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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Understanding waste management at airports: A study on current practices


and challenges based on literature review
R.M. Sebastian a, *, J. Louis b
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta, Canada
b
Bissell Centre, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: One of the major environmental challenges faced by the aviation industry is the sustainable management of solid
Waste management waste at airports. Rising passenger volumes and expansion of airport activities have considerably increased the
Airport wastes types and quantities of waste generated at airports. With many regional and national governments emphasizing
Municipal solid waste (MSW)
on waste diversion from landfills, numerous airports are gradually transitioning to sustainable alternatives.
COVID-19
Sustainability
Despite being a pressing issue, there is limited literature on waste management initiatives and their efficiency at
Landfill airports. This has become more vital since the outbreak of coronavirus disease (COVID-19), which has had a
Airport significant impact on the generation and management of wastes, especially at airports. This article conducts a
Aviation systematic review of the various aspects of airport waste management, viz. the types and sources of wastes
Waste to energy generated, the management practices adopted for the different waste streams, and the associated challenges. The
Circular economy waste generation trends and management models at different airports have been explored to develop a knowl­
edge base for decision-makers and policy analysts. The article also identifies potential challenges lying ahead for
the aviation industry with respect to waste management post-COVID-19.

management, according to Baxter et al. [6]. While the environmental


1. Introduction footprint of an airport also entails air and noise pollution, energy and
fuel consumption, and hydro-geological damages, waste management
Aviation is one of the fastest-growing commercial sectors in the will be dealt with as an essential element of sustainable airport opera­
world, serving over 4.5 billion passengers and 62 million tonnes of tions in the purview of this paper.
freight annually, contributing to 3.6% of the world’s gross domestic Airports are rightly, local establishments, hence, adherent to the
product (GDP) [1]. With rising population, urbanization and economic regional policies and regulations. Some of the airports have been re­
growth, and the subsequent need for mobility, the air traffic is stipulated ported to generate waste volumes as much as that of a small city or town,
to undergo continual growth in the coming years [2], especially in which increases the magnitude of the detrimental environmental effects.
developing economies. The passenger traffic has increased by 1.4 times, This is one of the reasons why waste has arisen as one of the indicators
in the last two decades to about 3.97 billion, as of 2017 [3]. Besides for sustainability assessment of airports [7]. A study by Louis et al. [8]
aviation operations, airports have now become hosts to shopping and had also identified waste management systems at airports to be an in­
recreational complexes, hotels, and restaurants, transport hubs, con­ tegral sustainability indicator for a green airport. However, unlike a city,
ference units, etc. [4]. Being an integral part of meeting the economic airport waste needs to be classified differently, considering the origin
and logistical needs of society, the growth of the aviation industry is and type of waste. Minimizing the landfilling and identifying material
inevitable. However, the expansion of the aviation industry has been and energy recovery operations are possible once the quantity and the
met with a simultaneous rise in concern about its environmental foot­ composition of the waste are known. Understanding the role of waste
print. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has hence been management in airport sustainability, Santos et al. [9] recently devel­
advocating the concept of sustainability in the planning, design, and oped a waste management index to evaluate airport waste management
operation of airports. This necessitates the consideration of economic systems.
growth, environmental footprint, and social responsibility [5]. One of On the other hand, the onset of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-
the acute environmental issues faced by airports is reported to be waste 19) has had a massive impact on the aviation industry globally. Nearly

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: roshnimary@ualberta.ca, roshnimary@gmail.com (R.M. Sebastian).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111229
Received 23 September 2020; Received in revised form 10 April 2021; Accepted 16 May 2021
Available online 26 May 2021
1364-0321/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229

Nomenclature MAC Metropolitan Airports Commission


MSW Municipal Solid Waste
AAI Airport Authority of India MW Mega watt
ACI Airports Council International OSCA On-Site Compositing Apparatus
C&D Construction and Demolition PPE Personal protective equipment
COVID-19 Coronavirus disease 2019 SFO San Francisco International Airport
EPA Environmental Protection Agency TPD Tonnes per day
EU European Union TPY Tonnes per year
E-wastes Electronic Wastes US United States
FAA Federal Aviation Administration USD United States Dollar
FMG Flughafen München GmbH VAA Victoria Airport Authority
GDP Gross Domestic Product WHO World Health Organisation
IATA International Air Transport Association WtE Waste to Energy

93% of the world population lives in areas with restrictions on travel account of the methodology used, the initial section gives an idea of the
currently [10]. Consequently, a reduction of 2.7 billion passengers was types of waste generated in an airport. This is followed by a detailed
recorded for the year, as of January 2021, subsequently causing a account of the sources and composition of the waste streams and the
decline in revenues by 97 billion United States Dollars (USD) [11,12]. current waste generation trends at different airports. The existing
Fig. 1 shows the decrease in passenger volume in different countries due management strategies and practices are discussed in the subsequent
to COVID-19. Although the domestic flight sector and cargo flights are section. The challenges to the sustainable management of municipal
still operated to an extent, airport operations have undergone major solid waste (MSW) at airports and other changes in light of the COVID-
changes since the pandemic. This has subsequently affected the waste 19 outbreak are also discussed in detail, with examples from various
generation and management at airports, like other sectors. One of the airports across the world.
biggest challenges hence faced by airports is to manage the rising vol­
ume of hazardous waste streams without posing a threat to public health 2. Methodology
and environmental safety [13].
The objective of this study is to assess the existing management The methodology adopted to conduct this review is demonstrated in
strategies being employed at different airports across the world and Fig. 2. In the first stage, the relevant keywords that could effectively
build a knowledge base on the waste quantity, characteristics, and extract relevant published scientific works from databases were estab­
treatment and disposal practices. The specific objectives include. lished. Published papers from Science Direct, Google Scholar, up to early
2021 were extracted. Academic works including but not limited to
a. To understand the classification, quantities, and composition of research articles, conference publications, book chapters, reviews, etc.
waste generated at major airports across the world were considered in the study. Apart from this, annual reports, zero waste
b. To assess the sustainable waste diversion and management initiatives plans, sustainability plans, government reports, etc. were also reviewed.
undertaken by different airports and aircraft companies and their Furthermore, websites of airports, airlines, guidance documents from
inherent challenges the World Health Organisation (WHO), International Air Transport As­
c. To compile the challenges for aviation waste management pre and sociation (IATA) were also reviewed. Published work on challenges,
post COVID-19 opportunities, and other aspects of waste management in cities and in­
stitutions in the time of COVID-19 were also extracted. After initial
Existing literature, reports, and online databases have been reviewed screening, those articles which do not discuss specific waste manage­
in detail to propose alternate waste treatment strategies to reduce the ment actions for sustainability or greening airports were excluded. Ar­
environmental footprint. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, a review ticles without full-texts, duplicate articles, or articles with generic
of waste management operations at airports is a relatively new attempt discussion on waste management techniques without addressing the
and holds much relevance, in light of the recent challenges posed by applicability to airports or aircrafts are also eliminated from further
COVID-19. With the evident lack of sufficient literature on sustainable analysis. The selected articles were then categorized primarily into
solid waste management at airports [15], this study tries to effectively three, namely, those dealing with airport waste management, those
bridge the knowledge gap in the literature, to be beneficial for dealing with cabin waste management, and a third category specifically
decision-makers and policy analysts. dealing with waste management in the time of COVID-19. To the best of
The article is organised into 5 different sections. Following a brief our knowledge, there is limited literature on the effect of the pandemic

Fig. 1. Decrease in air passenger traffic post-COVID-19 [14].

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R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229

Fig. 2. Review methodology overview.

on waste management and airport operations. Existing literature on the 3. Waste streams at airports
influence of the pandemic on municipal waste management and insti­
tutional waste management was reviewed for drawing additional in­ The airport operations result in the generation of several waste
formation. Following a detailed analysis, relevant data on waste streams, arising from both the groundside (areas before security
generation, passenger statistics, diversion, and disposal practices were screening) and the airside (areas after security screening), as shown in
summarized. The challenges associated with waste management in air­ Fig. 3.
ports were subsequently identified and directions for further research The wastes generated from airport operations may be MSW, con­
were stated in the conclusion. struction, and demolition (C & D) wastes, hazardous wastes, wastes
emanating from industrial operations, and lavatory wastes. Fig. 4 il­
lustrates the types of wastes and their origin in an airport. The subse­
quent sections give a brief account of the different types of waste

Fig. 3. Waste generation from different zones within the airport.

