________ (be) admired all over the world. Last year, while he 6.______________ (work)
on a new project, his competitors 7._______________ (send) him a letter with a great job
proposal but he 8._______________ (not-accept) it. This month, he 9.______________ (meet)
with his new team. He 10.________________ (like) his new work mates but he
11._______________ (miss) his people in England, specially his friends Michael and Tom.
They 12._______________(be) friends since they 13.________________ (start) primary
school. Max, Tom and Michael 14._________________(work) together when Max
15._________________ (get) the new job. His friends 16._______________ (help) him
a lot with his trip. Tom 17._______________ (give) him the phone number of a
Portuguese teacher, and Michael 18._______________(bring) him information about the
pace he was going to follow.

Exercise 2: There is a mistake in each sentence below. Underline the mistake and correct it.
1. They have been walking around Venice since 9:00 this morning. They hadn’t gone on a
gondola ride yet.
2. Igor doesn’t go with us to Toledo today; he is staying home because he has to finish a term
paper.
3. I’ll have returned to Barcelona by the time you will get to Manila.
4. I promised to be ready, but when he arrived, I took a shower.
5. I hope the dinner will be ready soon. It’s smelling delicious.
6. I didn’t even think there would be a party. Akiko and Jaime have done a great job, and last
night's get-together was great.
7. We haven't been visiting Venice since 2001. Wouldn't it be fun to go there again?
8. There didn't used to be a factory on this corner, did there?
9. The plane has just taken off when I realized I had given my parents the wrong arrival date.
10. Come along next Monday- the band was practicing in the afternoon.

25
Exercise 2: Read the part of an article adapted from National Geographic and choose the correct
option to complete the gaps.

WHAT DO WE OWE FORMER LAB CHIMPS?

In California’s Wildlife Sanctuary there are various kinds of animals among which are wolves,
lions, tigers, foxes, camels and chimpanzees. Most of the chimps had come from laboratories
and some of them were former pets. U. S. Laboratories __________(1) chimps in invasive
biomedical research since 2015. However, former research chimps _________ (2) serious
damage from dangerous experiments and their lifetime health care _________(3) a lot of
money, for about 17,000 $ a year per each chimpanzee. Other than the financial issues, some
of these chimps also need psychological support. In a 2008 study of post-traumatic stress
disorder in research chimpanzees, scientists presented two lab chimps as case studies: Rachel
was prone to “violent, angry outbursts” and self-injury, and after seven years in the lab, Jeannie
__________(4) herself, rocking back and forth, screaming, and experiencing seizure-like
episodes. “The costs of laboratory-caused trauma are immeasurable,” the paper concludes,
leaving a “life-long psychological impact.” Authorities __________(5) about what to do for their
future and they hope these victims _________(6) better living conditions in their remaining time.
Some chimps _________(7) a forever home by the next year thanks to the efforts of volunteers.
But upon finding out the horrible experiences they have been through, one keeps asking himself
“Is this how we should pay them back?”.

1. a. haven’t used b. will have used c. aren’t going to use d. don’t use
2. a. will take b. takes c. had taken d. are taking
3. a. is going to cost b. is costing c. costs d. will cost
4. a. was starving b. will be starving c. was going to starve d. had starved
5. a. used to discuss b. are discussing c. would discuss d. had discussed
6. a. have b. are going to have c. have had d. will have
7. a. have found b. will be finding c. will have found d. don’t find

26
Exercise 3: Look at the pictures. Complete each pair of sentences. Use a simple verb form in one
sentence and a progressive verb form in the other. Use the verbs develop, be, have, write.

1. Mr. Schoenberg’s students a.______________________

usually well behaved. Today, for some reason, they
b.______________________ difficult.

2. Amy Tanaka is a novelist. She a.______________________

five novels already. She b._______________________ sixth novel
since last October and expects to complete it in July.

3. The employees of Excelsior Computer

a._____________________ their annual holiday party this
evening. They always b._____________________ it sometime in
December.

4. Excelsior Computer a._____________________ an

amazing new software program since last summer and expects
to release it in four months. In the past ten years, the company
b._______________________15 major software programs.

27
 UNIT 4 – MODAL VERBS

4.1 PRESENT & PAST MODALS OF ADVICE, OBLIGATION AND NECESSITY

▶ Please watch the ‘Shrek Awkward Dining Scene” video. Examine the sentences
below and put them into the correct category.
a. Shrek has to learn table manners.

b. He wasn’t supposed to eat the snail with its shell.

c. She shouldn’t have burped in public.

d. They had better keep silent.

e. He should have used the water to clean his hands.

f. Shrek has got to push the spoon out of his throat.

g. Donkey doesn’t actually have to go to the bathroom.

h. You mustn’t eat meals like that!

✅ We use it to give present advice ✅ We use it for present necessity/ obligation

_______ _____, _____, _____
✅ We use it to give past advice ✅ We use it for past necessity/ obligation
______, ______ _____
✅ We use it for lack of necessity
_______

4.1.1 MODALS OF ADVICE

Present / Future Advice
Weaker * could, might
* should(n't), ought to
Stronger * had better (not), have to,
have got to, must
Present / Future Context
I don't like my job. | want to quit.
You could talk to your boss. Maybe she can help.
You shouldn’t quit until you find another job.
You'd better keep your job. You need the money.
You've got to keep your job.

28
 Past (or Perfect) Advice Past Context

I didn't like my job, so I quit.

Weaker * could have, might have You could have talked to your boss instead.
* should(n't) have, ought to have You should have waited until you found another job.
Stronger * had better (not) have You'd better have found another job first.

* Modals can be used to give advice. The choice of modal depends on the strength of a
person's attitude or opinion.
* Present and future forms are used to give advice and opinions about a current situation.
Past (or perfect) forms express opinions about missed opportunities or regrets about past
actions. They mean something was a good idea, but it didn’t happen.
* Weaker modals—could (have) and might (have)—often sound more polite. Words such as
maybe, perhaps, and I think are also sometimes used with weaker modals of advice.
* Had better (not) and had better (not) have are used to give advice with a warning of
possible bad consequences if the advice isn't followed.
* Have to, have got to, and must are also used to give very strong advice—something the
speaker thinks is necessary.

4.1.2 MODALS OF NECESSITY

Present / Future Necessity
You must pay before entering the park.
That's the rule.
He has to be at the meeting by 10:00, so
he's got to take a taxi.
Past Necessity
You had to pay before entering the park.
Unfortunately, I’d left my wallet at home.
He had to be at the meeting by 10:00, so
he had to take a taxi.

* Modals can be used to talk about necessity or something that is required. Must expresses
the strongest necessity and is used in formal or official situations—often to talk about laws or
rules. Have to is used in formal or informal situations. Have got to is informal.
* Only had to is used to express past necessity. Notice that unlike past modals of advice, had
to does not express regret.
She had to quit her job. It was driving her crazy.
* Have to and have got to change form to show agreement in the present and future.

29
4.1.3 MODALS of PROHIBITION and LACK OF NECESSITY

Present / Future Prohibition Past Prohibition

You must not bring anything into the
exam room.
You may not use the gym equipment.
You can’t eat on the subway.
I couldn't bring anything into the exam
room.
I couldn't use the gym equipment.
I was surprised you couldn't eat on the
subway.

Present / Future Lack of Necessity Past Lack of Necessity

She doesn't have to go to work She didn’t have to go to work yesterday
tomorrow. It is a holiday She needn’t have gone to work
yesterday, but she went anyway

* Prohibition: Must not, may not, and can't / cannot are used to indicate that something is
prohibited or not allowed. Must not is strong. It is used in formal situations. May not is formal,
but not as strong. Can't / cannot are used in formal or informal situations
* Only couldn't is used to express past prohibition.
* Can't / cannot is also used to give very strong advice—something the speaker wants to
prohibit.
You can’t quit your job. You need it!
You cannot smoke in here! It’s a hospital!
* Lack of necessity: Don’t have to means that something is not necessary—there is a
choice of whether to do it or not. Didn't have to means that something was unnecessary,
whether it happened or not. Needn’t have means that something was unnecessary, but it
happened.

4.1.4 MODALS OF OBLIGATION

Present / Future Obligation
I'm supposed to cook dinner tonight.
It’s my turn.
You shouldn't eat on the bus, but a lot
of people do.
Past Obligation
I was supposed to cook dinner last night,
but I had to stay late at work.
You weren't supposed to eat on the bus,
but I did. I hadn’t eaten all day!

* Present / future obligation: Should(n't) and be (not) supposed to are used to express
present or future obligation when we feel we are expected to do something (but we may or
may not do it).
* Past obligation: Only was / were (not) supposed to is used to express past obligation. It
means that something was expected, but it didn't happen.

30
▶ Exercise 1: Read the sentences and write alternative modals for each underlined modal.

How to protect yourself from Count Dracula:

1. You must keep some garlic in your pockets.________________
2. You shouldn’t go out after sunset.________________________
3. You may wear a cross on your neck.______________________
4. You have got to keep your room illuminated._______________

▶ Exercise 2: Choose the best modal to complete each sentence.

1. We (could / ought to) get there early. Otherwise, we won't get seats.
2. You (might have / had better have) already finished everything. You won't have time
to do it later.
3. Lisa was feeling sick, but she still came to class. She (had better stay / should have
stayed) home.
4. You (might have gone / were supposed to go) to the movie with us. Where were
you?
5. We (must / had to) leave at 6 a.m. because the boat sailed at 7 a.m.
6. You (couldn't / shouldn't) drive fast around here. There are a lot of police.
7. I (could / have got to) turn in my paper today. The professor said she wouldn't take
late papers.
8. You (don’t have to / must) register now or you can't take the course.
9. Teenagers have to make their own decisions. You (can't / had better) control
everything they do.
10. We (couldn't / must not) take any photos because it was against the regulations.
11. You (don’t have to / may not) enter the building without permission.
12. They (had to / were supposed to) close down their restaurant. They went broke.
13. You (don’t have to / must not) take sunscreen to the pool. They have some there.
14. (I may not / I'm not supposed to) eat eggs, but I couldn't resist the ones they served
today.

31
▶ Exercise 3. Choose the best modal to complete each sentence.

THE RED CAFE

Rules and Requirements for Employees

1. Employees (had to / might / must) treat customers with courtesy and respect.
2. Employees (cannot / do not have to / have to) work without the proper uniform.
3. Employees (could / have to / shouldn't) maintain a neat and clean appearance at all
times.
4. After using the restroom, employees (couldn't / must / must not) wash their hands
before returning to work.
5. Employees (do not have to / have to / may not) give customers complimentary items
without the manager's approval.
6. Employees (do not have to / must not / must) eat food intended for customers.
7. Waiters (do not have to / have to / should not) prepare drinks. Bartenders will do all
drink preparation.
8. Employees (do not have to / may not / must) punch in other employees’ timecards.
9. Part-time employees (couldn't / do not have to / have to) work overtime. All other
employees are required to when they are asked.
10. Full-time employees must be present at monthly staff meetings. Part-time employees
(cannot / do not have to / must) attend, but are encouraged to do so.

32
4.2 PAST MODALS OF SPECULATION AND CONCLUSION

33
Complete the past speculation modal verbs table after examining the cartoons.

Subject Modal ____________ ____________

I could ………………..
He / She/ It might ………………..
You/ We/ They may ____________ ………………..
must ………………..
can’t

▶ When speculating about a past situation or event, we use modal + have+ V3

• must have, to express a strong belief that something happened.

I can’t find my wallet. I must have dropped it somewhere on the way.

• may, might, could have, when we think that it’s possible that something happened.
They are not at home. They might have gone away for the weekend.
• can’t have and couldn’t have, to express a strong belief that something didn’t happen.
You can’t have seen Alice yesterday. She went to Denmark for her studies a few days ago.

Exercise 1: Read the information on the left. and tick the most appropriate comment, a) or b)
on the right.

Information
Example You start talking about a news Comment
headline. Your friend says ‘Sorry — a) Oh, you can't have heard the news.
what are you talking about? b) Oh, you might not have heard the news.

