Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: One of the major environmental challenges faced by the aviation industry is the sustainable management of solid
Waste management waste at airports. Rising passenger volumes and expansion of airport activities have considerably increased the
Airport wastes types and quantities of waste generated at airports. With many regional and national governments emphasizing
Municipal solid waste (MSW)
on waste diversion from landfills, numerous airports are gradually transitioning to sustainable alternatives.
COVID-19
Sustainability
Despite being a pressing issue, there is limited literature on waste management initiatives and their efficiency at
Landfill airports. This has become more vital since the outbreak of coronavirus disease (COVID-19), which has had a
Airport significant impact on the generation and management of wastes, especially at airports. This article conducts a
Aviation systematic review of the various aspects of airport waste management, viz. the types and sources of wastes
Waste to energy generated, the management practices adopted for the different waste streams, and the associated challenges. The
Circular economy waste generation trends and management models at different airports have been explored to develop a knowl
edge base for decision-makers and policy analysts. The article also identifies potential challenges lying ahead for
the aviation industry with respect to waste management post-COVID-19.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: roshnimary@ualberta.ca, roshnimary@gmail.com (R.M. Sebastian).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111229
Received 23 September 2020; Received in revised form 10 April 2021; Accepted 16 May 2021
Available online 26 May 2021
1364-0321/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
93% of the world population lives in areas with restrictions on travel account of the methodology used, the initial section gives an idea of the
currently [10]. Consequently, a reduction of 2.7 billion passengers was types of waste generated in an airport. This is followed by a detailed
recorded for the year, as of January 2021, subsequently causing a account of the sources and composition of the waste streams and the
decline in revenues by 97 billion United States Dollars (USD) [11,12]. current waste generation trends at different airports. The existing
Fig. 1 shows the decrease in passenger volume in different countries due management strategies and practices are discussed in the subsequent
to COVID-19. Although the domestic flight sector and cargo flights are section. The challenges to the sustainable management of municipal
still operated to an extent, airport operations have undergone major solid waste (MSW) at airports and other changes in light of the COVID-
changes since the pandemic. This has subsequently affected the waste 19 outbreak are also discussed in detail, with examples from various
generation and management at airports, like other sectors. One of the airports across the world.
biggest challenges hence faced by airports is to manage the rising vol
ume of hazardous waste streams without posing a threat to public health 2. Methodology
and environmental safety [13].
The objective of this study is to assess the existing management The methodology adopted to conduct this review is demonstrated in
strategies being employed at different airports across the world and Fig. 2. In the first stage, the relevant keywords that could effectively
build a knowledge base on the waste quantity, characteristics, and extract relevant published scientific works from databases were estab
treatment and disposal practices. The specific objectives include. lished. Published papers from Science Direct, Google Scholar, up to early
2021 were extracted. Academic works including but not limited to
a. To understand the classification, quantities, and composition of research articles, conference publications, book chapters, reviews, etc.
waste generated at major airports across the world were considered in the study. Apart from this, annual reports, zero waste
b. To assess the sustainable waste diversion and management initiatives plans, sustainability plans, government reports, etc. were also reviewed.
undertaken by different airports and aircraft companies and their Furthermore, websites of airports, airlines, guidance documents from
inherent challenges the World Health Organisation (WHO), International Air Transport As
c. To compile the challenges for aviation waste management pre and sociation (IATA) were also reviewed. Published work on challenges,
post COVID-19 opportunities, and other aspects of waste management in cities and in
stitutions in the time of COVID-19 were also extracted. After initial
Existing literature, reports, and online databases have been reviewed screening, those articles which do not discuss specific waste manage
in detail to propose alternate waste treatment strategies to reduce the ment actions for sustainability or greening airports were excluded. Ar
environmental footprint. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, a review ticles without full-texts, duplicate articles, or articles with generic
of waste management operations at airports is a relatively new attempt discussion on waste management techniques without addressing the
and holds much relevance, in light of the recent challenges posed by applicability to airports or aircrafts are also eliminated from further
COVID-19. With the evident lack of sufficient literature on sustainable analysis. The selected articles were then categorized primarily into
solid waste management at airports [15], this study tries to effectively three, namely, those dealing with airport waste management, those
bridge the knowledge gap in the literature, to be beneficial for dealing with cabin waste management, and a third category specifically
decision-makers and policy analysts. dealing with waste management in the time of COVID-19. To the best of
The article is organised into 5 different sections. Following a brief our knowledge, there is limited literature on the effect of the pandemic
2
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
on waste management and airport operations. Existing literature on the 3. Waste streams at airports
influence of the pandemic on municipal waste management and insti
tutional waste management was reviewed for drawing additional in The airport operations result in the generation of several waste
formation. Following a detailed analysis, relevant data on waste streams, arising from both the groundside (areas before security
generation, passenger statistics, diversion, and disposal practices were screening) and the airside (areas after security screening), as shown in
summarized. The challenges associated with waste management in air Fig. 3.