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R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229

Fig. 4. Types of waste streams in a typical airport.

generated. the presence of chemicals and pathogens. The lavatory tanks of the
aircrafts are pumped out into designated vehicles along with the disin­
3.1. MSW fectants used for cleaning. This needs to be subjected to pretreatment
before transferring to the sanitary sewage system to avoid
Typically, in airports, MSW arises from the terminal areas, tenants contamination.
occupying the airport areas, airlines, and cargo operations. Waste
generated from the public areas, office areas, etc. constitutes the ter­
minal wastes. Airports also have numerous tenants operating out of the 3.5. Airline wastes
airports as well as its immediate surroundings. Restaurants, retail stores,
hotels, golf courses, etc. are common businesses in the vicinity of an The waste generated in the cabins of domestic and international
airport. The wastes from the airline offices and workspaces also generate flights amounts to nearly 5.4 million tonnes annually [17]. Keeping the
MSW. IATA has reported that about 7.5% of the world’s GDP is trans­ effects of the pandemic aside, 8.2 billion passengers were expected to fly
ported through air carriers [16], which has led to a substantial increase by 2037 [18]. The two main types of cabin wastes, based on origin are as
in the cargo waste generated. follows:

3.1.1. Compostable organics 3.5.1. Deplaned wastes


Airports generate compostable and green organics, from foodservice This stream of wastes ensuing from the domestic aircrafts is reported
operations and landscaping activities, respectively. Discarded food to constitute about 20% of the MSW generated from a typical com­
wastes as well as wastes from food preparation in the restaurants, and mercial airport [5]. Besides compostables and recyclables like bottles,
other eateries in the airports generate a generous amount of food wastes. paper cups, and paper towels, plastic cups, service ware, plastic wrap­
The landscaping activities in the vicinity of the airport results in the pers, etc., the waste is also composed of residues from catering opera­
generation of grass clippings, leaves, trees, branches, and debris like soil, tions like food carts, bags, compactor boxes, waste carts, bonded carts,
dirt, etc. These wastes can be composted within the airport area or in etc.
collaboration with the regional facilities.
3.5.2. Deplaned wastes post-COVID-19
Although flying operations have slowed down considerably due to
3.2. C&D wastes
COVID-19, some airlines have resumed operations in domestic sectors
and selected international routes, apart from cargo flights. Cabin wastes
Airports being sites of constant renovation and development, lead to
are now required to be managed such that pollution and disease risks are
the generation of a significant amount of C&D wastes like cement,
minimal. Besides international airline cabin wastes, additional re­
concrete, sand, stones, and other building debris. While the absence of
strictions are now imposed on domestic cabin wastes. This may include
segregation in many cities had led to the presence of C&D wastes along
restrictions on recycling and reuse, additional bagging, and sealing to
with MSW, there has been an evident transition in the handling of C&D
prevent bio-contamination and infection, etc. at the discretion of
wastes, with many facilities being set up solely for the management of
regional authorities.
the segregated waste stream.
IATA has identified two different categories of cabin wastes post
COVID-19, viz. normal wastes and biohazardous wastes, as per WHO
3.3. Hazardous and industrial wastes recommendations. The former is the stream of wastes from an aircraft
where no member of the crew, passengers, or other staff exhibit COVID-
Being the operational hub of the aviation industry, hazardous and 19 symptoms and can hence be treated as a normal waste stream,
industrial materials constitute an inevitable waste stream. Oil spills and following conventional management practices. The latter includes all
cleanup wastes, from the storage areas, maintenance operations, aircraft types of wastes generated in an aircraft when an employee or passenger
parking space, and other hazardous substances which are typically exhibits COVID-19 symptoms. The wastes should be treated as bio-
combustible, toxic, corrosive, or reactive need to be treated segregated hazardous and must be handled, stored, and disposed of such that the
from the municipal waste stream and should be handled in compliance risk of bio-contamination is minimal [13].
with hazardous waste regulatory requirements.
3.5.3. International wastes
3.4. Lavatory wastes The waste generated from international flights, unlike domestic
flights, is treated as a completely isolated waste stream, to avoid possible
Wastes generated from lavatories also pose a potential threat due to environmental contamination. Since the countries from which the

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R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229

flights operate may exercise different regulations and policies, the waste Table 1
generated is treated as a potential source of contaminants, diseases, or Waste generation rates in different airports in tonnes per day (TPD).
pest infestations. Although the characteristics of international wastes Airport Waste Reference Passengers
are similar to MSW, it is treated as ‘quarantined’ especially in countries generation/data statistics
like Canada, United States (US), European Union (EU) member coun­ year
tries, Australia, etc., and are either incinerated on-site or encapsulated Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta 82.2 TPD/2019 [24] 110 million/y
and disposed of to prevent environmental exposure. International Airport
Beijing Airport 76.2 TPD/2016 [25] 94.4 million/y
Los Angeles International 52 TPD/2004 [26] 88.1 million/y
3.6. Hospital wastes Airport
O’Hare International Airport 31.5 TPD/2002 [27] 84.6 million/y
Hospital wastes are conventionally not accounted for, in the airport Heathrow Airport 78.4 TPD/2007 [28] 80.1 million/y
waste stream, due to significantly lower quantities. Typically, the hos­ Shanghai Pudong Airport 60 TPD/2018 [29] 74 million/y
Leonardo da Vinci 36.2 TPD/2018 [30] 73 million/y
pital waste at an airport originates from hospitals, dispensaries, and first
International Airport
aid units located within the airport facility. Large airports like O’Hare Indira Gandhi International 15 TPD/2018 [31] 67.3 million/y
international airport or the John F Kennedy international airport have Airport
been reported to operate busy medical clinics for medical evaluations Suvarnabhumi Airport 55.9 TPD/2018 [31] 65 million/y
and vaccinations of passengers [19]. However, with the recent Singapore Changi Airport 43.1 TPD/2018 [32] 64 million/y
San Francisco International 33.4 TPD/2016 [33] 57 million/y
COVID-19 outbreak, medical wastes have become one of the most sig­ Airport
nificant waste streams to be generated at an airport. Personal protective Denver International Airport 302 TPD/2011 [34] 52.8 million/y
equipment (PPE) kits, gloves, shields, etc. are some of the major com­ Seattle Tacoma International 13.7 TPD/2004 [26] 51.8 million/y
ponents generated consequently. Airport
Sydney International Airport 17.4 TPD/2019 [35] 44.4 million/y
Munich Airport 46.6 TPD/2018 [36] 46 million/y
4. Current data on waste quantities, sources, and composition at Gatwick Airport 57.3 TPD/2007 [28,37] 40.8 million/y
airports 73.1 TPD/2013
Fort Lauderdale International 9.1 TPD/2004 [26] 36 million/y
Waste quantity and characteristics are fundamental to developing an Airport
Sydney International Airport 14.6 TPD/2015 [38] 33.6 million/y
integrated waste management plan for any jurisdiction [20]. The sub­ 17.8 TPD/2018
sequent sections give a detailed account of the waste quantities, their Stansted Airport 14.75 TPD/2009 [28] 27 million/y
sources and composition observed at different airports. 17.15 TPD/2007
Vancouver International 13.1 TPD/2019 [39] 26.4 million/y
Airport
4.1. Waste generation rates
Hamad International Airport 11.8 TPD/2016 [40] 26 million/y
Adelaide International 1.97 TPD/2012 [41] 21 million/y
As discussed in preceding sections, airports are hubs with multiple Airport
stakeholders generating significant amounts of waste daily, from airside Daniel K Inouye International 17.95 TPD/2007 [42] 21 million/y
and groundside. The quantity of wastes generated at an airport may be Airport
Toronto Pearson International 8.3 TPD/2020 [43,44] 20 million/y
said to be proportional to the passenger traffic at the airport [21] as well Airport
as the commercial and construction activities. Airports in the US were Auckland International 11.2 TPD/2020 [45] 20 million/y
found to have a generation rate of 0.58 kg/departed passenger in 2004. Airport
Table 1 lists the passenger traffic and the waste generation at different Edinburgh Airport 5.24 TPD/2007 [28] 14.7 million/y
Oakland International Airport 1.25 TPD/2007 [44] 14.5 million/y
small, medium, and large airports across the world. In the purview of
Glasgow Airport 7.4 TPD/2007 [28] 8.8 million/y
this paper, airports are classified on the basis of passenger volumes [22] Naples International Airport 3.3 TPD/2017 [46] 8.6 million/y
as small airports with a passenger volume of less than 20 million/y, Vilnius Airport 11.1 TPD/2012 [47] 5.5 million/y
medium airports with 20–60 million/y, and large with more than 60 Indianapolis International 6.3 TPD/2019 [48,49] 4 million/y
million/y. It can be observed that large airports with high passenger Airport
Milwaukee International 2.4 TPD/2015 [49] 3.2 million/y
volumes have higher waste generation rates. Airport
Waste generation trends in aircrafts were found to have a different Cincinnati/Northern 21.1 TPD/2017 [49] 3.1 million/y
trend. For instance, a recent waste composition study undertaken by Kentucky International
IATA and WSP Global Inc. indicated a wide variation in the waste Airport
Aberdeen Airport 1.4 TPD/2007 [28] 2.9 million/y
generation rates for short (<6 h) and long haul (>6 h) flights. While the
Portland International Airport 7.7 TPD/2004 [26] 2.2 million/y
former was estimated at 0.52 kg/passenger, the latter was around Southampton Airport 1.2 TPD/2007 [28] 1.7 million/y
0.63–1.81 kg/passenger [23]. Stewart International Airport 0.13 TPD/2012 [50] 0.36 million/y
Erie International Airport 0.22 TPD/2016 [51] 0.1 million/y
4.2. Sources and composition
airlines, check-in counters, packaging counters, restaurants, cafés, retail
The selection of the treatment and disposal technology and the
outlets, etc. Airside of the terminals, post-security check includes duty-
design of the waste management scheme is highly dependent on the
free shops, break rooms for the airline and airport staff, eateries and
composition and characteristics of the incoming waste feed, which in
restrooms. Besides, landscaping activities result in the generation of
turn, is influenced by the source of generation [52]. Any waste man­
green wastes as well as inert wastes. The waste generated on both the
agement program should consider the wide variety of activities and
airside and groundside of the terminals includes food wastes, paper,
processes that take place within the airport, to assess the rate at which
plastics, metallic cans, glass bottles, oil and grease from restaurants,
the waste is generated. The following section gives an insight into the
household hazardous wastes like batteries, electronic wastes (E-wastes),
various sources of generation and the composition of the waste streams
green wastes, and inert wastes like soil, dirt, stones, etc. from land­
emanating from them.
scaping, and general trash. Airports in the US generated nearly 425,000
tonnes of waste in 2004, of which around 75% was found to be recov­
4.2.1. Terminals: groundside and airside
erable by recycling or composting [26].
The groundside of the terminal is host to the ticketing offices of