1 You arrive on an empty beach expecting a) He can’t have been here.

to meet a friend. There are no footprints:
2 You missed the last five minutes of a
football match. When you left, the score
was United 4, Rangers 1. You arrive home
and talk about the result:
3 A student is late for class She
sometimes drives and sometimes takes
the train.
4. A famous personality has disappeared
while on holiday. No one knows what has
happened:
5 You hear the phone ringing, but you
don’t get to in time:
b) He may not have been here.
a) United must have won.
b) United might have won.
a) She must've missed her train.
b) She might've missed the train.
a) He could've drowned I suppose.
b) He must've drowned I suppose.
a) I wonder who that was. It might've been
my mother.
b) I wonder who that was. It must've been
my mother.

34
▶ Exercise 2: Read the part of news and choose the correct option.

Lion on the Loose in Essex?

On Sunday evening at 8 p.m. a holidaymaker was walking to his caravan with his eleven-
year-old son when he believed he saw a lion. He told reporters “It was dark, but I could see a
large animal. It _________(1) a domestic animal, it was too big. I thought I __________(2) a
lion. So we ran very quickly!” The seaside resort was full of holidaymakers and at least ten
people saw the animal. One woman said “I heard a loud roar at 10 p.m. It __________(3) a lion.
No other animal can roar like that.” Police have told everybody to stay inside as they believe a
lion _________(4) from a nearby zoo.

1. a. must have been b. might not have been c. can’t have been d. might have been
2. a. might have seen b. must have seen c. can’t have seen d. couldn’t have seen
3. a. must have been b. couldn’t have been c. might have been d. may have been
4. a. can’t have escaped b. may have escaped c. might escape d. couldn’t escape

▶ Exercise 3: Complete the sentences using modals and verbs in brackets.

1. “When I was younger, I ___________________ (work) eleven hours a day,” Grandma

said.
2. Come on, we ___________________ (hurry). We ___________________ (be late)!
3. I watered the plants yesterday, and now it's pouring down. I ___________________
(bother)!
4. Anne ___________________ (wear) a uniform in school. She hates it.
5. Nowadays, young children ___________________ (work) in factories. A hundred years
ago, many of them ___________________ .
6. He said he was sorry he ___________________ (go), but he ___________________
(catch) the last underground train.
7. “You ___________________ (be) in bed by nine,” their mother said. Susie grumbled,
“Why ___________________ (always/go) to sleep so early? It's not fair!”
8. We ___________________ (leave) so early -we arrived two hours before my parents'
arrival, and now we'll ___________________ (wait).
9. You ___________________ (put) those goblets in the dishwasher -it'll destroy them.
10. I think you ___________________ (pay) to park there. That line is blue.
11. A: “I ___________________ (finish) this report today.”
B: “Why? Tomorrow's a bank holiday, so it ___________________ (be finished) before
Monday, and you can send it by e-mail.”
A: “Yeah, but I ___________________ (send) it tomorrow -it's the date of sending that
counts, not the date of receipt.”
12. We ___________________ (stick together) -it's dangerous out there.
13. You ___________________ (lock) the door properly -there are lots of burglars around.

35
 UNIT 5- GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES

Read the text. Look at the highlighted grammar examples.

Farmer Jones and his wife

Farmer Jones met Jane when he was just a young man. He couldn’t help falling in love
with her immediately and asked her to marry him. She said yes although she knew it would
mean getting up early to milk the cows for the rest of her life. “Love means never having to
get up early to milk the cows”, said Farmer Jones, and explained that he would continue
getting up early to milk the cows so Jane could sleep late every day. Everything went well
until they tried to increase their profits by buying some chickens. The first night, a fox ate
one of the chickens. Farmer Jones decided to build a fence to protect the chickens. But the
ground was too hard so he couldn’t. He tried using an axe to break the ground but it was
much too hard. So he went to the local shop and tried to buy a gun. But he didn’t have any
identification so he couldn’t buy one. He tried to borrow one from his neighbours but they
were all worried about the fox too. “I regret not buying one when I had those rabbit
problems”, he told Jane. So Jane went to the shop and bought a gun. That night she tried
to stop the fox. At first she tried to scare the fox by shooting into the air but it didn’t work.
So she tried to hit the fox but she missed. She called her husband and he ran after the fox
to try to catch it but he wasn’t fast enough. They tried shouting at the fox and they tried
throwing things at it and they tried leaving other food for the fox but nothing worked. Soon
they had only 1 chicken left. They tried asking their neighbours for help and one of their
neighbours told them to try putting tiger dung on the ground. So they went to the local zoo
to try to buy some tiger dung. They put the dung on the ground and they never saw the fox
again.

Now read the sentences and choose the correct words in italics. The highlighted grammar
examples will help you.

1) We decided to buy / buying a new car.

2) I regret telling / to tell you we won’t lend you the money.
3) Peter gave up smoking / to smoke.
4) He'd like to fly / flying an aeroplane.
5) I enjoy to write / writing picture postcards.
6) He offered helping / to help with the cleaning.
7) Avoid to make / making silly mistakes.
8) My parents wanted me being / to be home at 11 o'clock.
9) I dream about to build / building a big house.
10) He advised me not to spend / not spending so much money.

36
 GRAMMAR PRESENTATION

Gerunds and Infinitives with Verbs

We use gerunds (verb + ing):

• After certain verbs - I enjoy singing

Here are some of the most common verbs that are usually followed by the gerund.

• enjoy: I enjoyed living in France.

• fancy: I fancy seeing a film tonight.
• discuss: We discussed going on holiday together.
• dislike: I dislike waiting for buses.
• finish: We've finished preparing for the meeting.
• mind: I don't mind coming early.
• suggest: He suggested staying at the Grand Hotel.
• recommend: They recommended meeting earlier.
• keep: He kept working, although he felt ill.
• avoid: She avoided talking to her boss.
• miss: She misses living near the beach.
• appreciate: I appreciated her helping me.
• delay: He delayed doing his taxes.
• postpone: He postponed returning to Paris.
• practise: She practised singing the song.
• consider: She considered moving to New York.
• can't stand: He can't stand her smoking in the office.
• can't help: He can't help talking so loudly.
• risk: He risked being caught.

• After prepositions - I drank a cup of coffee before leaving.

Verbs with Prepositions followed by Gerund

• accuse of • blame for • dream about/of • look forward to

• agree with • care for • feel like • object to
• apologize for • carry on • forgive for • think of
• ask about • complain about • give up • succeed in
• believe in • concentrate on • insist on • use for
• be used to • depend on • keep on

• As the subject or object of a sentence

Swimming is good exercise.

I like playing football.

37
 We use 'to' + infinitive:

• After certain verbs - We decided to leave.

And here are some common verbs followed by 'to' and the infinitive.

• agree: She agreed to give a presentation at the meeting.

• ask*: I asked to leave early / I asked him to leave early.
• decide: We decided to go out for dinner.
• help*: He helped to clean the kitchen / he helped his flatmate to clean the kitchen.
• plan: She plans to buy a new flat next year.
• hope: I hope to pass the exam.
• learn: They are learning to sing.
• want*: I want to come to the party / I want him to come to the party.
• would like*: I would like to see her tonight / I would like you to see her tonight.
• promise: We promised not to be late.
• afford: We can't afford to go on holiday.
• pretend: She pretended to be a teacher.
• manage: He managed to open the door without the key.
• prepare*: They prepared to take the test/ The teachers prepared students to take the test.
• demand: He demanded to speak to Mr. Harris.
• choose: I chose to help.
• offer: Frank offered to drive us to the supermarket.
• wait: She waited to buy a movie ticket.
• would hate*: I'd hate to be late / I'd hate you to be late.
• would love*: I'd love to come / I'd love him to come.
• seem: Nancy seemed to be disappointed.

• After many adjectives

It's difficult to get up early.

I am happy to see you.

• We can use to + infinitive to say why we do something. It tells the other person the
reason.

I went on holiday (this is what I did) to relax (this is why I did it).
She studies hard to get good marks.
He gave up cakes to lose weight.
I'm calling you to ask for your help.

38
Words followed either by Infinitive or -ing Form

Words with the same meaning

• attempt • cannot bear • intend • start

• begin • continue • love
• bother • hate • prefer

Example: I started to read. / I started reading.

Words with the same meaning but different use

Word Infinitive - with an object Gerund – without an object

advise I advise you to go by bus. I advise going by bus.

allow / permit He allowed her to take the car. He allowed taking the car.
forbid She forbids us to smoke. She forbids smoking.

We use the bare infinitive (the infinitive without 'to'):

• After modal verbs - can, may, must...

I can bring it. He may take it. You must buy it.

• After some more expressions - let, make, would rather, had better, help.
Don't let him go. She made me drive. I'd rather finish it.
You'd better start. I helped them carry it.

• The verb help can also be followed by the infinitive with to.
I helped them to carry it.

Hear, see, etc. + object + infinitive or –ing

We can use either the infinitive without to or the -ing form after the object of verbs such
as hear, see, notice, watch.

The infinitive without to often emphasizes the whole action or event that someone hears or
sees.
He saw her drive off with a young man in the passenger seat. (The speaker observed the
whole event.)

Most of these verbs can also be followed by –ing forms. Note that there is usually a
difference of meaning. -ing forms suggest that we see or hear an action in progress.

Maria heard him coming up the stairs towards her room and felt scared. (The action was in
progress, happening, but not completed.)

39
I once heard him give a talk on international politics. (I heard the whole talk.)
As I walked past his cabin, I heard him talking with his secretary. (I didn’t hear the whole
talk.)

Exercise 1: Put the verb into the correct form.

1. I don't fancy ______________ (go) out tonight.

2. She avoided ______________ (tell) him about her plans.
3. He enjoys ______________ (have) a bath in the evening.
4. I am learning ______________ (speak) English.
5. She helped me ______________ (carry) my suitcases.
6. I've finished ______________ (cook). Come and eat!
7. I promise ______________ (help) you tomorrow.
8. We discussed _____________ (go) to the cinema, but in the end, we stayed at home.
9. She agreed ______________ (bring) the pudding.
10. I don't recommend ______________ (take) the bus. It takes forever!
11. We hope ______________ (visit) Amsterdam next month.
12. She suggested ______________ (go) to the museum.
13. They plan ______________ (start) college in the autumn.
14. She delayed ______________ (get) out of bed.
15. He demanded ______________ (speak) to the manager.
16. I miss ______________ (go) to the beach.
17. I chose ______________ (work) here.
18. I really appreciate ______________ (be) on holiday.
19. I can't stand ________________ (wait) in queues.
20. I wouldn't like ________________ (be) in his shoes.
21. I need ________________ (find) some information about Portugal.
22. Tony gave up ________________ (smoke) 2 years ago.
23. Do you mind not ________________ (smoke) here?
24. Lionel admitted ________________ (eat) my chocolate mousse.
25. We postponed ______________ (do) our homework.
26. Unfortunately, we can't afford ______________ (buy) a new car this year.

Exercise 2: Complete the text with the -ing or to infinitive form of the verbs in brackets.

John Stuart decided 1.________ (cross) Australia from south to north in 1859. He wanted
2.____(win) the prize which South Australian government offered 3._____(give) to the first
explorer to cross Australia. This meant traveling across mountains and deserts for 3.000
kilometres. He and his three companions kept 4._______(ride) for eight months
before reaching the centre of the continent. What had they expected 5._________(find)?
So far they had only succeeded in 6.________(discover) a huge desert. On this expedition,
Stuart failed 7._________ (reach) the coast and turned back ill and short of food. He
tried 8.________ (complete) the journey the next year but failed again. Finally, in
1861, he managed 9._________ (arrive) at the northern coast, near the modern city of
Darwin. Ever since he has been famous for 10.__________ (cross) the continent, though
sadly he died soon after his return to Adelaide.

