‫ محمد عماد الدين عبد الفتاح بيومى شقره‬: ‫االسم‬

‫ كيمياء وكيمياء تطبيقية‬: ‫القسم‬

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Chloride attack on concrete deteriorates the durability of concrete

by initiating the corrosion of the reinforcement, which may cause the
failure of the structure.
Over 40 % of the structural failure is due to the corrosion of the
reinforcement. And chloride attack is the major cause of corrosion of
reinforcement.
 ❖ Sources of Chloride Attack on Concrete:
• Cement.
• Aggregates.
• Water: Water, particularly seawater, contains chloride ions.
• Admixtures: Nowadays chloride free admixtures are sold that have
negligible chloride content.
• Environment: Chloride can also enter concrete from environment by
diffusion.
❖ Forms of Chloride in Concrete:
Total chloride exists in the following two forms in concrete:
1- Insoluble form as chlorialuminates.
2- Soluble form that causes corrosion.
❖ Mechanism of Chloride Attack on Concrete:
Before going into the mechanism, let us understand the conditions required
for corrosion to take place:
• Concrete should not be dry. Humidity should be in the range of 70-80 %
for corrosion to occur. Below 60% humidity, corrosion does not take
place as enough water to act as electrolyte is not available.
• Concrete should not be immersed in water. Else, diffusion oxygen
required for the chemical reactions to form rust will not occur.
The mechanism of chloride attack is described below:
♦ Electrochemical process:
Corrosion of steel is an electrochemical process in which potential difference is
set up across the steel reinforcement in concrete.
♦ Electrochemical cell:
Owing to the potential difference, an electrochemical cell is set up. One part
acts as an anode while the other acts as a cathode in the steel. Pore water
present in concrete acts as an electrolyte connecting the anode and cathode.
  Chemical Reactions:
Iron undergoes reduction at anode and converts into ferrous ions and free
electrons are released.
(at anode)
These ferrous ions are passed into the solution while the free electrons are
absorbed by the electrolyte (pore water). Electrons are absorbed by water
molecules releasing hydroxyl ions (OH–).
(at cathode)
Hydroxyl ions again travel through the electrolyte and combine with ferrous
ions to form ferrous hydroxide.
(ferrous hydroxide)
In presence of water and oxygen, ferrous hydroxide is converted to ferric
oxide, which turns into rust.
(ferric hydroxide)
Only oxygen is consumed in the corrosion as water is regenerated. Chloride
ions act as a catalyst to the process of corrosion.

➢ Rusting Damage:
The products of corrosion occupy 6 times the volume of original products
depending upon the oxidation state. Refer to the below figure for volume
increase of the products of corrosion.
Volume increase cause thrust in concrete and hence the following damage is
induced:
• Cracks in concrete.
• Spalling in concrete.
• Delamination of concrete.

Concrete starts losing its strength; simultaneously cross-section of

reinforcement reduces. With reduced cross-section, the load-carrying capacity
of steel reduces. Thus, corrosion may lead to the collapse of the structure.
 ❖ How to prevent Chloride Attack on Concrete:
Two preventive measures, which can help in reducing chloride attack on
concrete, are discussed below:
1- By reducing low w/c ratio
2- By using supplementary cementitious materials
Low water content
As seen above, water acts as an electrolyte. If enough water is not available, corrosion will
be inhibited.
So, a lower w/c ratio should be used. Superplasticizers can also be used to reduce the water
content and produce workable concrete.

Addition of Supplementary cementitious materials

Materials like fly ash GGBS, silica fume can be employed in concrete to reduce corrosion.
The diffusion rate of chloride ions in blended cement is much less than that of OPC. Portland
pozzolana cement reduces the mobility of chloride ions in concrete.

These pozzolanic materials can be used in either of the following ways-

• As admixture
• As blended material to produce blended cement
GGBS can reduce water permeability by about 100 times.

60% GGBS can reduce the chloride attack on concrete by about 10 times.
Besides the above control measures, drying shrinkage and microcracks in concrete
microstructure can also induce corrosion.

Avoiding Usage of Sulphate Resistant Cement

Chloride diffused into the concrete can react with C 3A present in concrete as cement
constituent. It forms calcium chloroaluminate hydrate.

Now, as we know, sulphate resistant cement has low C 3A content. Hence, it should be
avoided in severe chloride exposure.

Following methods are used to control corrosion by reducing the risk of

chloride attack:
1- Metallurgical methods.
2- Corrosion inhibitors.
3- Coatings to reinforcement.
4- Cathodic protection.
5- Coating to concrete.
6- Design and detailing.