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a. Office spaces 4.2.3. Changes in waste generation post COVID-19


While common cabin wastes like food wastes, or paper and plastic
Office spaces belonging to airline staff, aviation authorities, security serve ware are expected to reduce due to limited inflight services, some
staff, etc. generate paper and other stationery products, plastic wastes of the emerging components of the waste stream mainly include.
like bottles, packing, etc., metal cans, batteries, printer cartridges, and
other garbage. • PPE including gowns/coveralls, gloves, masks, etc. used by the crew,
passengers, and ground staff
b. Maintenance hangars • Discarded hand-sanitizer bottles with/without leftover sanitizer
• Discarded sanitizing liquids, cleaning liquids, containers, wipes,
The repair and maintenance hangars are located within the airport cleaning equipment, and packaging
vicinity are frequented for maintenance and fueling operations. These • Leftover food and drinks, and paper and plastic packaging carried by
are also the hubs for the maintenance and storage of ground service passengers
equipment. Maintenance and fueling operations generate fuel oil, haz­
ardous wastes like batteries, E-wastes, grease, automobile wastes like Table 2 lists the changes in the generation of specific waste streams
tires, brake and transmission fluids, and rubber, textile, and liquid post COVID-19. The treatment protocol if symptomatic passengers are
wastewater from cleaning operations. Most maintenance units typically on-board is listed in subsequent sections.
have an in-built office space as well, which results in the generation of The subsequent sections detail the common waste management, viz.
wastes composed of materials mentioned in the previous section. diversion and disposal strategies adopted, along with airport-specific
data.
c. Cargo units

4.3. Composition of wastes


Airports have significant cargo handling operations, operated by
private and public sector agencies. Wastes from the cargo movement and
The studies on the composition of wastes generated are limited due
storage operations generally include plastic packaging, wood pallets,
to the operational feasibility of experimental composition studies and
tires, oil from machinery, batteries, and E-wastes.
the high heterogeneity of the waste stream. Some large airports like
Atlanta International Airport had conducted characterization studies in
d. Construction processes
the past, which were later used to extrapolate and estimate similar data
for other airports like SFO. However, the component analysis does not
Being centres of constant development, airports tend to have
reflect a detailed material composition and gives the percentage of
frequent C & D activities in its vicinity. This is particularly true in the
refuse, compostables, mixed wastes, etc. [56]. A detailed waste char­
case of airports with steadily increasing passenger traffic. Land exca­
acterization study was conducted at San Diego Airport, to advance to­
vation, runway maintenance, construction of new terminals, etc. are
wards a zero waste strategy in 2018. However, apart from the divertible
some of the activities that could generate C &D wastes at an airport.
components, a detailed component analysis was not available for the
These operations tend to generate materials like soil, stones, asphalt,
landfilled fraction, which constituted 67% of the total wastes [57].
wood, bricks, rock, gravel, sand, drywall, roofing materials, plastic and
Waste data on cabin wastes are even more challenging. A study
other construction materials. Busy airports like Los Angeles Interna­
conducted in 2012 commissioned by IATA where about 44 airlines were
tional airport has on-site C & D recycling plant to process this waste
consulted indicates that 60% of the airlines do not record waste volumes
stream [53].
and only 25% of the airlines had conducted composition analysis in the
past. Li et al. [2] had conducted an experimental composition analysis
4.2.2. Aircrafts
for in-flight wastes generated on short, medium, and long-haul flights.
IATA identified two main types of cabin wastes, viz. cleaning wastes
Eight representative flights were chosen for analysis and the results were
and catering wastes (gallery wastes). Cleaning wastes include all types of
used to identify potential diversion opportunities. Another recent study
left-over wastes from passengers, washroom waste bins, and medical
estimated the waste produced per passenger in 27 flights, from 4
wastes if any. Gallery wastes are the left-over food and beverage wastes
from flight operations and can have a significant amount of unused
beverage and ice. Table 2
Changes in waste management of different waste streams post COVID-19 [54,
The major waste component in both domestic and international
55].
aircrafts is food and catering waste. In a domestic aircraft, since the
source materials of the wastes including animal and plant-based foods Component Post COVID-19
are within the flight-originating country itself, its treatment and disposal Food wastes Negligible
may be carried out sustainably within the country. International flights Plastics wastes (cutlery, cups, food Rise in single-use plastic items due to
serving plant and animal-based foods from different countries pose a packaging, headset/blanket packing, suspension of plastic bans
meal boxes, plastic bottles, yoghurt
threat of contamination to the country of arrival. Yet another challenge packs, pouches, tetrapak, etc.)
with the aircraft wastes is the lack of segregation, which results in a Paper wastes (tissue paper, newspaper, Surge in paper wastes from cleaning.
highly mixed waste stream. It has been observed that there is an evident magazines, flyers, menu cards, paper Hazardous waste management protocol
lack of a sustainable approach to the management of wastes generated in cups, etc.) if symptomatic passengers were
identified.
aircrafts.
Textile wastes (blankets, used towels, Rise in cleaning cloths, mop heads, etc.
The major component of waste generated in long-haul aircrafts is eye patches, socks, etc.) Hazardous waste management protocol
also reported to be food wastes. Flight kitchens, where the food is pre­ if symptomatic passengers are identified.
pared and packed before being mounted on the aircraft also generated a Metal wastes (tissue rings, bottle caps, Reduced quantity due to limited in-flight
significant amount of food wastes, followed by waste cooking oil, cutlery, aluminium foil, drink cans, services. Hazardous waste management
etc.) protocol if symptomatic passengers are
packaging wastes made of paper and plastic, other plastic (like cutlery), Glass wastes (glass bottles, serving identified.
and paper (newspaper, tissue paper, etc.) wastes, liquid wastewater, and glass, etc.)
wood pallets. Ceramic wastes (serving plates)
Other wastes (wood pallets, rubber,
pens, paper, chopsticks, dirt, etc.)

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different airline companies, arriving at Lamaca’s International Airport, disposal. The conventionally followed waste management hierarchy for
Cyprus using airline data to determine the factors affecting the waste sustainable practices is as illustrated in supplementary data. The sub­
generation and understanding the challenges in managing the wastes sequent section discusses at length how the different elements of the
sustainably [58]. Kablitiz and Kavouras [59] reported the percentage of hierarchy are implemented at airports currently.
residual MSW (88%), inerts (3%), recyclables (8%), and hazardous
wastes (1%) in the waste generated at Athens International Airport in 5.1. Reduction, reuse, recycling
2003. Auckland Airport reported a fairly detailed waste profile for the
airport precinct, of which nearly 44% was reported to be hazardous or Reduction, reuse, and recycling are the most superior strategies in a
biosecurity wastes [45]. Fig. 5 illustrates the variation in waste sustainable waste management paradigm. To render better waste and
composition at some airports. While the heterogeneity of the wastes and resource management, and attain sustainability standards, employing 3-
the inconsistent classification make it difficult to draw sound conclu­ R is essential. Enhancement of 3-R can be rightly said to be at the core of
sions, general wastes/refuse inadvertently form a significant fraction of airport planning (FAA, 2019). The US Environmental Protection Agency
the waste stream. (EPA) recognizes that waste reduction at source is the most crucial ac­
Another interesting study in this regard was conducted by Blanca- tivity as far as the transition to zero waste economy is considered. Waste
Alcubilla et al. [17] where a detailed composition and characteriza­ reduction strategies help in minimizing the quantum of waste to be
tion of wastes generated in aircrafts were studied through an analysis of handled by waste management systems. However, since there are
145 airplanes. Organics, paper and cardboard, and packaging wastes numerous contractual operations within an airport, effectively
were found to be the most prominent in the cabin waste streams. employing waste reduction measures will require the involvement of
Furthermore, the quantity of waste generated was found to be nearly multiple stakeholders. Outreach and engagement can be rightly said to
proportional to the flight duration. While many authors state the be integral to effective waste minimization [61].
importance of waste characterization studies for airport wastes to assess Some of the measures commonly adopted by airports to minimize
the performance of the waste management system in place, and identify wastes include a liquid collection and disposal system on the groundside
the scope for improvements, implementing such studies has numerous to dispose of the liquids before the security screening and in turn, reduce
challenges [17,58]. The differences in the policies of different airports, the energy consumption in waste management processes. This practice
airlines, and variability in the passenger disposal practices, subsequently is evident at San Francisco International Airport (SFO), Oakland Inter­
causing high heterogeneity and difficult process control are some of the national Airport, etc. [5]. Portland International Airport was reported to
major challenges in the airport waste management initiatives, which is have saved 30,000 USD in labour costs through beverage collection
still in a nascent stage. stations (Portland State University, 2019). Similarly, the San Diego
County Regional Airport Authority targets a reduction of 5% in the per
5. Waste management: an integrated approach capita generation by 2025, from the rate of 0.26 kg/cap in 2018 [62].
Waste minimization at Christchurch Airport, NZ, on the other hand, was
Airport waste management policies in accordance with the ‘Polluter mostly through reduction of surplus stock procurement and on-site
Pays’ principle should essentially target [60]. storage [63].
Another successful practice for airport waste reduction include the
i. Use of renewable and sustainable alternative resources to mini­ implementation of food donation drives, to donate consumable food
mize the environmental footprint from various businesses in the airport vicinity to local shelters. Some of
ii. Source segregation the food wastes like cooking oils are also recycled by some airports.
iii. Waste reduction, reuse, and recycling Seattle-Tacoma International Airport is one such example where unused
food is donated to local food banks to reduce wastage. It has also been
Airports being generators of a significant amount of waste, should reported to divert reclaimed cooking oils for biodiesel production [21].
have an integrated waste management system of its own in place [60], San Diego International Airport through US Food Loss and Waste 2030
right from waste reduction, reuse, recycling (3- R), to treatment and Champions [57], Austin-Bergstrom International through Food Rescue