40
Exercise 3: Complete the dialogue with the correct form of the verbs in brackets.

Dan: I’d rather 1._____ (run) away to sea than work another day at this place! My boss
made me 2._____(write) my report for a third time today. I can’t help 3._____ (think) I would
be happier serving hamburgers.

Liz: Don’t let your boss 4._____ (destroy) your career. If you just carry on 5._____ (work)
there a little longer, things might get easier.

Dan: I suppose you’re right, but I hate 6._____ (be) treated as if I know nothing all day long.

Liz: After you wrote the report for the third time, did your boss accept it?

Dan: Yes, but I would have refused 7._____ (write) it again anyway. He said it was quite
good in the end.

Liz: Have you considered 8._____ (talk) to him? He might not realize the effect he’s having
on you.
Dan: Maybe. Let’s stop talking about work. I can smell something 9._____(cook). What is it?
Let’s go to the kitchen 10. _____(find out) what Beth is cooking.

Verbs followed by either the gerund or the infinitive with a change in meaning

Remember + gerund

This is when you remember something that has happened in the past. You have a memory
of it, like being able to see a movie of it in your head.

• I remember going to the beach when I was a child. (= I have a memory of going to the
beach).
• He remembers closing the door. (= He has a memory of closing the door).

Remember + to + infinitive

This is when you think of something that you need to do. (And usually, you then do the
thing).

• I remembered to buy milk. (= I was walking home and the idea that I needed milk
came into my head, so I bought some).
• She remembered to send a card to her grandmother.

Forget + gerund

This is the opposite of remember + gerund. It's when you forget about a memory, something
that you've done in the past.

• Have we really studied this topic before? I forget reading about it.
• I told my brother that we'd spent Christmas at Granny's house in 1985, but he'd
forgotten going there.

41
Forget + to + infinitive

This is the opposite of remember + to + infinitive. It's when you want to do something, but
you forget about it.

• I forgot to call my mother. (= I wanted to call my mother, but when it was a good time
to call her, I forgot. I was thinking about something else, and the idea to call my
mother didn't come into my head).
• She keeps forgetting to bring his book back.

Try + gerund

This is when you do something as an experiment. The thing you do is not difficult, but you
want to see if doing it will have the result that you want.

• I wanted to stop smoking, so I tried using nicotine patches. (= Using nicotine patches
was easy, but I wanted to know if it would help me stop smoking).
• She tried giving up chocolate, but it didn't help her lose weight. (It was easy for her to
give up chocolate. She gave it up to see if it would help her lose weight, but it didn't).

Try + to + infinitive

This is when the thing you do itself is difficult. In the present tense or future tense, this means
you might not succeed in doing it. In the past tense, it means that you made an effort to do
the thing, but you did not succeed.

• I'll try to carry the suitcase, but it looks too heavy for me.
• She tried to catch the bus, but she couldn't run fast enough.

Stop + gerund

When we stop doing something it means the verb in the gerund is the thing that we stop. It
can mean 'stop forever' or 'stop at that moment'.

• I stopped working when I was expecting a baby. (Working is the thing I stopped).
• My grandmother stopped driving when she was 85. (Driving is the thing she stopped).
• My boss came into the room, so I stopped browsing the internet.
• There was a fire alarm, so I stopped eating and went outside.

Stop + to + infinitive

In this case, we stop something else in order to do the verb in the infinitive.

• I stopped to eat lunch. (I stopped something else, maybe working or studying,

because I wanted to eat lunch.
• She was shopping and she stopped to get a cup of coffee. (She stopped shopping
because she wanted to get a cup of coffee).

42
Regret + gerund

This is when you are sorry about something you did in the past and you wish you hadn't done
it.

• I regret going to bed so late. I'm really tired today.

• She regrets leaving school when she was sixteen. She wishes that she had studied
more and then gone to university.
•
Regret + to + infinitive

We use this construction when we are giving someone bad news, in quite a formal way. The
verb is almost always something like 'say' or 'tell' or 'inform'.

• I regret to tell you that the train has been delayed.

• The company regrets to inform employees that the London office will close next year.
•
Go on + gerund
The gerund is used when we want to say that a previous activity continues.

• After dinner he went on showing us his photos.

Go on + to + infinitive
The infinitive is used when we want to describe an activity that follows a previous action and
is somehow connected to it.

• He gave us a lecture on the Greek history. And then he went on to show us his
photos from Greece.

Mean + gerund

We can go to Spain. But it means spending more money. (In this sentence we describe the
consequences.)

Mean + to + infinitive

I didn't mean to hurt you. (I say that I didn't do it on purpose.)

Exercise 4: Put the verb into the gerund or the infinitive with 'to'.

try
1. I couldn't sleep so I tried _____________ (drink) some hot milk.
2. She tried _____________ (reach) the book on the high shelf, but she was too small.
3. They tried _____________ (get) to the party on time but the bus was delayed.
4. We tried _________________ (open) the window, but it was so hot outside it didn't help.
5. He tried _________________ (get) a job in a newspaper firm but they wouldn't hire him.

43
6. He tried ___________________ (get) a job in a newspaper firm but he still wasn't
satisfied.

stop
7. You should stop _____________ (smoke). It's not good for your health.
8. We stopped _____________ (study) because we were tired.
9. They will stop _____________ (have) lunch at twelve.
10. We stopped _____________ (have) a rest, because we were really sleepy.

forget
11. Oh no! I forgot _____________ (buy) milk.
12. Please don't forget _____________ (pick) up some juice on your way home.
13. I forget _____________ (lock) the door, but I'm sure I must have locked it.
14. Have we studied this before? I've forgotten _____________ (learn) it.

remember
15. Please remember _____________ (bring) your homework.
16. I remember _____________ (go) to the beach as a child.
17. Finally, I remembered _____________ (bring) your book! Here it is.
18. Do you remember _____________ (eat) steak in that little restaurant in Rome?

regret
19. I regret _____________ (tell) you that the train has been delayed.
20. I regret _____________ (tell) Julie my secret; now she has told everyone.

Exercise 5: Rewrite the first sentence using the word in bold followed by a verb as an
infinitive or in the -ing form.
1. After he joined the army, he became a general. went on
After he joined the army, he ______________ .
2. Don't worry so much! stop
______________ so much!
3. As the window is stuck from the inside, see if you can open it from the outside. try
As the window is stuck from the inside, ______________ .
4. I’m sorry that I lied to you. regret
I ______________to you .
5. The security guard was sure he had checked the lock before he went home. remember
The security guard ______________ before he went home.
6. I had less money to spend because I lost my job. meant
Losing my job ______________ less money to spend.

Exercise 6: Complete the dialogue with verbs in brackets.

Kate: Why has Mike moved out of your house? Let him 1......................... (explain) what he
means 2........................ (do) now.
Beryl: No, never. I gave up 3....................... (try) to understand him a long time ago.
Kate: Still - would you consider 4....................... (get) in touch with him if I called him?
Beryl: I can't forbid you 5................... (call) him, but I warn you 6.......................... (not tell) him
that I know about it.

44
Kate: I don't understand 7.................. (do) such stupid things. I'd hate 8.................... (find)
my house empty one day.
Beryl: I hate to find it empty every day. My mother suggests 9........................ (stay) with me
for a couple of weeks, but I've made up my mind 10.................... (get) over it on my own.
Kate: I always advise 11...................... (go) out in such cases. It helps you 12.........................
(forget).
Beryl: Please, don't advise me 13............ (go) out, if it means 14............... (go) out alone.
Kate: O.K. I'll try 15................... (call) Mike first and then we'll see.

Exercise 6: Underline mistakes and correct them.

Example: I can't stand to get up early. getting up

1. He helped me solving my problems. _____________
2. You shouldn't risk to lose your reputation. _____________
3. The teacher didn’t let us using our dictionaries. ____________
4. I advised him accepting the offer. _____________
5. Why did you pretend eating my hamburger? _____________
6. Don't worry. I'll remember calling you tonight. _____________
7. Did you watch them to play cricket? _____________
8. The test turned out being easy. _____________
9. It's no good to go out in such a weather. _____________
10. My phone isn't working. Can I try to use your phone? _____________
11. We needed repairing the washing machine. _____________
12. The boys always make me laughing. _____________

45
 UNIT 6- PASSIVE VOICE

The Hadron Collider

The Hadron Collider is the largest machine in the world. It

was planned by over 10,000 scientists in 100 different
countries. The science of the Hadron Collider is so
complex that its purpose still isn't fully understood by most
of the general public. The machine's purpose is to fire sub-atomic particles at each other.
Scientists think that by doing this, the origins of the universe might be discovered. However,
since it was completed in 2008, it has suffered a number of technical setbacks. One theory for
these has been that the problems are being caused by future time - that's one theory that even
most of the scientists don't understand!

Presentation
Tenses and modal verbs
* Use the passive form when you want to focus
To form the passive, use to be + past participle
on the person or thing affected by the action of
the verb. The subject of the passive verb is the Present / Scientists test/tested the
object of the active verb: Past machine.
simple: The machine is/was tested.
action object Present/ Scientists are/were developing
Active: Scientists completed the machine in Past a new machine.
2008. Continuous A new machine is/was being
Subject passive verb developed.
Passive: The machine was completed in Present/ Scientists have/had made a
2008. Past new discovery.
The passive is often used when the agent Perfect A new discovery has/had been
(who or what did the action) made.
Present/ Scientists may discover the
- is unknown: It was built in 1900 by Past/ origins of the universe.
someone. Future The origins of the universe may
Modals be discovered.
- is obvious or has already been mentioned: Scientists will be testing the
Scientists fire atoms so that the origins of theory.
the universe might be discovered by The theory will be being
scientists. tested.
Scientists might have
- is not important: The machine has been
discovered the origins of the
fixed by someone. universe.
- refers to people in general: More The origins of the universe
information about the Hadron Collider can might have been discovered.
be found by you at www.lhc.ac.uk *Note that perfect continuous in the passive
is rarely used.
- doesn’t want to be known, in order to avoid
criticism or embarrassment: I’m afraid the **You cannot use the passive form with
machine has been broken by me. (The intransitive verbs (e.g. arrive, die, go, sit)
speaker either did this or is protecting the because they have no direct object: The
person responsible.) tests went well. (not The tests are gone
well.)

46
The Passive: Infinitive, -ing, It is said…

For centuries, Christopher Columbus was believed to have been the first
European to set foot in America. However, nowadays, the Vikings are known to
have landed on the continent 500 years before him. The story begins in the 10th
century with Erik the Red. After murdering two men, Erik avoided being arrested
by sailing west from what is now Iceland. It is said that he eventually settled in
Greenland and had a son called Leif. On one of his voyages, Leif discovered a
new area of land with plenty of fresh water and food. Evidence of the Vikings and
their houses continues to be found in this region of Canada today.

Passive infinitive and passive -ing form:

You form the passive infinitive with to be + past participle.
Evidence of the Vikings continues to be found in this region of Canada today.

You can use the passive infinitive with verbs that are followed by the infinitive, e.g.
agree, demand, want
The Prime Minister agreed to be interviewed.
The shopkeeper demanded to be paid.

You form the passive -ing form with being + past participle.
Erik avoided being arrested.

The passive -ing form can be used with verbs that are followed by a verb -ing (e.g.
enjoy, like) or after a preposition (bored with, learn by etc.)
The children enjoy being taken to the zoo.
I am bored with being taught history.

Passive Reporting structures:

Passive Reporting Verbs can be used in formal situations such as news reports, general
beliefs and feelings with verbs know, tell, say, think, expect, believe, etc. The speaker in
passive reporting structures are often unknown or unimportant.

You can form passive reporting structures in two ways:

1. It is said, believed, thought, reported etc. + that + clause
(Active) They say that the company may close.
(Passive) It is said that the company may close.

(Active) People think that prices will go up.

(Passive) It is thought that prices will go up.

2. He/She/ They etc. + is/ are said, believed etc. + to (perfect) infinitive
(Active) People say the man is in his 40.
(Passive) The man is said to be in his 40

(Active) The police believe they have left the country.