ports were subsequently identified and directions for further research The wastes generated from airport operations may be MSW, con
were stated in the conclusion. struction, and demolition (C & D) wastes, hazardous wastes, wastes
emanating from industrial operations, and lavatory wastes. Fig. 4 il
lustrates the types of wastes and their origin in an airport. The subse
quent sections give a brief account of the different types of waste
3
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
generated. the presence of chemicals and pathogens. The lavatory tanks of the
aircrafts are pumped out into designated vehicles along with the disin
3.1. MSW fectants used for cleaning. This needs to be subjected to pretreatment
before transferring to the sanitary sewage system to avoid
Typically, in airports, MSW arises from the terminal areas, tenants contamination.
occupying the airport areas, airlines, and cargo operations. Waste
generated from the public areas, office areas, etc. constitutes the ter
minal wastes. Airports also have numerous tenants operating out of the 3.5. Airline wastes
airports as well as its immediate surroundings. Restaurants, retail stores,
hotels, golf courses, etc. are common businesses in the vicinity of an The waste generated in the cabins of domestic and international
airport. The wastes from the airline offices and workspaces also generate flights amounts to nearly 5.4 million tonnes annually [17]. Keeping the
MSW. IATA has reported that about 7.5% of the world’s GDP is trans effects of the pandemic aside, 8.2 billion passengers were expected to fly
ported through air carriers [16], which has led to a substantial increase by 2037 [18]. The two main types of cabin wastes, based on origin are as
in the cargo waste generated. follows:
4
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
flights operate may exercise different regulations and policies, the waste Table 1
generated is treated as a potential source of contaminants, diseases, or Waste generation rates in different airports in tonnes per day (TPD).
pest infestations. Although the characteristics of international wastes Airport Waste Reference Passengers
are similar to MSW, it is treated as ‘quarantined’ especially in countries generation/data statistics
like Canada, United States (US), European Union (EU) member coun year
tries, Australia, etc., and are either incinerated on-site or encapsulated Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta 82.2 TPD/2019 [24] 110 million/y
and disposed of to prevent environmental exposure. International Airport
Beijing Airport 76.2 TPD/2016 [25] 94.4 million/y
Los Angeles International 52 TPD/2004 [26] 88.1 million/y
3.6. Hospital wastes Airport
O’Hare International Airport 31.5 TPD/2002 [27] 84.6 million/y
Hospital wastes are conventionally not accounted for, in the airport Heathrow Airport 78.4 TPD/2007 [28] 80.1 million/y
waste stream, due to significantly lower quantities. Typically, the hos Shanghai Pudong Airport 60 TPD/2018 [29] 74 million/y
Leonardo da Vinci 36.2 TPD/2018 [30] 73 million/y
pital waste at an airport originates from hospitals, dispensaries, and first
International Airport
aid units located within the airport facility. Large airports like O’Hare Indira Gandhi International 15 TPD/2018 [31] 67.3 million/y
international airport or the John F Kennedy international airport have Airport
been reported to operate busy medical clinics for medical evaluations Suvarnabhumi Airport 55.9 TPD/2018 [31] 65 million/y
and vaccinations of passengers [19]. However, with the recent Singapore Changi Airport 43.1 TPD/2018 [32] 64 million/y
San Francisco International 33.4 TPD/2016 [33] 57 million/y
COVID-19 outbreak, medical wastes have become one of the most sig Airport
nificant waste streams to be generated at an airport. Personal protective Denver International Airport 302 TPD/2011 [34] 52.8 million/y
equipment (PPE) kits, gloves, shields, etc. are some of the major com Seattle Tacoma International 13.7 TPD/2004 [26] 51.8 million/y
ponents generated consequently. Airport
Sydney International Airport 17.4 TPD/2019 [35] 44.4 million/y
Munich Airport 46.6 TPD/2018 [36] 46 million/y
4. Current data on waste quantities, sources, and composition at Gatwick Airport 57.3 TPD/2007 [28,37] 40.8 million/y
airports 73.1 TPD/2013
Fort Lauderdale International 9.1 TPD/2004 [26] 36 million/y