Fig. 5. Waste composition reported at a few airports.

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R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229

Program [64], Denver International Airport through Metro Caring [65] Table 3
are examples of other airports which donate food to minimize wastes. Waste management initiatives by airlines.
Cargo operations at the airport are a major point of generation of Airline Waste management initiative Reference
recyclable materials like wooden pallets, plastic, cardboard, paper, etc.
Delta Airlines Expected to reduce more than 150 tonnes per year [72,73]
If the cargo handling and shipping companies can reuse the wooden (TPY) of plastic waste. Ban on straws, plastic cover on
pallets or minimize the paper and cardboard packaging, it can signifi­ utensils, and amenity kits. Compostable stir sticks
cantly reduce the associated wastes being generated. San Diego Inter­ introduced.
national Airport has introduced terms into contract agreements with the Ryanair Biodegradable cups, wooden cutlery, paper [72]
packaging to be introduced by 2023. Five-year plan
stakeholders to achieve sustainability and zero waste targets [62]. to be the world’s greenest airline.
London Stansted airport also encourages its delivery partners to reduce Cebu Pacific Replacement of non-recyclable cutlery, stirrers, cups [72]
the packing like metal cages and pallets and returns abandoned packing with sustainable alternatives
material to owners or interested third parties [28]. Old staff uniforms are Qantas Group Aims to be the world’s first airline to employ material [72]
recovery of at least ¾ of the general waste by 2021.
also donated to charity for making quilts.
Operated the world’s first zero waste to landfill flight
Some of the other potential actions which can reduce the wastes at and replaced more than 1000 single-use plastic items
the airport include: with biodegradable alternatives.
British Recycling target of 50% at Heathrow and Gatwick [74]
• Contractual agreements to use refillable containers for cleaners and Airways airport units.
Air New Cabin waste recycling in association Auckland [74,75]
other fluids Zealand Airport and New Zealand government; introduction
• Use of compostable and durable serving ware for foodservice of edible coffee cups to reduce wastes.
operations Qatar Airways Food donation in association with Qatar charity RAF. [40]
• Agreement to reduce the packaging in cargo transport services Donation of refurbished IT equipment for use by local
communities.
• Passengers encouraged to carry fewer liquids, gels, aerosols, etc. as
Cathay Pacific Use of recyclable plastic cutlery in economy class. [76]
carry-on items. Increasing the use of recycled plastic instead of virgin
plastic. Blankets, carpets, etc. in economy class made
Employing Green Concessions Program and other incentive-driven of recycled materials. Aims to eliminate 50% single-
programs will encourage the airport tenants and surrounding busi­ use plastics by 2022, despite COVID-19 challenges.
Air France Replacing plastic with biomaterials and 31% [77]
nesses to reduce the use of non-biodegradable packaging and switch to
KLM reduction in non-recycled wastes from 2011.
sustainable compostable alternatives. A typical Green Concessions Pro­ Virgin Essential items on request instead of amenity kits, [78]
gram encourages airport concessionaires to adopt sustainable practices Atlantic removal of plastic raps for headphones, plastic
for business and the environment. Use of recyclable food packaging, and stirrers and straws, and 100% diversion of cabin
wastes from landfill. 96% reduction in landfilling of
serve ware, elimination of single-use plastics by choosing alternative
ground wastes during 2008–2018. Catering waste
materials, source-segregation of recyclables, compostables, and dispos­ that cannot be recycled is incinerated for energy at
ables, elimination of Styrofoam use in daily operations, use of biode­ Gatwick airport incinerator.
gradable trash bags, etc. are some of the green initiatives specific to Alaska Air Ban on straws, plastic stirrers to be replaced with [73]
waste management. Airport concessionaires who adopt such sustainable white birch and bamboo stirrers,
American Lounges to have alternatives for plastic flatware and [73]
practices get certified as ‘Green Concessions’, and receive exclusive
Airlines stirrers
marketing support from the airport authorities [66,67]. Some airport
authorities also rely on incentive-driven programs to encourage
compliance by the airport businesses. Vancouver Airport Authorities companies to deal with waste generated during airline operations
were exploring such programs for eliminating plastic bags and encour­ including passenger flights, cargo processing, etc.
aging the use of compostable tableware in the food courts [68]. While recycling is relatively more prevalent in large airports, it is
Incentive-driven programs have also been employed by some airports to more or less dependent on the local legislation, management players and
reduce waste generation and disposal. Vienna Airport has ‘green airline’ contracts in place, logistical constraints, and economic limitations [79].
award and financial benefits to promote sustainable waste management For instance, Flughafen München GmbH (FMG) helms the infrastructure
practices among airlines [69]. Los Angeles International Airport pro­ management at Munich Airport. A four-bin system is employed to collect
vides incentives to businesses for participating in voluntary recycling paper, mixed recyclables, organics, and residual waste separately at the
programs [5]. Staff and business recognition awards for diversion source. The system which has been in place since 1992 has been sub­
practices have also been employed by different airports as a jected to amendments with changes in legislation. Mixed waste papers
non-financial incentive [57]. This is further augmented if the local/re­ and cardboards as well as foils, mixed glass, wood, metals, etc. are
gional authorities have an active ban on single-use plastics [70]. Pas­ recycled, whereas food wastes are sent to the biogas plant for energy
senger engagement and education through recycling advertising recovery [80].
programs can help passengers and other occupants become aware and Victoria Airport Authority also employs recycling and on-site com­
responsible for the waste they generate [70]. posting of organics including coffee grounds. The composting facility
Waste compaction is another method in use to reduce the volume of has generated 27 tonnes of soil, which has been used as fill material.
wastes being handled and is often used while transporting wastes from 21% diversion was achieved through these activities by the Victoria
airports to treatment and disposal facilities. San Diego International Airport Authority (VAA) [81].
Airport employs 25 and 35-yard cube compactors for recyclables, or­ Table 4 shows the major waste diversion initiatives taken up by some
ganics, and cardboard to store the wastes at Central Recycling and Waste of the airport authorities. These include specific initiatives and targets
Disposal Facility [57]. However, it does not reduce the actual quantum set by airport authorities to deal with wastes generated by airport
of waste generated and merely helps in volume reduction to simplify businesses and tenants and airport operations. This may be influenced
storage and transportation. by local municipal regulations and sustainability targets.
Over 80% of the waste generated in aircraft cabins has been reported There should be continuous auditing in place to determine the effi­
to be recyclable [71]. Articles made of plastic, paper, metal, glass, and ciency of the existing strategies in diverting wastes.
rubber are a significant presence in the waste collected at airports. The pandemic has however had an adverse effect on the 3-R strate­
Table 3 lists the waste diversion initiatives undertaken by major gies at airports. Since reuse and recycling were deemed unfavourable
airline companies. These are primarily initiatives taken by airline due to potential risk for COVID-19 exposure, waste generation rates

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Table 4 Table 4 (continued )