(Passive) They are believed to have left the country.

47
Exercise 1: You are going to read two real crime stories. In ‘World Cup Thief’s Own
Goal’, complete the article with the verb in brackets in the past simple, active, or
passive. Then in ‘Parrot Held in Prison’, circle the right form.

World Cup Thief’s Own Goal

A thief who 1._________(steal) a World Cup ticket from a woman’s handbag 2._________
(catch) after he sat down to watch the game next to the victim’s husband.
Eva Standmann, 42, 3._________ (mug) as she was going to the Munich stadium for the
game between Brazil and Australia. The thief, a 34-year-old man, 4.___________ (discover)
the ticket in her bag and he decided to use it.
But when he 5.___________ (take) the woman’s seat in the stadium, he 6.___________
(meet) by her husband, Berndt, 43, who immediately called the police on his mobile.
A Munich police spokesman said, “The thief 7.___________ (find) the ticket in the bag and
decided to watch the game. When he sat down next to his victim’s husband, officers on duty at
the stadium 8.___________ (inform) of the situation and the thief 9.__________ (arrest).

Parrot Held in Prison

A parrot has spent five days 10. interrogating / being interrogated by police in a prison in
Argentina.
A judge 11. ordered / was ordered the parrot, which 12. calls / is called Pepo, 13. to hold / to be
held in custody until he told the police who his real owner was. Two neighbours, Jorge
Machado and Rafael Vega, were disputing who the bird 14. belonged / was belonged to.
Judge Osvaldo Carlos decided the parrot should 15. send / be sent to the prison until he said
the name of his owner. After five days, Pepo said Jorge’s name and also sung the anthem of
his favourite football team, San Lorenzo. Mr. Machado said, “I knew he was not going to let me
down. He is a real friend, and we 16. support / are supported the same football team."

Exercise 2: Rewrite the sentences in the passive where possible. Mark the sentence that
cannot be written in the passive with an X.

1. We are currently discussing your situation

Your situation is currently being discussed.
2. The class had answered every question.
…………………………………………………..
3. I am afraid they have already gone.
…………………………………………………….
4. The doctor should prescribe some medicine.
…………………………………………………….
5. We might have sold all those dresses.
…………………………………………………….
6. The council is going to make the final decision at the next council meeting.
………………………………………………………………………………………

48
Exercise 3: Rewrite the sentences in the passive (without by ….)
1. Police closed the road for the accident.
The road ……………………………….
2. Somebody has stolen my handbag.
My handbag ……………………………
3. The painters are painting my house.
My house ……………………………………………..
4. They will hold a meeting tomorrow.
A meeting ……………………………………………..
5. The inspector fined them for travelling without a ticket.
They …………………………………………………..
6. The police can arrest you for drink-driving.
You ……………………………..
7. Miranda thinks someone was following her last night.
Miranda thinks she ……………………………………..
8. They had sold the house five years earlier.
The house ……………………………………………….

Exercise 4: Match the sentence parts 1-6 with A-F.

1. In the past it was believed that
2. It is commonly known that
3. It has been claimed that there are
4. A serious car crash is reported
5. Native American Indians are thought
6. The government has agreed to
A review their education policy
B most students are in debt
Cthe world was flat
Dto have happened on the motorway
this morning
E other life forms in the universe
F to have crossed over originally
from Asia

Exercise 5: Rephrase the sentences to make them more formal.

0. People think the murderer is a woman.

It is thought that the murderer is a woman.
The murderer is thought to be a woman.
1. Police believe the burglar is a local man.
It ______________________________
The burglar ______________________
2. They say the muggers are very dangerous.
It ______________________________
The muggers ____________________
3. Police think the robber entered through an open window.
It ______________________________
The robber ______________________
4. Police say the murderer has disappeared.
It ______________________________
The murderer ____________________
5. Lawyers expect that the trial will last three weeks.
It ______________________________
The trial ___________________

49
 UNIT 7- THE PASSIVE CAUSATIVE

Read the newspaper article below and answer the questions:

a) What was the good news for the woman in the article?
b) Where did the woman find the brooch?

A housewife who feared losing her home sold a brooch bought for 50p for
€13,225 at auction yesterday. She had been going through serious financial
problems after divorcing her husband.
The buyer bought the diamond butterfly-shaped brooch at auctioneers, Phillips,
in west London.
The woman noticed the brooch in the corner of a shelf at her local second-hand
shop a year ago. Her local jewelers told her the diamonds were not real.
When the woman had the brooch valued, Phillip’s jewelry specialist, Keith
Pearson, told her it would sell for up to €10,000 at auction.

Look at this sentence from the text, and answer the questions:
When the woman had the brooch valued, Phillip’s jewelry specialist, Keith Pearson,
told her it would sell for up to €10,000 at auction.

1. Who valued the brooch, the woman or Keith Pearson?

2. What is the form of the underlined phrase?
a. have + object + past participle b. have+ past participle + object

Grammar Presentation

We use the passive causative to talk about services that we arrange for someone to do
for us. We can use them with all tenses, modals, gerunds, and infinitives.

I’ll have the car washed tomorrow. You should get the oil changed.
I love having my hair done. I want to get it colored.

50
 Passive Causative Form

Statements subject + have/ get + object + V3 + (by agent)

She has her hair cut by André every month.

I got my nails done at the salon last week.

Yes/No auxiliary verb+ subj+ have/get+ obj+ V3+ (by agent)

Questions
Has he had his beard trimmed?
Are you going to get your ears pierced?

Wh- question word+ aux verb + subj + have/get + obj +

Questions V3 + (by agent)
How often does she have her hair cut by André?
Where did she get her nails done?

Exercise 1: Read the conversations. Decide if the statement that follows each
conversation is True (T) or False (F).

Jake: Have you finished writing your article on body art?

Debra: Yes. I am going to get it copied and then take it to the post office.
_F__ Debra is going to copy the article herself.

1. Debra: I am glad that is done. Now I can start planning for our party.
Jake: Me too. I am going to get my hair cut tomorrow after work.
____ Jake cuts his own hair.

2. Debra: Speaking about hair- Amber, your hair is getting awfully long.
Amber: I know, Mom. I am cutting it tomorrow.
____ Amber cuts her own hair.

3. Amber: Mom, why didn’t you get your nails done last time you went to the
hairdresser?
Debra: Because I did them just before my appointment.
____ Debra did her own nails.

4. Amber: I was thinking of painting a butterfly on my forehead for the party.

Debra: A butterfly! Well, OK. As long as it washes off.
____ Someone is going to paint a butterfly on Amber’s forehead for her.

5. Debra: Jake, do you think we should get the floors waxed before the party?
Jake: I think they look OK. We’ll get them done afterward.
____ Debra and Jake are going to hire someone to wax their floors after the party.

51
 6. Debra: I am going to watch some TV and then go to bed. What’s on the agenda
for tomorrow?
Jake: I have to get up early. I’m getting the car washed before work.
____ Jake is going to wash the car himself.

7. Debra: You know, I think it’s time to change the oil too.
Jake: You are right. I’ll do it this weekend.
____ Jake is going to change the oil himself.

Exercise 2: It’s February 15. Look at the Santana’s calendar and write sentences about
when they had things done, and when they are going to have things done.

1. The Santanas / have / family pictures / take

The Santanas are going to have family pictures taken on the 21st.

2. Debra / get / her hair / perm

…………………………………………………………………………….
3. Amber / have / the dog / groom
……………………………………………………………………………
4. They / get / the windows / wash
……………………………………………………………………………..
5. They / have / the carpets / clean
……………………………………………………………………………..
6. Amber / have / her ears / pierce
……………………………………………………………………………….
7. Jake / get / his hair / cut
…………………………………………………………………………………
8. They / have / food and drinks / deliver
…………………………………………………………………………………

52
Exercise 3: Read Amber’s diary entry. There are seven mistakes in the use of the
passive causative. The first mistake is already corrected. Find and correct six more.

February 21: The party was tonight. It went really well! The house looked great. Mom

and Dad had the floors waxed and all the windows clean cleaned professionally, so

everything sparkled. And of course, we had the whole house painted ourselves last

summer. (I’ll never forget that. It took us two weeks!) I wore my new black dress that I

have shortened by Bo. and I got cut my hair by Andre. He did a great job. There were a

lot of guests at the party. We had almost 50 people invited, and they almost all showed

up! The food was great too. Mom made most of the main dishes herself, but she had

the rest of the food prepare by a caterer. Mom and Dad hired a professional

photographer, so at the end of the party we took our pictures. I can’t wait to see them!

53
 UNIT 8- CAUSATIVE
MAKE, HAVE, LET, HELP, AND GET

Before You Read

Look at the photos. How do you think these animals learned to perform like this?
Do you think people should use animals for entertainment? Read this article about
performance animals.

That’s Entertainment?

“Ooooh!” cries the audience as the orcas leap from the water in perfect formation.
“Aaaah!” they shout as the trainer rides across the pool on the nose of one of the giants.
For years, dolphins, orcas, and other sea mammals have been making audiences
say ooooh and aaaah at water parks like Sea World. But how do trainers get nine-ton whales
to do acrobatic tricks with a human or make them “dance”?
It’s not easy. Traditional animal trainers controlled animals with collars and leashes
and made them perform by using cruel punishments. Then, in the 1940s, parks wanted to
have dolphins do tricks. The first trainers faced big problems. You can’t get a dolphin to wear
a collar. And you can’t punish a dolphin – it will just swim away from you! This challenge
made the trainers develop a kinder, more humane method to teach animals.
This method, positive reinforcement, uses rewards rather than punishments for
training. To begin teaching, a trainer lets an animal act freely. When the trainer sees the
“correct” behavior, he or she immediately rewards the animal, usually with food. The animal
quickly learns that a reward follows the behavior.
For complicated acts, the trainer breaks the act into many smaller parts and has the
animal learn each part separately.

54
 Positive reinforcement has revolutionized our treatment of animals in zoos.
Elephants, for example, need a lot of physical care. However, traditional trainers used force
to make elephants “behave”. Elephants sometimes rebelled and hurt or even killed their
keepers. Through positive reinforcement, elephants at modern zoos have learned to stand
at the bars of their cage and let keepers draw blood for tests and take care of their feet.
Trainers even get primates (monkeys and apes) to bring their own bedding to the keepers
for washing. Gary Priest, a former orca trainer, helped the keepers train the elephants at the
San Diego Zoo. Do the elephants like the new system? “They love it! They’ll do anything we
ask. They’d fly for us if they could,” Priest said.
Unfortunately, not all trainers use positive reinforcement. Animal rights organizations
have found abuses of animal actors by circuses and other entertainment companies. And
the question remains: Even with kind treatment, should we keep animals captive and have
them perform just for our entertainment? In the wild, orcas may travel 100 miles a day. Is it
really kind to make them live in small pools of chemically treated water? Today, more and
more people say the only real kindness is to let these animals live natural lives.

After You Read

Read the first sentence of each item. Then circle the letter of the sentence that is closest in
meaning.
1. You can’t get a dolphin to wear a collar.
a. Dolphins wear collars.
b. Dolphins don’t wear collars.
2. A trainer lets an animal act freely.
a. The animal is allowed to do what it wants.
b. The animal must behave well.
3. He helped the keepers train the elephants.
a. He trained the elephants alone.
b. He worked with the keepers.

Grammar Presentation

Make, Have, Let, Help

Subject Make/Have/Let/Help Object Base Form

They (don't) make/have/let/help* them/animals learn tricks.

55
 Grammar Notes
1. Use make, have and let + object +
base form of the verb to talk about things
that someone can require, cause, or permit
another person (or an animal) to do.
You can also use make to mean cause to
do.
Examples
They make animals learn tricks.
(They require animals to learn tricks.)
They have them perform for crowds.
(They cause them to perform for crowds.)
They let them have food as a reward.
(They permit them to have food as a reward.).
This will make them learn faster.
(This will cause them to learn faster.)