Waste quantity and characteristics are fundamental to developing an Airport
Sydney International Airport 14.6 TPD/2015 [38] 33.6 million/y
integrated waste management plan for any jurisdiction [20]. The sub 17.8 TPD/2018
sequent sections give a detailed account of the waste quantities, their Stansted Airport 14.75 TPD/2009 [28] 27 million/y
sources and composition observed at different airports. 17.15 TPD/2007
Vancouver International 13.1 TPD/2019 [39] 26.4 million/y
Airport
4.1. Waste generation rates
Hamad International Airport 11.8 TPD/2016 [40] 26 million/y
Adelaide International 1.97 TPD/2012 [41] 21 million/y
As discussed in preceding sections, airports are hubs with multiple Airport
stakeholders generating significant amounts of waste daily, from airside Daniel K Inouye International 17.95 TPD/2007 [42] 21 million/y
and groundside. The quantity of wastes generated at an airport may be Airport
Toronto Pearson International 8.3 TPD/2020 [43,44] 20 million/y
said to be proportional to the passenger traffic at the airport [21] as well Airport
as the commercial and construction activities. Airports in the US were Auckland International 11.2 TPD/2020 [45] 20 million/y
found to have a generation rate of 0.58 kg/departed passenger in 2004. Airport
Table 1 lists the passenger traffic and the waste generation at different Edinburgh Airport 5.24 TPD/2007 [28] 14.7 million/y
Oakland International Airport 1.25 TPD/2007 [44] 14.5 million/y
small, medium, and large airports across the world. In the purview of
Glasgow Airport 7.4 TPD/2007 [28] 8.8 million/y
this paper, airports are classified on the basis of passenger volumes [22] Naples International Airport 3.3 TPD/2017 [46] 8.6 million/y
as small airports with a passenger volume of less than 20 million/y, Vilnius Airport 11.1 TPD/2012 [47] 5.5 million/y
medium airports with 20–60 million/y, and large with more than 60 Indianapolis International 6.3 TPD/2019 [48,49] 4 million/y
million/y. It can be observed that large airports with high passenger Airport
Milwaukee International 2.4 TPD/2015 [49] 3.2 million/y
volumes have higher waste generation rates. Airport
Waste generation trends in aircrafts were found to have a different Cincinnati/Northern 21.1 TPD/2017 [49] 3.1 million/y
trend. For instance, a recent waste composition study undertaken by Kentucky International
IATA and WSP Global Inc. indicated a wide variation in the waste Airport
Aberdeen Airport 1.4 TPD/2007 [28] 2.9 million/y
generation rates for short (<6 h) and long haul (>6 h) flights. While the
Portland International Airport 7.7 TPD/2004 [26] 2.2 million/y
former was estimated at 0.52 kg/passenger, the latter was around Southampton Airport 1.2 TPD/2007 [28] 1.7 million/y
0.63–1.81 kg/passenger [23]. Stewart International Airport 0.13 TPD/2012 [50] 0.36 million/y
Erie International Airport 0.22 TPD/2016 [51] 0.1 million/y
4.2. Sources and composition
airlines, check-in counters, packaging counters, restaurants, cafés, retail
The selection of the treatment and disposal technology and the
outlets, etc. Airside of the terminals, post-security check includes duty-
design of the waste management scheme is highly dependent on the
free shops, break rooms for the airline and airport staff, eateries and
composition and characteristics of the incoming waste feed, which in
restrooms. Besides, landscaping activities result in the generation of
turn, is influenced by the source of generation [52]. Any waste man
green wastes as well as inert wastes. The waste generated on both the
agement program should consider the wide variety of activities and
airside and groundside of the terminals includes food wastes, paper,
processes that take place within the airport, to assess the rate at which
plastics, metallic cans, glass bottles, oil and grease from restaurants,
the waste is generated. The following section gives an insight into the
household hazardous wastes like batteries, electronic wastes (E-wastes),
various sources of generation and the composition of the waste streams
green wastes, and inert wastes like soil, dirt, stones, etc. from land
emanating from them.
scaping, and general trash. Airports in the US generated nearly 425,000
tonnes of waste in 2004, of which around 75% was found to be recov
4.2.1. Terminals: groundside and airside
erable by recycling or composting [26].