Waste diversion initiatives by airports. Airport Waste diversion initiative Reference
Airport Waste diversion initiative Reference
Oakland International Pillow recycling program to collect [91]
Atlanta International Leases to tenants restrict the use of [82] Airport airline pillows for use as an insulation
Airport single-use plastics and encourage material or in furniture. Diverts over 75
compostable alternatives. Lease is tonnes of food wastes for use as high
suspended after a third violation of the nutrient fertilizer in organic food
clause. Styrofoam and number 5 plastics production. Diverts over 340 tonnes of
banned. Collected plastic bottles recyclables from landfills.
repurposed into the fabric for clothing Toronto Pearson 72% waste diversion, excluding cabin [92,93]
post-processing. Constructing Green International Airport wastes. Program to recycle C&D and
Acres, an in-house recycling and organics wastes. Initiatives like Paper
composting unit to divert 30,000 TPY of Cut, collaboration with Partners in
wastes. Project Green, Diabetes Canada, etc. to
Shanghai Pudong Airport Oil-water separators and dedicated [29] achieve waste reduction.
garbage containers used for kitchen Sydney Airport Elimination of single-use plastic bags, [35]
wastes. plastic straws, etc., and recycling of
Changi Airport Use of recycled materials for on-site [32,74] organics on groundside of terminals.
construction, including runways, Water fountains reduce 1400 plastic
roadways, and drains bottles daily. 43% waste diversion,
Vancouver International 51% diversion in 2016–17. Organic [68,72] excluding quarantine wastes.
Airport waste reduction through Metro Portland International The first airport in the US to use 100% [61,72]
Vancouver’s regional organic waste van. Jetport recycled aircraft de-icing fluid. Diverted
Geneva Airport Recycling rate increased from, 49–53% [72] 2350 tonnes of food wastes since 2003.
in 2016–2017. Aims to get a net waste diversion of 90%.
Gatwick Airport Constructing an in-house material [82] Dallas/Fort Worth Eliminating single-use plastic straws [82]
sorting facility to enhance diversion. International Airport gradually, to achieve a reduction of 4
Zero Waste to Landfill certification million straws from the waste stream, on
acquired in 2018 from Carbon Trust. the complete ban. Washed out concrete
Queenstown Airport Use of waste printer toner and recycled [72] recycling diverted 1000 tonnes of
glass in developing low carbon asphalt concrete from landfills.
for resurfacing operations
Galapagos Airport Terminal construction through the use of [74]
80% of recycled materials from have increased by alarming rates in most jurisdictions. A few cities in the
demolished buildings, recycled US [94], Singapore [95], etc. discontinued recycling activities tempo­
petroleum exploration pipes, etc.
rarily. Airports Council International (ACI) however, continually
Denver International Zero waste airport by 2020 [34]
Airport encouraged the use of reusable materials when safe and appropriate, if
Munich Airport Recycling rate of 79%. 11% of the [83] the local government regulations permit the same. Kentucky Interna­
remaining portion was sent to the biogas tional Airport has been exploring options to reintroduce recyclables in
plant and the remaining 10% ended up their operations and enhance the recycling rate with a 2-bin collection
in landfills.
Goodyear And Deer Valley 50% diversion by 2020. [84]
system [96].
Airport
Indianapolis International Reused/recycled 87% of the C &D [48] 5.2. Composting
Airport wastes from terminal demolition.
Cincinnati/Northern Recycling of old concrete and asphalt [85]
Composting, which is the biodegradation of organic materials to
Kentucky International from the airfield. Light bulbs and
Airport batteries are also recycled at the airport. produce humus-rich compost, is one of the most environment-friendly
San Diego International 90% diversion of C& D wastes. 50,832 [62] techniques to treat organic wastes and divert them from landfills.
Airport tonnes of C & D wastes diverted in 2018. Food wastes that cannot be donated, are often composted at a compost
Victoria International On-site composting facility for the [81] facility within the airport, or a local composting plant, wherever
Airport landscaping waste and has generated
more than 27 tonnes of compost.
applicable. Often, the finished compost is used for soil amendment
Sunshine Coast Airport Use of solar-powered On-Site [86] within the airport.
Compositing Apparatus (OSCA) and use Looking at the composting operations at airports, it was observed
of compostable packing and cutlery. that food wastes, green wastes from landscaping activities, coffee
Naples International Segregated collection implemented in [46]
grounds, paper towels, etc. were mostly diverted to either in-house or
Airport 2017, by which 62% was recycled and
the rest sent for energy recovery. Door- regional composting units. The implementation of composting activities
to-door waste collection in airport involve placing separate collection bins for segregated collection and
buildings; stakeholder engagement subsequent hauling to composting facilities. For instance, Seattle-
through campaigns to reduce the use of Tacoma International Airport composts food wastes like coffee
plastics.
Tulsa Airport Diversion rate of 82%. C&D wastes from [87]
grounds along with yard wastes [21]. Since the quality of compost is
runway reconstruction used for largely dependent on the feedstock, segregation at the source can prove
pavement modeling diverting 170,000 to be quintessential. The Metropolitan Airports Commission (MAC) uses
tonnes of wastes. the compost produced along with topsoil for landscaping activities at
Abu Dhabi International Recycled materials in all structural and [88]
Minneapolis St Paul International Airport [21]. Denver International
Airport reinforcing steel. Only recycled
aggregate used for backfilling. 96% Airport along with some restaurants in the airport composts organic
waste diversion rate. wastes and paper towels diverting more than 72 tonnes from landfills
Delhi International Airport Elimination of single-use plastics within [89] during the initial stages [97]. Detroit Metropolitan Airport also has a
the airport. To be replaced with green coffee grounds composting program as a part of its diversion efforts
and sustainable alternatives.
Adelaide Airport Over 95% of C&D wastes recovered in [90]
[98].
2018. Treatment of green waste or landscaping waste also plays a major
role in increasing the diversion rates at airports. Grass cuttings, trim­
mings, etc. are composted at composting facilities within the airport or

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off-site, wherever applicable. London Stansted airport, for instance, Table 6


composts about 600–800 tonnes of green waste annually and projects it Clean Centre incinerator flue gas emission standards,
as a part of their recycling targets [28]. Some airports like Cochin In­ Kansai [101].
ternational Airport adopt anaerobic digestion to divert their organic Gas Stack emission standards
wastes on-site, instead of composting, in turn generating biogas [99]. Dust 0.02 g/Nm3
Kentucky International Airport has been actively exploring food waste SO2 20 ppm
diversion options and the introduction of compostable serve ware into HCl 30 ppm
the airport food concessionaire operations [96]. Table 5 shows some of NOx 70 ppm
the airports where the diversion rate is improved by the composting of
organics.
demonstrates the process flow for the same. This Catal-UCL pilot project
It should be noted that composting may not be feasible at many
can also divert plastic wastes from aircraft cabins, which is otherwise
airports, due to lack of infrastructure, inadequate stakeholder engage­
incinerated, should a policy revision occur.
ment, or local climate challenges.
Energy recovery through the collection of waste cooking oils and
fats, fuel oils, grease, etc. for their possible conversion and upgradation
5.3. Waste to energy (WtE) for further applications are also possible options for the capture of en­
ergy from wastes at airports.
The availability of systems to recover energy from waste through Table 7 lists the WtE projects for waste management at some
incineration was identified as an indicator of airport sustainability airports.
recently [8]. Although international wastes are sterilized by incineration Post COVID-19, due to the overwhelming quantity of waste being
in many airports, the waste is transported to regional incinerators. A few directed to incineration facilities, many countries have allowed tempo­
airports, however, operate their own incinerators and use the heat rary changes in their regulatory policies. Co-incineration of wastes in
recovered within the airport. Gatwick airport is one of the first airports incineration plants has been permitted on a case-by-case basis [107].
in the world to have a waste processing and conversion facility on-site. MSW incinerators have also been permitted to accept biowastes in China
Food wastes, meal plates, cups, etc. are dried, pelletised, and fed to an [108].
incinerator, and the recovered energy is used to heat part of the termi­
nal. The recycling rate at the airport is stipulated to jump to 85%, within
5 years of operation of this facility. The facility has a capacity of 10 TPD 5.4. Landfilling
[100] and can generate about 1 MW renewable energy [37].
Kansai International Airport also relies on a fluidized bed furnace to The conventionally followed disposal technique for wastes in most
incinerate the combustible wastes. The flue gas treatment employed jurisdictions is landfilling. Despite alternative technologies being
includes filter-type precipitators that use catalysts to remove NOx as available, landfilling of airport wastes continues to be prevalent.
well as fly ash stabilizing equipment regulated by humidity. The emis­ Although landfilling may be essential for the containment of wastes
sion standards enforced for the incinerator are tabulated in Table 6. depending on the source and extent of contamination, reduction, reuse,
Pretreatment to the feed is primarily shredding. The stringent flue gas and recycling should be employed in accordance with the waste man­
emission standards enforced are as tabulated. The heat recovered is used agement hierarchy, to the extent possible.
for air heaters, while hot water generated is used for room heating or tap Landfilling is so significant to waste management at airports that
water heating [101]. many airports even have a landfill in close proximity to reduce trans­
Copenhagen Airport also incinerates non-recyclable combustible portation costs. However, there is a risk of pest infestation and the
wastes from the ground side and the rate of incineration had a steady presence of birds in the vicinity of the active landfill. The presence of
increase until 2010 [102]. A new technology to convert non-recyclable birds can interfere with the flight routes and increases the risk of colli­
plastic wastes including food packing and plastic films into airport sion with aircrafts. The siting and design of waste management units
furniture, renewable fuels, uniforms, etc. is also being initiated by should account for these external factors to ensure secure operation
Heathrow airport. The plan, which is stipulated to divert 5000 tonnes of [79]. The rise in passenger volume and the consequent increase in waste
plastic waste annually from incineration, can recycle 100% of plastic generated in recent years have led to an increase in the waste disposed of
wastes at Heathrow. The plastic is converted into oil, which is upgraded in landfills. However, the recent transition to sustainable aviation has
using renewable hydrogen to low-carbon products [103]. Fig. 6 led to many zero-waste strategies being formulated at many airports.
This is evident from Fig. 7 (a) and (b) which depict how London Stansted
Table 5 achieved zero waste to landfill in 2017, ahead of targeted 2021 and how
Composting practices at selected airports. SFO Airport is transitioning to being a zero-waste airport by 2021.
Airport Composting practice Reference
Heathrow Airport Holdings Limited had reported the amount of waste
being landfilled in various airports in the UK, in the period from 1998 to
Denver International More than 50 tonnes of organics from airport [5]
2001. Heathrow Airport, in particular, had a significant reduction in the
Airport composted at a commercial composting
facility to high-grade compost. quantum of waste being landfilled, amounting to nearly 86% reduction
John Wayne Airport Coffee grounds and green wastes composted [5] in the span of 3 years, to reach around 2380 tonnes in 2001 [109]. As of
at a certified facility. Diverted more than 150 2011, Heathrow Airport sent less than 1% of its waste to landfills [71].
tonnes of coffee grounds. The primary reason for this trend is, however, through the operation of a
Los Angeles Grass clipping, tree wastes, etc. composted at [5]
International the city’s centralized compost facility.
WtE facility adjacent to the airport. Another notable advancement in
Airport this regard is the Gatwick Airport attaining the ‘Zero Waste to Landfill’
Victoria International Organics from restaurants, paper towels from [81] accreditation (Resource, 2018). Munich Airport is yet another major
Airport washrooms, etc. amounting to 10.4 tonnes airport, which reduced the landfilled waste significantly, by 85%–300
composted in 2014. Onsite composting for
tonnes in the period from 1993–98 [109].
landscaping wastes.
Kansai International 1.8% of generated wastes sent for [9] Although there is a conscious effort to divert wastes from landfills,
Airport composting. landfilling continues to be the most economic option to dispose of the
Singapore Changi Food waste digester in the terminals to divert [32] wastes. In the absence of an appropriate regulatory framework, waste
Airport 290 tonnes of food wastes, converting it to diversion from landfills will remain inefficient. Regional and national
wastewater.
initiatives and interventions are hence deemed essential to reduce the