2. Help can be followed by: She helped me do the homework.

object + base form of the verb or
or She helped me to do the homework.
obj+ infinitive
The meaning is the same.
Usage Note: Help + base form of the verb
is more common.

3. Get has a similar meaning to make and The teacher got us to stay a little later.
have. (After some effort, the teacher succeeded in
It is always followed by object + infinitive, persuading us to stay.)
not the base form of the verb. Not "The teacher got us stay a little later."

Exercise 1: Read the first sentence of each item. Then circle the letter of the sentence that is
closest in meaning.

1. Ms. Bates got the principal to arrange a class trip to the zoo.
a. Ms. Bates arranged a class trip.
b. The principal arranged a class trip.
2. Mr. Goldberg had us do research about animals.
a. Mr. Goldberg did research for us.
b. We did research.
3. My teacher made me rewrite the report.
a. I wrote the report again.
b. I didn’t write the report again.
4. She got me to add more information.
a. I agreed to add more information.
b. I didn’t agree to add more information.

56
5. Ms. Lee let us use our dictionaries during the test.
a. We were allowed to use our dictionaries.
b. We had to use our dictionaries.
6. My mother didn’t let me stay home from school.
a. I stayed home from school.
b. I went to school.
7. Paulo helped Maria do her homework.
a. Paulo did Maria’s homework for her.
b. Both Paulo and Maria worked on her homework.
8. Professor Washington let us choose our own topic for our term paper.
a. We chose our own topic.
b. We didn’t choose our own topic.

Exercise 2: Who’s the Boss?

Students in a conversation class are talking about their experiences with authority figures.
Complete each sentence by circling the correct verb. Then match each situation on the left
with the person in authority on the right and write the letter of the answer on the line.

_C_1. The elephant was tired that day, so she didn’t help / have it a. my teacher
perform.
___2. I didn’t really want to work overtime this week, but she made / let b. my doctor
me work late because some of my coworkers were sick.
___3. I forgot to turn on my headlights before I left the parking lot a few c. the trainer
nights ago. She made / let me pull over to the side of the road and
asked to see my license.
___4. At first, we didn’t really want to write in our journals. He d. my father
explained that it would help us. Finally, he had / got us to try it.
___5. My check was delayed in the mail. I told him what had e. a police officer
happened, and he had / let me pay the rent two weeks late.
___6. I needed to get a blood test for my school physical. He got / f. my boss
had me roll up my sleeve and make a fist.
___7. We’re a big family, and we all have our own chores. While he g. my landlord
washed the dishes, he helped / had me dry. My brother swept.

Exercise 3: Complete each summary. Use the correct form of the verbs in parentheses.
Some summaries will be affirmative; some will be negative.

1. Pablo: Ms. Allen, do I have to rewrite this composition on elephants?

Ms. ALLEN: Only if you want to.
Summary: Ms. Allen didn't make Pablo rewrite OR didn’t make him rewrite his composition.
(make / rewrite)

57
2. ANA: Could I work alone? I really don’t like to work in a group.
Ms. ALLEN: You need to work in a group today.
Summary: She _________________________ in a group.
(make / work)
3. Ms. ALLEN: Fernando, could you do me a favor and clean the board before you leave?
FERNANDO: Sure.
Summary: She _________________________ the board.
(have / clean)
4. Ms. ALLEN: Uri, please show Greta how to research orcas on the Internet.
URI: Sure.
Summary: She __________________________Greta how to do research on the internet.
(get / teach)
5. URI: Google is a search engine. Just type orca in that space and hit “Return.”
Greta: Wow! Look at all that information!
Summary: Uri ___________________________ information about orcas.
(help / find)
6. MASAMI: Can we use our dictionaries during the test?
Ms. ALLEN: No, you should be able to guess the meaning of the words from the context.
Summary: Ms. Allen ___________________ their dictionaries.
(let / use)

58
 UNIT 9- CONDITIONALS
1. Read Danny’s blog and his phone conversation with his father. Look at the
highlighted grammar examples.

Arrested
Danny Goodman
Sorry it’s been a long time folks, but I'm just back from my trip to the States to go to my
cousin's 21st birthday party, and guess what ... I was arrested! You see, I'd taken some
medicine for my fear of flying — going to the States was the longest journey I'd done. The
box said to take two, but it was a long flight and I thought “I'll take four in case two don’t
last long enough.” Four was obviously too many: they made me aggressive and I
behaved rather badly on the plane back. It's so annoying — if I wasn't so afraid of flying,
I wouldn’t have taken anything! Anyway, the police officer said, “The airlines always
call us if someone causes a problem on a plane: It's very serious.” I apologized, but
they took me to the police station. I called my Dad...
Danny: The police have arrested me, Dad. I took some medicine for my fear of flying on
the way home from Las Vegas, and apparently, I became aggressive and upset the
passengers next to me. I can’t remember. Anyway, can you come? I’m sure the police
would believe you if you talked to them. You know I wouldn’t ask you to do this
unless I had to, but I’m really worried.
Dad: Of course. I'll come straight away. Are they treating you well?
Danny: Yes, but they want me to sign a written statement.
Dad: I'd rather you didn’t do that, Danny. I'll call my lawyer - wait until he gets there.
Danny: Oh, OK. It’s stupid ~ if I hadn’t taken that medicine, I’d be home now.
Dad: Yes, well, if you hadn’t accepted that invitation to your cousin’s party, this
wouldn’t have happened…
have happened ...
2. Now read the sentences and choose the correct words in italics. The highlighted
grammar examples will help you.
1. Notice: we always inform the police if you will steal / steal from us!
2. It’s freezing outside. Take your coat if / in case you have to wait for the bus.
3. I would invite her to the party if I know / knew her phone number.
4. We wouldn’t ask you to help us unless / in case it was necessary.
5. If you had arrived on time, we won’t / wouldn’t have missed the train.
6. If we hadn’t met in the hospital, we would both still be / have been single!
7. I wouldn’t have agreed to marry you if I didn’t / don’t love you!

59
 All conditional types
,
Use if clause (condition) main clause (result)

▶to talk about present (simple, continuous, present (simple, continuous,

things that perfect) perfect)
are always If something happens... ...the result is true.
Type 0 ,
true or that
normally 1. If the food is out of date... 1. ... I don't eat it.
happen 2. If I've drunk... 2. ... I don't drive.
3. If you are talking… 3. ... I can't concentrate.

present (simple, continuous, future, imperative, can, must,

perfect) might, may
▶to talk about
If something happens... ...the result will be true.
a probable
Type 1 event ,
1. If you study... 1. ... you will pass the exam.
happening in 2. If he doesn't call you... 2. ... tell me immediately.
the future 3. If you've come to class... 3. ... the exam is going to be
4. If we win… easy.
4. ... we'll be celebrating soon.

▶to talk about past (simple, continuous) would/could/might + infinitive

present or If something happened... ...the result would be true.
Type 2 future ,
hypothetical 1. If I won the lottery... 1. ... I would buy a yacht.
or unreal 2. If you weren't talking... 2. ... I could concentrate.
situations 3. If I were you… 3. ... I might wait before taking a
decision.

past perfect (simple, would/could/might + have + past

▶to talk about
continuous) participle
past
If something had happened ...the result would have been
Type 3 hypothetical ,
true.
or unreal 1. If you had come to class… 1. ... you would have passed the
situations 2. If he hadn't been wearing a exam.
helmet... 2. .... he could have died.

▶to talk about past (simple, continuous). Would /could / might + have +
a present If something happened… past participle
hypothetical ...the result would have been
Mixed
1. If I spoke German more , true.
conditionals or unreal
situation with fluently... 1. .... I might not have had such
a past result 2. If I wasn't a woman... problems.
2. ... they would have given me
the job.

⏩ See the table above to revise the usage of conditionals.

60
Exercise 1: Match the sentences and join them with “if”. Say what type they are.
▶ I went to bed earlier. I'll try to follow them.
1. The twins had worn different clothes. You might not be warm enough.
2. You tell me what the instructions say. I wouldn't have bought it.
3. People used public transport. I wouldn't sleep.
4. You don't wear a sweater. There'd be less pollution.
5. I hadn't seen the product advertised. We could have told them apart.

▶ If l went to bed earlier, I wouldn't sleep.

1.________________________________________________________________________
2.________________________________________________________________________
3.________________________________________________________________________
4.________________________________________________________________________
5.________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 2: Read the statements carefully and think about the meaning. Then choose the
correct words in italics in the explanations.

1. ‘If we'd missed that flight, we wouldn’t be on the beach now.’

We are / aren’t on the beach now. We missed / didn’t miss the flight.
2. ‘If she wanted to see you again, she would have phoned by now.’
She has / hasn’t phoned. She probably does / doesn’t want to see you again.
3. ‘If we'd taken out the warranty, we wouldn't need to pay for these repairs.’
We took / didn’t take out a warranty so we have to / don’t have to pay for these repairs.
4. ‘I'd ask for a refund if I were you.’
I’m talking about the past / giving advice.
5. ‘We'd get a lot more light if there wasn’t a huge tree in our back garden.’
There is / used to be a big tree in our garden.
6. “You'd be able to spend more time with the children if you changed to a part-time job.’
I think you are likely / unlikely to change your job.
7. ‘If we knew more about computers, we wouldn’t have had to call the technical helpline.’
We had to / didn’t have to call the helpline because we didn’t / don’t know much
about computers.
8. ‘We'd have a less stressful life if we didn’t live so far from the office.’
I’m expressing a regret about a past / present situation.

61
Exercise 3: Listen to the Conditionals examples audio and write true (T) or false (F). Please
correct the false sentences.

1. If Leila hadn’t started gym last year, she would have been lazy and chubby.
_____________________________________________________________ .

2. Emilia might have fallen asleep if she had eaten apple like yesterday.
_____________________________________________________________ .

3. If Kai hadn’t gone to the party, he would still have his job.
_____________________________________________________________ .

4. If Greyson had a girlfriend, he wouldn’t prefer to go on holiday with her.

_______________________________________ .

5. If Olivia had saved money while working, she wouldn’t have money issues.
_____________________________________________________________ .

⛳ Alternatives to if
✅ If and Unless
▶ If not means the same as unless.
▪ I can't see if I don't wear glasses.
▪ The doctor will be here if she isn't
called to an emergency.
▪ If you can't pay your bills, you'll have
to leave.
▪ I wouldn't say that if I didn't believe it.
⏩ I can't see unless I wear glasses.
⏩ I The doctor will be here unless she's
called to an emergency.
⏩ Unless you can pay your bills, you'll
have to leave.
⏩ I wouldn't say that unless I believed it.

✅ In Case
Look at these examples:
▪Take a sandwich with you in case you get hungry.
▪ I'd better reserve a seat today in case the train is full tomorrow.
▪ Laura took two photos in case one of them didn't come out.
▶ We use in case to talk about doing something to avoid a possible problem later on.

⛳ Compare if and in case:

▪ I’ll bring in the washing if it rains (= I'll bring it in at the time it starts raining).
▪ I'll bring in the washing in case it rains (=I'll bring it in now because it might rain later).

62
✅ Even If
▶ Even if shows a result that is unexpected based on the condition.
▪ Even if I apologize to her, she won’t accept it.

⛳ Compare if with even if:

▪ If she studies hard, she will pass the exam.
▪ Even if she studies hard, she won’t be able to pass the exam.

✅ Whether or Not
▶ Whether or not expresses the idea that neither one condition nor the other matters;
the result will be the same.
▪ They won’t be able to come whether they have the money or not.
or
▪ They won’t be able to come whether or not they have the money.

✅ Wish / If only
▶ We use wish/ if only with past simple to talk about a present desire; with past perfect
to talk about a past regret and with ‘could’ to express a desire which we know is impossible
to happen.
▪ I wish/ if only you didn’t have to leave so soon (present desire).
▪ I wish/ if only I hadn’t eaten all of those cakes! (I ate them and now I regret it).
▪ I wish I could swim but I am afraid of water (impossible for me to do).
▪ If only we could see the situation with our own eyes (but we cannot).