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R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229

Fig. 6. Plastic to oil conversion envisioned at Heathrow Airport [103].

have also been found to have the potential to be reprocessed to animal


Table 7 feed [2]. Food wastes have been reported to have different generation
WtE operations at some airports.
rates in small, medium, and long-haul flights. An average of 33% of food
Airport WtE practices Reference waste is reported to be generated from flight cabins [17]. In the EU, most
Toronto-Pearson Incinerated at Emerald Energy from Waste [92] of these organic fractions are considered high-risk or Category 1 wastes
International Airport Inc. Nearly 2292 tonnes incinerated to and are mandated to be disposed of in landfills as per EU regulations.
achieve 71% diversion. The steam Post COVID-19, the non-contaminated waste streams shall follow
recovered is used to power 9000 homes.
Hamilton airport International waste burned at the SWARU [104]
normal treatment protocols adopted at the airport, be it landfilling,
incinerator until it was shut down. incineration or sterilization. The special waste (e.g. international
Batten International Incinerates international wastes, plastic [105] catering waste) treatment protocol adopted in the jurisdiction shall still
Airport and paper cups, food containers, etc. at be applied. Recyclables shall be segregated within the aircrafts for
Milwaukee temperatures up to 1500 ◦ C.
further processing and should be separated from PPE wastes.
International airport
Kenosha airport The biohazardous wastes ensuing from cabin services may be pro­
Waukegan airport cessed depending on the available resources and technologies. In many
Sydney Airport Food waste and coffee grounds sent to WtE [35] jurisdictions, a biohazardous waste stream is deemed normal after 72 h
facility to generate renewable electricity. of storage. The waste stream may also be normal after confirming no
London Stansted Airport Bio-Bean, a British company, produced fuel [106]
pellets from coffee grounds collected from
positive or presumptive COVID-19 patient was in the airline cabin.
airports, which has a calorific value higher These wastes which are no longer classified biohazardous can be
than wood pellets, at an appropriate disposed of as per conventionally followed treatment techniques.
density. Potentially biohazardous waste streams are otherwise recommended
London Heathrow Generates oil from plastic at 7.7–10 kg oil/ [82]
to be disposed of in thermal treatment facilities like incineration units
Airport 10 kg of plastic feed, every hour. Oil can be
processed into fabrics, low-carbon operated by the airport or by the regional jurisdiction. Hospital waste
furniture, or even jet fuel. Diverts 5500 incinerators or healthcare waste incinerators may also be used for
tonnes of plastics from incineration. disposing of biohazardous cabin wastes, provided secure handling and
Changi Airport 93% of generated wastes incinerated. [32] transportation is possible. In developing countries where incinerators
are not an accessible technique, disposal in hazardous waste landfills
carbon footprint of airports. may be considered post 72-h storage. However, the landfill facility
Following the outbreak of the pandemic, many countries have also should have adequate liners and cover to prevent contamination and
amended their landfill waste acceptance criteria. Norway’s government exposure risks. Countries like China and Spain, where COVID-19 had a
amended the landfill permits temporarily and allowed shipping out the significant impact, also resorted to cement kilns for biohazardous waste
wastes in case the current systems are overwhelmed [107]. disposal due to higher waste generation rates. Shanghai Pudong Airport
treats about 6 tonnes of waste per day from aircrafts carrying suspected
COVID-19 patients. The waste is transported after disinfection to the
5.5. Cabin waste management
incinerator at Laogang, Pudong New Area [110].

Cabin waste management practices differ across jurisdictions, with


6. Challenges
regional policies and available facilities. International and domestic
cabin wastes are treated differently to prevent contamination and
To efficiently employ a waste management program, it is necessary
ensuing environmental and public health risks. Past studies of cabin
to identify and understand the challenges inherent to the effective
waste composition suggest that there are significant opportunities for
management of wastes at commercial hubs like airports.
waste reduction and recovery, particularly for components like paper,
plastic, and metallic wastes. Dried food wastes with high protein content

Fig. 7. Variation in the degree of landfilling of wastes at (A) London Stansted Airport (B) SFO Airport.

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R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229

6.1. Stakeholder engagement with monthly updates on the waste management statistics and in­
vitations for critical inputs could be a positive engagement technique
Despite various techniques and strategies in place, waste manage­ [116]. The janitorial staff and the cleaning contractors involved in the
ment targets can be achieved only when the various stakeholders have collection of waste from the designated areas bear responsibility in
active involvement and awareness of their roles and responsibilities preventing further contamination and ensuring diversion. The employee
(DEFRA, 2008). Airports, being a business hub, host numerous stake­ turnover and the resultant loss of knowledge and need for additional
holders, involved in different activities and operations. Identification of training can be an inhibitory element, besides the stringent clauses on
the various stakeholders and ensuring their active engagement is an the recycling standards in the contractual agreements.
integral part of transitioning to sustainable airport operation. The key Communication, continuing education, and awareness campaigns
stakeholders in an airport waste management paradigm are presented are instrumental in ensuring the cooperation and compliance of the
below. tenants, businesses, and other stakeholders. Instrumentation manuals
and signage in the local language, besides English, are also necessary to
• Airline passengers on the groundside and airside, parking, etc., and address different stakeholders [5]. Vancouver International Airport
accompanying parties in the waiting areas, external food courts, etc. surpassed its diversion target through regulatory policies and corporate
• Tenants including, but not restricted to restaurants, airline offices, engagement and accountability [117].
rentals cars, hotels, shopping, and retail stores, flight kitchens, golf Another stakeholder, who is mostly neglected is the airport security
courses, and recreational and industrial activities, etc. agency. The security restrictions often interfere with the sustainability
• Contractual operators like cleaners, waste haulers, construction practices at the airport and hence the strategies should account for the
worker, and contractors of tenants security regulations, especially with respect to the passengers, baggage,
• Airline office employees like catering crew, cabin crew, ground crew, personal materials, etc. in an airport [115].
etc. Post COVID-19, additional stakeholders have also played a role in the
• Maintenance and support team waste generation and management at airports. Airports, being gateways
• Regional/local governmental parties to cities have stringent screening protocols in place. Most airports have a
COVID-19 testing facility on-site, which in turn, is a source of biomed­
Passengers, who are one of the major stakeholders, belong to ical wastes. The staff operating the facility have a key role in properly
different regions, following different waste management philosophies, segregating and disposing these wastes. Additional security and
which can be challenging in implementing waste diversion practices at screening staff play another important role in handling the wastes
airports. Waste minimization is the primary strategy to be implemented, brought in by the passengers. Most passengers are required to carry
and yet the most challenging as it is directly proportional to the stake­ documentation to justify reasons for travel, details of pre-flight COVID-
holder behaviour [111], which in turn, depends on the cultural, 19 tests, vaccination etc. Proper instruction and orientation by the se­
educational, and socio-economic background [112,113], and the resul­ curity and screening personnel can reduce risk of improper disposal,
tant consumption patterns [114]. The language barrier becomes yet litter etc. Janitorial staff and other contractual cleaning staff have a very
another hindrance to effectively communicating the waste diversion and prominent role in carrying out regular disinfection of the common areas
disposal practices in place at the airport. In a recent survey of selected including trash cans. They also can effectively segregate the bio­
airports by the Transportation Research Board, passenger participation hazardous and normal non-contaminated waste streams to an extent,
was cited as one of the major challenges to sustainable waste manage­ which can reduce the amount of biohazardous wastes. Furthermore, the
ment at airports [115]. regulations from the local health department, environmental depart­
Retail and restaurant operations at the airport constitute around 41% ment, WHO, and national regulations decide the waste collection and
of the waste stream and can potentially determine the net waste diver­ management protocol to be followed. This could vary across jurisdic­
sion rates at the airport. Assuring the compliance of these activities was tions with infrastructural and human resource challenges, extent of the
also cited as a challenge in the survey, with pre-consumer compostable spread of COVID-19 and the variants, incoming passenger traffic, etc.
and recyclable streams being the most prominent. Employee rotations, Being constantly evolving, the regulations and stakeholders are bound to
space limitations, and passive participation in waste reduction activities change. Fig. 8 shows the key stakeholders in airport waste management
can be a few deterrent factors [115]. Although education and outreach based on the current scenario.
can help in increasing the compliance of tenants, the high employee
turnover necessitates frequent training programs, which may not always 6.2. Segregation inefficiency and contamination
be feasible.
Uniformity in the tenant contracts with regard to the recycling re­ Segregation of solid waste has a significant impact on the waste
quirements and adequate training to ensure effective source segregation management system in place [118]. While diversion through recycling
is another hurdle to be faced. Moreover, incorporating the recycling and composting may seem ideal, the degree of contamination during
clause into lease agreements eliminates financial incentives, which source segregation and transport can affect the recyclability or com­
makes the tenants reluctant participants. This stymies the active postability of the waste stream. The presence of undesired waste com­
engagement of the stakeholders in the recycling initiatives [26,115]. ponents in the stream to be diverted is generally termed contamination
Airline operations also form a complicated part of the waste diver­ in this context. Poor segregation and disposal practices of the waste
sion activities. Most airlines engage independent contractors for waste generators are major causes of contamination. Further, the heteroge­
collection and disposal and the airports lack the complete authority of neity of the segregated waste stream, due to the differences in the
these leased areas. Moreover, the time constraints of the airline opera­ physical and chemical composition, right from the production to the
tions and the aircraft employee rotations leave a lot of ambiguity in the disposal stages can affect the recyclability and the quality of the recycled
components which are recyclable at the destination airport. Combined products. This is particularly prominent in the case of recycled plastics,
with improper segregation and resultant contamination, the quantum of where the polymer characteristics, size or designs can affect the quality
waste being diverted could be significantly low. of the recycled products [119]. Most recycling facilities have threshold
The involvement of the airport employees, who frequent airport limits of contamination, and contamination, especially due to liquid
premises is also important to the waste management paradigm. How­ wastes can reduce the recycling value of the wastes. This is one of the
ever, poor housekeeping or the word of mouth regarding mismanage­ reasons why liquid disposal stations are installed prior to security
ment of wastes can affect the compliance of these players. Continual screening in many airports.
staff engagement reassurance should hence be ensured. Internal emails Segregation has gained a lot of relevance since the outbreak of the

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R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229

Fig. 8. Different stakeholders in airport waste management system post COVID-19.

pandemic. Despite having dedicated collection bins for used PPE kits transitioning to a circular economy and closing material loops [119]. It
and masks, improper disposal by the passengers has been reported at can also significantly reduce the overall waste management costs.
many airports. The consequent manual segregation is an exposure risk to However, if the recycled products do not enter the local market at an
the staff, although it can be minimized with adequate safety equipment. optimal rate, the probability of these recycled products being discarded
A transition to integrated automated-artificial intelligence (AI) system to landfills, at an elevated cost is high [124]. Recycling of materials like
for segregation can minimize the health risks while improving the effi­ metals is further burdened by the lack of advanced sustainable tech­
ciency and rate of recycling [121]. Improved quality of recycled prod­ nologies and the demand for virgin metals by manufacturers [125].
ucts and opportunities for reutilization can provide increased Despite numerous pathways for the reuse of glass [126], lack of tech­
employment opportunities as well [122]. Fig. 9 (a), (b) show typical nical understanding, poor investments, and the resultant uncertainty in
dedicated PPE and liquid waste disposal bins, and Fig. 9 (c) shows the the combined with challenges in the segregation of glass wastes have
waste segregation bins used at Leonardo da Vinci International Airport, affected the recycling of glass wastes as well. Circular economy in the
Rome. aviation industry is an evolving concept, with two key elements, viz.
airports and aircrafts. Air France-KLM Airlines group adopted the cir­
cular economy principle by the following actions:
6.3. Circular economy challenges
• Changes to catering services for efficient waste segregation
The circular economy principle allows the integration of various • Reduction of food packaging wastes
processes of material flow, aimed at maximizing the service life and • Digital manuals and on-flight pamphlets
minimizing loss of service with time [123]. Recycling is essential for

Fig. 9. (a) Typical PPE collection bin and (b) liquid disposal bins at airports [120] (c) Segregated collection bin at Leonardo da Vinci International Airport, Rome.

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R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229

• Reuse of flight seats and entertainment systems in alternative for recycled products or compost, etc. can improve diversion practices
domains considerably [115].
• Recycling of aircraft components like trays, trolleys, carts, blankets,
pillows, drawers, etc. 6.4. Regional policy influences

Within an airport, implementing circular economy could be chal­ The success of airport waste management enforcement is influenced
lenging. On the one hand, Schiphol Airport in collaboration with Philips by the regional policies as well. The accountability of airport waste
transitioned to an energy-efficient lighting system that allows 75% management initiatives is higher when there are jurisdictional targets to
longer service life, and a 50% reduction in energy consumption by the be met. Any local or regional goals and mandatory waste diversion re­
lighting system. Philips collects and recycles the lighting systems at the quirements which the airport authorities need to abide by improves the
end of the service period. The system reduces maintenance costs, allows performance of airport waste management systems. For instance, the
easy servicing and replacement, and minimized raw material con­ German Waste Management and Product Recycling Act 2012, which
sumption. At the same time, airports like Gatwick face market chal­ requires all the products procured by the airport to abide by specific
lenges in employing the circular economy principle. The recovered environmental and economic criteria, governs the Munich airport,
resources from Gatwick are subsequently used within the airport which in turn, has one of the highest recycling rates of 79%. The Clean
wherever possible [127]. The waste management system at Gatwick was India Mission in India is responsible for gradually eliminating single-use
hence, redesigned to allow efficient waste collection, segregation, and plastics in nearly 34 airports under the Airport Authority of India (AAI)
on-site utilisation. The resultant reduction in the consumption of energy, [135]. A similar trend was observed in the US, where the FAA set waste
and water, and offsite processing and disposal costs, combined with the management goals for commercial airports, to facilitate reduction and
financial benefits of increased recycling have led to a net reduction of 1 recycling. Single-use plastic ban in the EU has had a significant impact
million USD in the annual operation costs [127]. Organic waste man­ on the airports in Europe too [73]. Beijing Capital International Airport,
agement through composting is also challenging as the compost may not which is the only airport operator partner with United Nations Envi­
have a local market in many jurisdictions. Moreover, contamination can ronment, has achieved considerable energy and resource efficiency and
considerably reduce the compost quality and can contain a higher targets a diversion rate of 35% during 2016–2020 [136]. The ‘Refill’
fraction of heavy metals. In the absence of a sustainable market, one of scheme at the national level helped collect more than 140 million tonnes
the best ways to use composts is for site remediation and restoration. of bottled drinks at Manchester Airport Group sites, comprising Stans­
Even in the absence of significant market value, alternative applications, ted, East Midland, Manchester, and Bournemouth airports, serving over
especially in an industrial environment can be explored [128]. 42 million passengers annually. Table 8 lists some of the airport initia­
Like any other business, airports are also driven by cost-effective tives inspired by regional actions.
sustainability practices and without financial and market drivers, recy­ Irrespective of the challenges, monitoring, and services under a
cling and recovery practices may seem futile. Segregation practices, centralized agency have been reported to be more effective when it
employee costs, and the local landfill tipping fees primarily determine comes to airport waste management. Lack of centralized governance had
the waste management costs at an airport. Fig. 10 below demonstrates affected the waste diversion and auditing efforts at Boston Logan In­
the variation in the tipping fees at different developed and developing ternational Airport [139].
countries/cities. Around 103 USD/tonne was spent as landfill disposal
charges by airports on average. The recycling rate per passenger 6.5. Impacts of COVID19
amounted to around 0.02 USD [129–134]. It should however be noted
that merely increasing the tipping fees may not necessarily encourage COVID-19 pandemic has had grave public health impacts over the
waste diversion from landfills. Opportunities and incentives to alter­ past few months. However, the true environmental impact of the
nately manage the waste streams economically decide the efficiency of pandemic is yet to emerge on the face of the earth. The unprecedented
diversion. Rebates on recycling or composting costs, market incentives outbreak of the pandemic led to the disruption of waste management

Fig. 10. Landfill tipping fees in different jurisdictions.