Exercise 4: Which word makes more sense? Put in if or unless.

▪ Rachel will be pleased __if __ she passes her driving test.
▪ The bus won't stop _unless_ you ring the bell.

1. I can't read your letters ......... you type them.

2. Emma will be upset .......... she doesn't get the job.
3. You can't go into the reception .......... you've got a ticket.
4. Don't bother to ring me ................ it's important.

63
Exercise 5: Complete the conversation by writing one word (or a contraction) in each gap.

MARCIE: Hello, Alan. I didn’t expect to see you at the recycling center!
ALAN: No. I wish I (0) hadn't bothered - it took me hours to sort out all these things into
separate bags! If (1) ………. it wasn’t so complicated! All these containers…
MARCIE: Well, it’s great that you’re recycling. I wish more people (2) .......... make the effort.
ALAN: You're quite ‘green’, aren’t you? Don’t you have an electric car?
MARCIE: Yes, but I (3) .......... I’d never bought it. It’s useless. If (4) ………. you knew how
much trouble it’s given me!
ALAN: I’m sorry to hear that. They can’t go very far between charges, can they?
MARCIE: No — and I (5) .......... they (6) .......... told me that before I bought it! I have to
travel a lot for my job and it just doesn’t go far enough without needing to be recharged.
ALAN: Can’t you find places to recharge it?
MARCIE: No, I wish there (7) ………. more, but there’s hardly anywhere.
ALAN: I thought the government was giving subsidies to garages to encourage them to set
up recharging stations.
MARCIE: Well, I wish somebody (8) .......... told them about it around here! None of the
garages I know seems to have one.
ALAN: No, I can’t say I’ve seen any. Anyway, I (9) ............ I (10) …….... stay longer to chat
but I’ve got to get back home.
MARCIE: OK. Well, see you soon.

Exercise 7: Complete the conversation of Jake and Melanie (his neighbor) with unless, even
if, in case, whether

Jake: A man is delivering a washing-machine this morning, but I have to go to work. I won’t be
here when he calls. Could you let him in for me, please, ________ (1) you’re terribly busy?
Melanie: Oh sure, you’re my dear neighbor! I’ll help you ________ (2) I am terribly busy.
Jake: Thanks a lot! I’ll call you when he comes ________ (3) you miss him.
Melanie: Alright! But when are you going to come back? Because I need to leave around
5:30.
Jack: I’ll be back by 6 p.m. But you can leave the package in front of my door before leaving
________ (4) I am at home or not.

64
 UNIT 10- RELATIVE CLAUSES
Read the text and look at the highlighted grammar examples.

There are several films that focus on profilers who

are investigating criminal cases. Silence of the Lambs
is a film which is directed by Jonathan Demme. In it,
Clarice Starling, who is played by Jodie Foster,
questions a brilliant psychologist and serial killer,
whose name is Hannibal Lecter. Lecter, who is
currently serving nine life sentences in a mental
institution, is charming and polite to Starling. He stays
in Baltimore State Prison in a single-occupant cell
where he can find only one bed and a desk-chair
because he is extremely clever and dangerous.
Eventually, he offers her a psychological profile of the
murderer which will help her in the investigation. The
performance of Lecter, which is the shortest Oscar-
winning performance by 24 minutes, was played by
Anthony Hopkins. The film in which you could find the
real story between a serial killer and an FBI agent
broke the box office record at that time.

Now read the sentences and choose the correct option.

1. Marie Curie is the scientist which/ who discovered X-Ray.
2. That’s the house in which/ which in I was born.
3. We got the flights, which/ that were very cheap, on the Internet.
4. It was the only place which/ where I could find peace.
5. There is a cat waiting in front of the door which/ whose face is covered in mud.

Defining Relative Clauses

1 She’s the woman who / that lives next door. That’s the book which / that won a prize.
2 That’s my neighbour whose dog never stops barking.
3 James is the man (who) I met at the party. That's the shop (which) I told you about.
4 My sister’s the only person to whom I can talk. My sister’s the only person (who) I can talk to.

Use who, which, whose, whom and that to introduce a defining relative clause, i.e., clause which
gives essential information about somebody or something.

1 You can use that instead of who / which.

2 Use whose to mean ‘of who’ or ‘of which’.
3 When who or which are the object of the verb in the relative clause, you can leave them out.
4 After a preposition, use whom for a person and which for a thing.
In informal English, it is more common to leave out the relative pronoun and put the preposition
after the verb.
NOTE: In defining relative clauses we can omit the relative pronoun when it is the object of the
relative clause but NOT when it is the subject.
I saw the film won all the Oscars. I saw the film you made at college.

65
Non-defining Relative Clauses
1 My aunt, who doesn’t like cats, was given a kitten for Christmas.
The palace, which was built in the 12th century, is visited by thousands of tourists.
2 Adriana hasn’t come to class for two days, which is a bit worrying.
3 I’ve lent my new bike, (which I really love), to my brother.

1 A non-defining relative clause gives extra, non-essential information about a person or thing.
* In written English, this kind of clause is separated by commas, or between a comma and a full
stop.
* You can’t use that instead of who / which.
2 Which can also be used to refer to the whole of the preceding clause.
3 Non-defining clauses don’t classify or identify the person or object. The main clause still makes
sense without it.

Exercise 1: Right (✓) or wrong (X)? Correct the wrong sentences.

That's the man I met on the bus. ✓
She's the woman who her daughter works with me, X whose daughter works

1 This is the programme I was telling you about.

2 Is this the train that it goes to the mountains?
3 She told her boss she'd overslept, that was absolutely true.
4 My son, that is very tall, enjoys playing basketball.
5 The employee to who I spoke gave me some incorrect information.
6 Everyone in my family always eats that I cook.
7 The Canary Islands, which are situated off the coast of Africa, are a popular tourist destination.
8 The woman who suitcase disappeared is a friend of mine.
9 Did you hear I just said?
10 The bag what I bought last week is already broken!

Exercise 2: Join the sentences with a relative pronoun. Be careful with the punctuation.
I’ve just failed my driving test. It’s a pity.
I've just failed my driving test, which is a pity.

1 His girlfriend is very intelligent. She’s an architect.

His girlfriend________________________________________________________________
2 They gave us a present. This was a complete surprise.
They______________________________________________________________________
3 He was saying something, I didn’t understand it.
I didn’t understand____________________________________________________________
4 A car crashed into mine. It was a Mini.
The car____________________________________________________________________
5 I spoke to a police officer. She was working on the reception desk
The police officer_____________________________________________________________

66
6 We bought our computer two months ago. It keeps on crashing.
Our computer________________________________________________________________
7 I left some things on the table. They aren’t there anymore.
The things___________________________________________________________________
8 It’s too hot in my flat. This makes it impossible to sleep.
It’s_________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 3: Choose the correct or most likely meaning, A or B.

1. I read a book while I was waiting at the airport, which was very boring.
A The book was boring. B Waiting at the airport was boring.

2. The members of the team, who had sponsors, flew to the championships in Ottawa.
A All the members of the team flew to Ottawa.
B Some of the members of the team didn’t fly to Ottawa.

3. It’s the only hotel in the town that has free wireless Internet access.
A There are several hotels in the town. B There is only one hotel in the town.
4. I had a plate of pasta at the new pizzeria restaurant, which was enormous.
A The plate of pasta was enormous. B The restaurant was enormous.
5. The students who passed the test received a prize.
A All the students received a prize. B Some of the students didn’t receive a prize.
6. My flatmate, who is unemployed, often struggles to pay the rent.
A I have one flatmate. B I have several flatmates.

67
Exercise 4: Add commas to these sentences if they have a non-defining relative clause. Cross
out the pronoun, if possible, in the defining relative clauses.

1 Sheila, who I first got to know at university, was one of six children.
2 The man who you were talking to is a famous artist.
3 This is the story that amazed the world (no change).
4 The thing that I most regret is not going to university.
5 My two daughters who are 16 and 13 are both interested in dancing.
6 The town where I was born has changed dramatically.
7 I didn’t like the clothes which were in the sale.
8 Salt that comes from the sea is considered to be the best for cooking.
9 Salt whose qualities have been known since prehistoric times is used to season and preserve
food.
10 The CD that I bought yesterday doesn’t work.
11 The part of Europe where I'd most like to live is Portugal.
12 The Algarve where my mother’s family comes from is famous for its beautiful beaches and
dramatic coastline.

Exercise 5: Watch the first half of Our Remarkable Planet video and choose the correct option.

1. Gravity’s pressure which causes water to bulge around its middle_________.

a. changes the circumference of the earth.
b. makes the earth size around forty thousand kilometres.

2. Our earth is a planet whose surface is covered by ___________.

a. continents b. 70% of water
3. _________ of the oceans is unexplored.
a. 10% b. 90%
4. Nile passes through eleven countries some of which are_________.
a. Sudan and Ethiopia b. Sudan and Eritrea
5. Antarctica is the place where you can find_________.
a. The biggest desert b. Five times more land than Sahara

68
 REDUCTION OF RELATIVE CLAUSES

Robinson Crusoe is a novel based on the true story of a

Scottish pirate, Alexander Selkirk.

1- Reduced relative clauses

We often make relative clauses shorter, like this:
'Robinson Crusoe' is a novel which is based on the true
story of Alexander Selkirk.
→ Robinson Crusoe is a novel based on the true story of Alexander Selkirk.
It’s about a man who lives on a deserted island.
→ It’s about a man living on a deserted island.

• If the verb in the original relative clause is active, we use the -ing form:
It's a shop that sells designer jeans. → It's a shop selling designer jeans.
• If the verb is passive, we use the -ed form:
It's a novel which is based on a true story. → It's a novel based on a true story.
• We can only make clauses shorter when the noun we are describing is the same as
the subject of the relative clause, NOT if it is different:
noun we are describing ≠ subject of relative clause
This is a photo of the hotel that we stay in every year.
X This is a photo of the hotel staying in every year.
• We only use the -ing form if the action is happening now or is continuing. We cannot
use it for single actions in the past:
That was the customer who phoned yesterday. (Single completed action)
X That was the customer phoning yesterday.
• We don't use -ing forms with state verbs
X He’s the man owning the factory. ✓ He's the man who owns the factory.

Infinitive clauses
• We often replace a relative clause with an infinitive clause after a superlative, after
the first, the second, etc., or after one, next, last, few and only
Yuri Gagarin was the first man that went into space. → Yuri Gagarin was the first man to
go into space.
She was the only one who helped me. → She was the only one to help me.

Using prepositions instead of relative clauses

• We often shorten sentences with the help of prepositions:
• Relative pronoun + have → with:
This queue is for passengers who have EU passports. → This queue is for passengers
with EU passports.
Is there a restaurant that has a vegetarian menu near here? → Is there a restaurant with a
vegetarian menu near here?
• relative pronoun +be+ preposition → in/at/on, etc:
I like the painting which is on the bedroom wall. → I like the painting on the bedroom
wall. What are those plants that are in your garden? →What are those plants in your
garden?

69
Exercise 1: Choose the correct words in italics. In two places, both answers are possible.

Anna: What's the name of the book (0) reading / that you're reading at the moment?
Karl: Imperium by Robert Harris. It's a book (1) recommending / recommended by my
history teacher.
Anna: That's about the people (2) who were killed / killed by the volcanic eruption in Pompeii,
isn't it?
Karl: No, it's a historical novel (3) basing / based on the true story of Cicero.
Anna: Who was he? Wasn't he the first person (4) became / to become an emperor?
Karl: No. He was one of the politicians (5) living / lived in Rome at the end of the Republic.
Anna: Was it an expensive book?
Karl: No. I got it from the market. There's a stall there (6) that has / with lots of bargain
books.

Exercise 2: Complete the second sentence so it means the same as the first, using a
reduced relative clause, an infinitive clause or a preposition + noun.

0 It's a poem that somebody wrote in the sixteenth century.

It's a poem written in the sixteenth century.
00 Was she the only person that visited you?
Was she the only person to visit you?
000 Is there a bank near here that has a cash machine?
Is there a bank near here with a cash machine?
1 Daniel was the first person that spoke to me.
Daniel was the first person _____________.
2 There was an old letter that was found under the floor.
There was an old letter _____________.
3 What is the name of the building that's next to the library?
What is the name of the building _____________?
4 My grandfather gave me that watch.
That is the watch _____________ by my grandfather.
5 This is the third DVD player that has broken down!
This is the third DVD player _____________!
6 I need a computer that has a bigger hard drive.
I need a computer _____________.

Exercise 3: Replace the underlined phrases with reduced relative clauses, infinitives, or
prepositions. Then match the descriptions with the writers and characters from fiction.
with
0 A scientist who has two different personalities. C
A Madame Bovary
1 A man who was left on a deserted island. B Boris Pasternak
2 The only Russian writer that refused the Nobel Prize. C Dr Jekyll/Mr Hyde
D William Shakespeare
3 A police detective who lives in Oxford. E Robinson Crusoe
4 A writer who was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564. F lnspector Morse
G James Bond
5 A secret agent who has the code name 007.
6 A woman who is married to a country doctor in 19th century France.

70
 UNIT 11- REPORTED SPEECH
Reported Speech (1)

Before you read: Look at the photo and answer the

questions.

Where are they?

Who do you think they are?
How do they feel when they bump into each other?

GUESS WHO I BUMBED INTO?

Tim wandered along the path thinking aloud, “If I continue this diet, I should lose twenty pounds
by the end of ...”’ When BOOM! He bumped into another city dweller out for a day’s walk in the
park.

“I am terribly sorry,” he apologized, “I was so caught up in my thoughts, I didn’t see you!” he

managed to stammer.

Smiling, Sheila responded, “Nothing has broken... No, really, I wasn’t watching my step either.”

Suddenly they stopped making excuses and stared at each other.

“Don’t I know you from somewhere?” inquired Tim while Sheila exclaimed “You’re Tim, Jack’s
brother, aren’t you?”

They both began to laugh as they had met each other the week before at a party that Jack
had given.
Still laughing, Tim suggested, “Why don’t we have a cup of coffee and donut?” to which
Sheila replied, “I thought you wanted to continue your diet!” They both were still laughing by
the time they reached the Swimming Donut Café.

After you read:

Who Said These Sentences: Tim or Sheila?
1. _______________ said if he continued his diet, he should lose twenty pounds.
2. _______________ said he was terribly sorry.
3. _______________ told him it was OK. Nothing had broken.
4. _______________ told her he had been so caught up in his thoughts that he hadn’t seen her.
5. _______________ said she hadn’t been watching her steps either.

71
GRAMMAR PRESENTATION

When we report someone’s words, we can do it in two ways. We can use direct speech with
quotation marks (“I work in a bank.”), or we can use reported speech (He said he worked in a
bank.)

In reported speech, the tenses, word-order and pronouns are usually different from those in
the original sentences.

The most common reporting verbs are ‘tell and say’. However, we can also use many other
reporting verbs like ‘promise’, ‘warn’, ‘advise’, ‘ask’ and ‘recommend’.

How to use ‘say’ or ‘tell’

Say Tell
Direct Speech: Direct Speech:
John: “I like cycling.” John: “I like cycling.”
 John said (that) he liked cycling.  John told me that he liked cycling.
With ‘said’ we don’t have to use the object With ‘tell’ we need the object (me, you, her).
(e.g. me, you, her). So we can’t say John told that he liked
cycling.
say + (that) + clause tell + someone + (that) + clause
When we use an object with the verb of ‘say’, We can’t say John told to me (that) he liked
we need to put ‘to’ between the verb and the cycling.
object.
e.g.) John said to me (that) he liked cycling.

Present Simple and Present Continuous Tenses

Direct Speech: Reported Speech:
“I travel a lot in my job.’’ He said (that) he travelled a lot in his job.

 Present Simple usually changes to Past Simple in reported speech.

Direct Speech: Reported Speech:
“The baby is sleeping.’’ She told me (that) the baby was sleeping.

 Present Continuous usually changes to Past Continuous in reported speech.

72
 Past Simple and Past Continuous Tenses
Direct speech: Reported speech:
“We lived in China for 5 years.” She told me (that) they had lived in China for
5 years.
 Past Simple usually changes to Past Perfect in reported speech.
Direct speech: Reported speech:
“I was walking down the road when | saw the He told me (that) he had been walking down
accident.” the road when he’d seen the accident.
 Past Continuous usually changes to Past Perfect Continuous in reported speech.

Perfect Tenses
Direct speech: Reported speech:
“They have always been very kind to me” She said (that) they had always been very
kind to her.
 Present Perfect usually changes to Past Perfect in reported speech.
Direct speech: Reported speech:
“They had already eaten when I arrived.” He said (that) they had already eaten when
he had arrived.
 Past Perfect does not change in reported speech.

Exercise 1: Change the direct speech statements to reported speech.

1. Mary: “My dad was a teacher.”

Mary told me that _____________________________________________________.
2. “We've been waiting for hours."
He said that _________________________________________________________.
3. Jack: "I didn’t go to the party because I was too tired."
Jack said to me that ___________________________________________________.
4. Jane: “I work for a bank.”
Jane ________ me (that) ________________________________________________.

73
Reported Speech (2)
Modal Changes in Reported Speech

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Will Would
I said, “The winds will be strong.” I said (that) the winds would be strong.
Can Could
“You can stay with us,” they told us. They told us (that) we could stay with them.
May Might
He said, “The storm may last all night.” He said (that) the storm might last all night.
Must Had to
“You must leave,” he told us. He told us (that) we had to leave.
Have to Had to
She said, “I have to help him.” She said (that) she had to help him.
Am/is/are going to Was/were going to
They said, “They are going to stay at home They said (that) they were going to stay at
tonight.” home that night.

The following modals do not change in reported speech.

Might Might
He said, “I might come with you.” He said (that) he might come with me.
Ought to Ought to
“You ought to be at school at 8:30,” Ali told Ali told me (that) I ought to be school at
me. 8:30.
Should, should have, could have Should, should have, could have
“You should listen to the news,” he told us. He told us (that) we should listen to the
news.

Change Time Words in Reported Speech

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Now Then
“I am living in Karabük now.” She said (that) she was living in Karabük
then.
Today That day
“I am not working today.’’ He said (that) he wasn’t working that day.
Tomorrow The next day
“I will start cleaning up tomorrow.” Jane said to me (that) he would start
cleaning up the next day.
Yesterday The day before
“I just got home yesterday.” Uta told me (that) she had just got home
the day before.
This week/month/year That week/month/year
“We are going to Ankara this week.” They said (that) they were going to Ankara
that week.
Next week/month/year The following week/month/year

74
 “Our home won’t be repaired until next Kate told us (that) their home wouldn’t be
month.” repaired until the following month.
Last week / month / year The previous week / month / year
“My phone was broken last week.” Jane said (that) her phone had been
broken the previous week.
.… ago …. before
"Tim went to the stadium an hour ago." Lisa said (that) Tim had gone to the
stadium an hour before.
Here There
“I stay here.” John said (that) he stayed there.
This That
“This climate is great.” He told me (that) that climate was great.

Exercise 2: Change the direct speech statements to reported speech.

1. Emily: “Our teacher will go to Leipzig tomorrow."

_______________________________________.
2. Victoria: “I must finish this work next month.”
_______________________________________.
3. Andrew: "We didn't eat fish two days ago."
_______________________________________.
4. Josh: “You should see me today.”
Josh told her ____________________________.
5. Anna: “They were here yesterday.”
_______________________________________.

Exercise 3: Change the direct speech statements to reported speech.

1. "I’m selling all my books tomorrow."

My brother said ______________________________________________________________.
2. "I’ve booked the flights."
Emma told me _______________________________________________________________.
3. "Your new dress doesn’t suit you."
My mother told me ___________________________________________________________.
4. "I may not be able to go to the party tonight."
Matt said ____________________________________________________________________.
5. "I won’t wear these shoes again."
Jenny said __________________________________________________________________.
6. "I didn’t buy you a present last week."
My girlfriend told me __________________________________________________________.
7. "I must get a dress for the party today."
Rachel said _________________________________________________________________.
8. "I found a bargain in the sales yesterday."
My sister told me _____________________________________________________________.
9. "I can’t find anywhere to park now."
Luke told me ________________________________________________________________.

75
REPORTED SPEECH (3)

Indirect Instructions, Commands, Requests, and Invitations

Before you read: Look at the photo and answer the

questions.

What time is it?

Where is the man?
How does he feel?
Why does he feel that way?

THE SNOOZE NEWS

C: Good morning! This is Connie Sung, bringing you “Here's to Your Health,” a program about
today’s health issues. This morning, we've invited Dr Thorton Ray to talk to us about
insomnia. Dr Ray is the director of the Sleep Disorders Clinic. Welcome to the show!
R: Thanks, Connie, it’s great to be here.
C: Your book Night Shift will be coming out soon. In it, you tell people to pay more attention
to sleep disorders. What's the big deal about losing a little sleep?
R: I always tell people to think of the biggest industrial disaster that they’ve ever heard
about. Usually, it was caused at least in part by sleep deprivation. Then I ask them to think
about what can happen if they drive when they’re tired. Every year, up to 200,000
automobile accidents in this country are caused by drowsy drivers.
C: Wow! That is a big problem.
R: And a costly one. We figure that fatigue costs businesses about $70 million a year.
C: That’s astounding! But getting back to the personal level, if I came to your clinic, what
would you advise me to do?
R: First, I would find out about some of your habits. If you drank coffee or cola late in the day,
I would tell you to stop. Caffeine interferes with sleep.
C: What about old-fashioned remedies like warm milk?
R: Actually, a lot of home remedies do make sense. We tell patients to have a high-
carbohydrate snack like a banana before they go to bed. Warm milk helps too. But I'd advise
you not to eat a heavy meal before bed.
C: My doctor told me to get more exercise, but when I run at night, I have a hard time
getting to sleep.
R: It's true that if you exercise regularly, you'll sleep better. But we always tell patients not to
exercise too close to bedtime.
C: My mother always said to get up and scrub the floor when I couldn't sleep.
R: That works. I advised one patient to balance his check book. He went right to sleep, just to
escape from the task.
C: Suppose I try these remedies and they don't help?
R: We often ask patients to come and spend a night at our sleep clinic. Our equipment
monitors the patient through the night. In fact, if you're interested, we can invite you to
come to the clinic for a night.
C: Maybe I should do that.

76
After you read: Check the things that Dr Ray suggests for people with insomnia.
(_) 1. Stop drinking coffee and cola late in the day.
(_) 2. Eat a heavy meal before going to bed.
(_) 3. Get more exercise.
(_) 4. Exercise right before bedtime.
(_) 5. Get up from bed and balance your checkbook.
(_) 6. Spend the night at the sleep clinic.

GRAMMAR PRESENTATION

INDIRECT INSTRUCTIONS, COMMANDS, REQUESTS, AND INVITATIONS

Direct Speech
Subject Reporting Verb Direct Speech
He said, “Drink warm milk.”
“Don't drink coffee.”
“Can you turn out the light, please?”
“Why don’t you visit the clinic?”

Indirect Speech
Subject Reporting Verb Noun/Pronoun Indirect Speech
He told Connie to drink warm milk.
not to drink coffee.
said - to turn out the light.
asked her to visit the clinic.

GRAMMAR NOTES

1. In indirect speech, use the infinitive (to + base form of the verb) for:

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

a. instructions “Come early,” said the doctor. The doctor said to come early.
b. commands “Lie down.” The doctor told her to lie down.
c. requests “Could you please arrive by 8:00?” He asked her to arrive by 8:00.
d. invitations “Could you join us for dinner?” They asked us to join them for
dinner.