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R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229

Table 8 Table 9
Airports with waste management initiatives influenced by regional policies. Persistence of coronavirus on different component surfaces at 20–30 ◦ C.
Airport Reginal policy influence Reference Material Surface retention period Reference

Delhi International Elimination of single-use plastics within the [89] Cardboard 24 h [144]
airport airport in accordance with Plastic Waste Glassware 4h [145]
Management Rules, 2016 and Clean India Disposable gowns/PPE kits 24 h [146]
Mission Latex gloves <8 h [147]
Munich Airport German Waste Management and Product [83] Copper 4h [147]
Recycling Act (2012) made it mandatory for Aluminium 2–8 h [147]
products purchased by Munich Airport to satisfy Steel 2–3 days [144]
environmental and economic criteria. Plastics 3 days [145–147]
SFO Airport Ban on sale of packaged water ban in city [137, Silicon rubber 5 days [148]
property in 2017 led to a subsequent ban on the 138] Paper 4–5 days [145]
sale of single-use plastic water bottles within Wood 4 days [145]
SFO airport, the first in the US. Ceramic 5 days [148]
San Diego airport Aims to meet or exceed local and regional waste [57]
diversion targets and timelines. Targets 90%
diversion by 2025, imminent challenge is the process of autoclaving. A few private com­
panies reportedly provide autoclaving services and equipment to ster­
ilize waste streams. It is said that the autoclaved wastes can be treated as
chains in many developed and developing economies. During the peak,
normal wastes, irrespective of its contact with the virus [151]. For
China used to generate around 247 tonnes of medical wastes daily, while
smaller waste quantities, chemical disinfection may be adopted for
the long lockdowns had increased the domestic waste generation
sterilization prior to the final disposal. Wastes, mostly after size reduc­
significantly. The amount of food waste alone has been reported to have
tion, can be mixed with chlorine-based disinfectants and retained for an
increased by 12% during lockdown [140]. With the traditional waste
adequate period. Microwave disinfection, i.e. exposing wastes to specific
diversion systems crumbling under the pressure of mounting wastes and
wavelengths of electromagnetic wastes has been reported to deactivate
infection risk, landfilling and incineration have re-emerged as inalien­
pathogens and hence sterilize biohazardous waste streams. The tech­
able elements of waste management, replacing sustainable alternatives
nology was promoted in China as a supplement to incineration [152].
[141].
Radiowave disinfection may also be used, similar to the microwave
One of the acute effects of the pandemic from a waste management
technique. Inactivation of the biohazardous wastes using microwave
perspective is the increase in the production of plastic wastes. Dispos­
and Radiowave systems have been proved to be more cost-effective than
able masks which are made mandatory during air travel and even in
autoclaving or incineration by previous studies [153].
many cities have been reported to be an emerging source of micro­
In any case, as an immediate action, plastic wastes, which form the
plastics in the environment [142]. While eco-friendly alternatives like
bulk of the waste being generated currently should be directed to
reusable masks are gradually being employed to some extent, the pres­
incineration with energy recovery, than landfilling, when recycling
ence of disposal PPE continues to be a significant aftermath of the
proves to be not feasible. Many airports have third-party contractors
pandemic. This has overwhelmed the waste management systems at
who are responsible for the collection and incineration of biohazardous
airports as well, where returning travellers are mandated to have PPE.
wastes including discarded PPE kits. Moreover, the cost of recycled
Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Hyderabad, and Bengaluru, six of the
plastic is not competitive with the cost of virgin plastics as per current
busiest airports in India generate 6 tonnes of biowaste daily and another
data. While use of PPE is imperative in the post-COVID-19 world; the
0.5 tonnes of plastic wrapping for these wastes. Most of these airports
manifestation of the impacts of the generated plastic waste is yet to
used to have zero to negligible biohazardous waste generation before the
surface.
pandemic. Airlines in India alone reportedly generate around 80,000
For cities with no access to thermal treatment or other facilities that
PPE kits daily [143].
can handle potentially contaminated wastes, deep burial could be relied
Yet another effect of COVID-19 on waste management at the airport
on, until alternative options have been developed [154].
is the potential risk of contamination from recyclable materials. Since
Fig. 11 shows the probable shift in waste management hierarchy
most of the studies on the surface retention of coronavirus are ongoing
post-COVID-19, from a public health perspective.
and evolving, containment of wastes to prevent the spread of infection is
In order to prevent bio-contamination, airports, like other in­
preferred to diversion, out of an abundance of caution. The subsequent
stitutions, currently also employ rigorous disinfection protocols.
increase in landfilling and incineration of wastes due to COVID-19 has
Collection bins are disinfected using 250–500 mg/L chlorine-based or
affected the environmental and economic sustainability of the opera­
other chemical disinfectants after waste collection. Any biohazardous
tion. Table 9 lists the surface retention periods of the virus on various
wastes are normally disposed of according to the local biomedical waste
components present in the waste stream, as per current studies.
management protocol. In-flight used disposable PPE kits are recom­
The sudden challenges posed by the pandemic have necessitated a
mended to be soaked in chlorine-based disinfectant of 500–1000 mg/L
reassessment of the existing waste management systems. While capacity
concentration, cleaned, and bagged prior to disposal [155].
constraints will be resolved post-COVID-19, the existing systems may
Fig. 12 summarises the major impacts of COVID-19 on airport waste
need to be reoriented adequately to allow flexibility and capacity-
management.
building. A combination of centralized and decentralized systems for
collection, storage, treatment, and disposal are essential for this.
7. Conclusions
Availability of mobile incinerators and sterilization facilities (autoclave,
chemical disinfection, Radiowave and microwave treatments, heating,
Waste management at airports is a complex multi-stakeholder task,
etc.) can further facilitate sustainable operation. Automated or smart
with a multitude of waste streams, operations, and inherent challenges.
infrastructure for waste management can further improve the efficiency
Not only is the efficacy of the process affected by the integrated waste
of segregation and treatment, with minimal exposure [149].
management system in place, but also by the regional waste manage­
While WHO recommends high-temperature thermal treatment
ment rules and regulations. Although sustainable airport management is
techniques like incineration as the preferred treatment and disposal
a multifaceted task, very few studies have been conducted to assess the
technique for biohazardous wastes [150], most systems are not designed
various aspects of sustainable waste management at airports right from
to handle such high waste quantities. One of the solutions to this
generation to end-of-life disposal. In light of the COVID-19 pandemic

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R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229

Fig. 11. Waste management hierarchy post-COVID-19.

Fig. 12. Flowchart showing impacts of COVID-19 on waste management at airports.

which affected the aviation industry drastically, while also generating • The study observed that there exists limited literature on waste
unprecedented waste streams and quantities, it has become quintes­ management at airports, despite airports being significant generators
sential to look at the sustainability of waste management at airports. of wastes, some as high as a small city. The study takes into account
This article considers existing academic works, as well as published zero numerous small, medium, and large airports and explores their waste
waste plans, sustainability plans, and master plans developed by airport generation, minimization, diversion, and disposal. It may be
authorities and directives by local governments, IATA, and WHO. This observed that while many large airports successfully transitioned to
paper categorises these studies as those dealing with the management of zero waste airports despite an increase in passenger volume, there
airport wastes, airline wastes, and challenges due to COVID-19. This is are airports still disposing of 75% of their wastes in landfills.
then reviewed to compile information on waste generation, diversion, • The article gives a first-of-its-kind detailed data compilation on
treatment, and disposal in pre-COVID-19 and the post-COVID-19 world, passenger statistics and waste generation at various airports, and
on both the airside and groundside of the airport. The major findings of diversion strategies adopted by airport authorities and airlines. The
the study are presented below. study also compiles information on the composition of the waste
generated at different airports. It was observed that general mixed
wastes, paper wastes and organic wastes formed a significant

16
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229

fraction of the wastes generated at airports considered in the study. the work reported in this paper.
The data may be used by decision-makers, airport authorities, and
sustainability specialists to understand the waste profile and develop Appendix A. Supplementary data
sustainable waste management strategies at airports.
• Details of diversion programs, predominantly, incentive-driven Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
programs, education campaigns, green concessions programs, etc. org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111229.
that have been successfully implemented by different authorities to
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