77
2. Use a negative infinitive (not + infinitive) for:

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

a. negative “Don't eat after 9:00 p.m.” He told me not to eat after 9:00
instructions p.m.
b. negative “Don't wake Cindy!” Mrs. Bartolotta told me
commands not to wake Cindy.
c. negative “Please don’t set the alarm.” Jean-Pierre asked me
requests not to set the alarm.

Exercise 4: Read the questions to Helen, a newspaper columnist specializing in health matters,
and report her instructions. Use the reporting verbs in parentheses.

Q: I have trouble getting to sleep every night. — MIKE LANDERS, DETROIT

A: Don’t drink anything with caffeine after 2:00 P.M. Try exercising regularly, early in the day.
1. (tell) _She told him not to drink anything with caffeine after 2:00 Pi___
2. (say) _She said to try exercising regularly, early in the day._____
Q: What can I do to soothe a sore throat? I never take medicine unless I have to. — ANNE BLY,
TROY
A: Sip some hot herbal tea with honey. But don’t drink black tea. It will make your throat dry.
3. (say): ________________________________________________________________.
4. (tell): ________________________________________________________________.
Q: I get leg cramps at night. They wake me up, and I can’t get back to sleep. — LOU RICH,
DALLAS
A: The next time you feel a cramp, do this: Pinch the place between your upper lip and your
nose. The cramp should stop right away.
S. (say): ________________________________________________________________.
Q: Do you know of an inexpensive way to remove stains on teeth? — PETE LEE, BROOKLYN
A: Make a toothpaste of one tablespoon of baking soda and a little water. Brush as usual.
6. (tell): ________________________________________________________________.
7. (say): ________________________________________________________________.
Q: What can I do to ease an itchy poison ivy rash? — MARVIN SMITH, HARTFORD
A: Spread cool, cooked oatmeal over the rash. Also, try soaking the rash in a cool bath with a
quarter cup of baking soda. Don’t scratch the rash. That will make it worse.
8. (tell): _________________________________________________________________.
9. (say): ________________________________________________________________.
10. (tell): ________________________________________________________________.
Q: Bugs love me. They bite me all the time. – ED SMALL, TULSA
A: There are a few things you can do to keep bugs away. Eat onions or garlic every day. Your
skin will have a slight odor that bugs hate. Or ask your doctor about a vitamin B supplement.
11. (say): ________________________________________________________________.
12. (tell): ________________________________________________________________.

78
REPORTED SPEECH (4)

Indirect Questions

A. Wh-questions:

We can report questions with verbs like ask, wonder, or want to know. Look first at these wh-
questions.

Direct Question Reported Question

‘When did you start acting, Melissa?'
‘What's the time?'
‘Which way is the post office?’
‘How can we find out?'
‘Where can we eat?'
Guy asked Melissa when she started acting.
I asked what the time was.
Someone wanted to know which way the post
office was.
I was wondering how we could find out.
They asked where they could eat.

B. Yes/no questions

Reported yes/no questions have if or whether.

Direct Question Reported Question

'Has the taxi arrived yet?' Someone was wondering if/whether the taxi had arrived yet.
'Can we take photos?' The visitors wanted to know if/whether they could take photos.
'Is there a cafe nearby?' Daniel asked if/whether there was a café.

! Word order: In a reported question, the subject comes before the verb, as in a statement.

79
- Guy asked Melissa when she started acting. NOT Guy asked Melissa when did
she start acting.
- Someone was wondering if the taxi has arrived yet. NOT Someone was wondering if has
the taxi arrived yet.

Exercise 5: Change the direct speech statements to reported speech.

1. “What type of training is available for the job?”

Claire asked what type of training was available for the job.
2. “What kind of experience do you have?”
Mr. Stollins asked _________________________________________________________.
3. “Is there opportunity for promotion?”
Claire asked ______________________________________________________________.
4. “Are you interviewing with other companies?”
Mr. Stollins asked _________________________________________________________.
5. “What will my responsibilities be?”
Claire asked ______________________________________________________________.
6. “How is job performance rewarded?”
Claire asked ______________________________________________________________.
7. “What was your starting salary at your last job?”
Mr. Stollins asked _________________________________________________________.
8. “Did you get along well with your last employer?”
Mr. Stollins asked _________________________________________________________.
9. “Do you hire many women?”
Claire asked ______________________________________________________________.
10. “Why did you apply for this position?”
Mr. Stollins asked _________________________________________________________.

Exercise 6: Change the direct speech statements to reported speech.

1. “Did you see my glasses?”

Mum asked me ___________________________________________________________.
2. “Who will clean the pool?”
He asked me _____________________________________________________________.
3. “Were you at the party, too?”
Phil asked me ____________________________________________________________.
4. “Do you really write this story?’’
Ann asked Kate __________________________________________________________.
5. “Who has taken my ruler?’’
Tim asked _______________________________________________________________.

80
6. “Are you married?’’
Jim asked Sara ___________________________________________________________.
7. “Where do you live?’’
They asked me ___________________________________________________________.
8. “Did you call me?’’
Sally asked John __________________________________________________________.
9. “When are you leaving?’’
My parents asked me ______________________________________________________.
10. “Can you help me?’’
Jerry asked Candy ________________________________________________________.

Exercise 7: Change the reported speech statements to direct speech.

Example: Chris asked me how many languages I spoke.
‘How many languages do you speak?’
1. She said she’d never forget the first time she met Frank.
‘_____________________________________________________________________’
2. Tom asked her why she hadn’t finished her report the week before.
‘_____________________________________________________________________’
3. She told me they had to leave before 9.30.
‘_____________________________________________________________________’
4. He asked me if I’d bought the food for the camping trip.
‘_____________________________________________________________________’
5. She said James had lived there for nearly five years.
‘_____________________________________________________________________’

Exercise 8: Complete the sentences using reported speech.

1. ‘We’re having a sale next week.’

They told us they ______________ a sale the following week.
2. ‘Don’t waste your money in that shop!’
The man told us ______________ waste our money in that shop.
3. ‘I’ve bought some new jeans.’
She told me that she ______________ some new jeans.
4. ‘We may not have it in stock.’
The shop assistant said they ______________ have it in stock.
5. ‘I’ll give you a lift.’
He said he ______________ give me a lift.
6. ‘Are you watching the football?’
My neighbour asked us ______________ we were watching the football.
7. ‘We interviewed 20 candidates today.’
They said ______________ 20 candidates that day.

81
 UNIT 12- COMPARATIVE PATTERNS
Exercise 1: Fill in gaps a-e in the article with these sentences/phrases. There is one
sentence/ phrase you don't need.
1 Serious collectors can pay up to £18,000 for a fully grown koi.
2 One recently sold for £250,000.
3 Although some are more reasonably priced,
4 However, I did consider buying one.
5 Jean wasn't impressed by some of the koi on sale either.
6 They're just so amazing to look at.

Living Jewels
John Wilkins goes in search of the world's most expensive and collectable fish.
Before I went to the British Koi Keepers’ Annual Show, I didn't understand how people could
take fish so seriously. However, the more I learned about koi, the more interested I became.
As one expert was eager to tell me, “Collecting koi is far more addictive than you might think.
They're as beautiful as butterflies and very calming to watch.” Freddie Mercury, the lead
singer of Queen, would have agreed. The pool in his specially-built Japanese garden was
home to 89 koi, which cost up to £10,000 each.
At the show I met koi enthusiast Jean Kelly. “Breeding koi is getting more and more
lucrative,” she told me. a _____________. “But that was a record,” admitted Jean. “The
normal price is nowhere near as high as that.”
I later found out that the koi in question was a particularly rare specimen.
Nevertheless, it still seemed outrageous to me—that’s almost as much as I paid for my
house.
b _______________, which is nearly as expensive as a luxury car and the bigger
they are, the more they cost. The cheapest I could find were £75 each but they were only
about twice as big as my goldfish.
c _______________. "Actually, these koi aren't any nicer than mine,” she
commented. “They're slightly bigger than the ones I've got, but I paid considerably less than
this." When I asked her why she liked koi so much, she replied, d _______________, I think
of them as living jewels.”
I certainly wasn’t quite as enthusiastic as Jean. e ______________, but then I
remembered that all but five of Freddie Mercury's koi died when someone accidentally turned
off the electricity supply to their pool. Jean assured me that with all the new equipment
available the survival rate was getting better and better and that looking after koi was no
more time consuming than taking care of any other pet. However, in the end I decided to
stick with my goldfish. They're not nearly as exotic as koi — but they're a great deal cheaper
to replace!

Exercise 2: Look at the phrases in red in the article. Write them in the table.

A big difference

A small difference

No difference

82
Exercise 3: Look at the phrases in blue in the article. Answer these questions.
1. Which phrase means the others were half the size?
______________________________________________________
2. Which two phrases describe something that continuously changes?
______________________________________________________
3. Which two phrases mean that one thing depends on the other?
______________________________________________________

Look at the table for the for the answers of Exercise B.

a big difference far (more addictive) than, nowhere near as (high) as, considerably (less)
than, not nearly as (exotic) as, a great deal (cheaper) than

a small difference almost as (much) as, nearly as (expensive) as, slightly /'slaitli/ (bigger)
than, not quite as (enthusiastic) as

no difference as (beautiful) as, not any (nicer) than, no (more time-consuming) than

We use comparatives with than:

They're slightly bigger than the ones I've got. not They’re slightly big than the ones I’ve got.
We use adjectives with as ... as:
The normal price is nowhere near as high as that. not The normal price is nowhere near as
higher as that.

83
Other Ways of Comparing
* We can use twice/three times/four times, etc. + as … as to compare two things:
The koi were only about twice as big as my goldfish. (= the goldfish were half the size of the
koi).
* For long adjectives, we can use get + more (and more) + adjective to describe something
that continuously changes:
Koi are getting more and more expensive. (= the price is increasing all the time).
* For short adjectives, we can use get + comparative + and + comparative to describe
something that continuously changes:
The survival rate was getting better and better.
* We can use the + comparative/more … , the + comparative/ more ... to say that one
thing depends on the other:
The bigger they are, the more they cost. (= how much they cost depends on how big they
are).
The more I learned about koi, the more interested I became. (=every time I learned
something new about koi, I became more interested in them).

Exercise 4: Read the text and then fill in the gaps with these words. Sometimes there is
more than one possible answer.

likely considerably nearly than(x2) near no and as

great more far the

People often argue about whether cats make better pets 1___________ dogs. While dogs
are nowhere 2___________ as independent 3____________ cats, they tend to be a
4___________ deal more affectionate. Cats can be 5____________ destructive in the house
than dogs and are more 6____________ to damage the furniture. It’s 7___________ easier
to look after a cat, but dogs are 8____________ better at protecting your property. Generally,
the smaller the dog, 9____________ easier it is to take care of. In fact, dogs get lazier
10__________ lazier as they get older and don’t need 11___________ as much exercise, so
an old dog is 12___________ harder to look after than a cat – and they’re both ten times
easier to look after 13___________ children.

Exercise 5: Choose the correct option.

1. My exam results were nearly not / not nearly as bad as I expected.
2. As we approached the city, the road became more and / than more crowded.
3. The further out you swim, the colder/ the more cold it gets!
4. Angelina Jolie is far much / more beautiful than Uma Thurman.
5. The more / Much more I listen to your plans, the better it sounds!

84
Exercise 6: Rewrite these sentences so that they have the same meaning. Use the words in
brackets.
1. Koi are much more exotic than goldfish. (anywhere near)
Goldfish aren't anywhere near as exotic as koi._________________________________
2. Looking after animals isn't nearly as time-consuming as looking after children. (far more)
______________________________________________________________________
3. Young children are far more affectionate than teenagers. (nowhere near)
_______________________________________________________________________
4. In the past people lived half as long as they do now. (twice)
_______________________________________________________________________
5. Being self-employed is much more rewarding than working for someone else. (not nearly)
_______________________________________________________________________
6. Unemployment figures are a bit higher than they were last month. (slightly)
_______________________________________________________________________

85