The groundside of the terminal is host to the ticketing offices of
5
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
6
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
different airline companies, arriving at Lamaca’s International Airport, disposal. The conventionally followed waste management hierarchy for
Cyprus using airline data to determine the factors affecting the waste sustainable practices is as illustrated in supplementary data. The sub
generation and understanding the challenges in managing the wastes sequent section discusses at length how the different elements of the
sustainably [58]. Kablitiz and Kavouras [59] reported the percentage of hierarchy are implemented at airports currently.
residual MSW (88%), inerts (3%), recyclables (8%), and hazardous
wastes (1%) in the waste generated at Athens International Airport in 5.1. Reduction, reuse, recycling
2003. Auckland Airport reported a fairly detailed waste profile for the
airport precinct, of which nearly 44% was reported to be hazardous or Reduction, reuse, and recycling are the most superior strategies in a
biosecurity wastes [45]. Fig. 5 illustrates the variation in waste sustainable waste management paradigm. To render better waste and
composition at some airports. While the heterogeneity of the wastes and resource management, and attain sustainability standards, employing 3-
the inconsistent classification make it difficult to draw sound conclu R is essential. Enhancement of 3-R can be rightly said to be at the core of
sions, general wastes/refuse inadvertently form a significant fraction of airport planning (FAA, 2019). The US Environmental Protection Agency
the waste stream. (EPA) recognizes that waste reduction at source is the most crucial ac
Another interesting study in this regard was conducted by Blanca- tivity as far as the transition to zero waste economy is considered. Waste
Alcubilla et al. [17] where a detailed composition and characteriza reduction strategies help in minimizing the quantum of waste to be
tion of wastes generated in aircrafts were studied through an analysis of handled by waste management systems. However, since there are
145 airplanes. Organics, paper and cardboard, and packaging wastes numerous contractual operations within an airport, effectively
were found to be the most prominent in the cabin waste streams. employing waste reduction measures will require the involvement of
Furthermore, the quantity of waste generated was found to be nearly multiple stakeholders. Outreach and engagement can be rightly said to
proportional to the flight duration. While many authors state the be integral to effective waste minimization [61].
importance of waste characterization studies for airport wastes to assess Some of the measures commonly adopted by airports to minimize
the performance of the waste management system in place, and identify wastes include a liquid collection and disposal system on the groundside
the scope for improvements, implementing such studies has numerous to dispose of the liquids before the security screening and in turn, reduce
challenges [17,58]. The differences in the policies of different airports, the energy consumption in waste management processes. This practice
airlines, and variability in the passenger disposal practices, subsequently is evident at San Francisco International Airport (SFO), Oakland Inter
causing high heterogeneity and difficult process control are some of the national Airport, etc. [5]. Portland International Airport was reported to
major challenges in the airport waste management initiatives, which is have saved 30,000 USD in labour costs through beverage collection
still in a nascent stage. stations (Portland State University, 2019). Similarly, the San Diego
County Regional Airport Authority targets a reduction of 5% in the per
5. Waste management: an integrated approach capita generation by 2025, from the rate of 0.26 kg/cap in 2018 [62].
Waste minimization at Christchurch Airport, NZ, on the other hand, was
Airport waste management policies in accordance with the ‘Polluter mostly through reduction of surplus stock procurement and on-site
Pays’ principle should essentially target [60]. storage [63].
Another successful practice for airport waste reduction include the
i. Use of renewable and sustainable alternative resources to mini implementation of food donation drives, to donate consumable food
mize the environmental footprint from various businesses in the airport vicinity to local shelters. Some of
ii. Source segregation the food wastes like cooking oils are also recycled by some airports.
iii. Waste reduction, reuse, and recycling Seattle-Tacoma International Airport is one such example where unused
food is donated to local food banks to reduce wastage. It has also been
Airports being generators of a significant amount of waste, should reported to divert reclaimed cooking oils for biodiesel production [21].
have an integrated waste management system of its own in place [60], San Diego International Airport through US Food Loss and Waste 2030
right from waste reduction, reuse, recycling (3- R), to treatment and Champions [57], Austin-Bergstrom International through Food Rescue
7
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
Program [64], Denver International Airport through Metro Caring [65] Table 3
are examples of other airports which donate food to minimize wastes. Waste management initiatives by airlines.
Cargo operations at the airport are a major point of generation of Airline Waste management initiative Reference
recyclable materials like wooden pallets, plastic, cardboard, paper, etc.
Delta Airlines Expected to reduce more than 150 tonnes per year [72,73]
If the cargo handling and shipping companies can reuse the wooden (TPY) of plastic waste. Ban on straws, plastic cover on
pallets or minimize the paper and cardboard packaging, it can signifi utensils, and amenity kits. Compostable stir sticks
cantly reduce the associated wastes being generated. San Diego Inter introduced.
national Airport has introduced terms into contract agreements with the Ryanair Biodegradable cups, wooden cutlery, paper [72]
packaging to be introduced by 2023. Five-year plan
stakeholders to achieve sustainability and zero waste targets [62]. to be the world’s greenest airline.
London Stansted airport also encourages its delivery partners to reduce Cebu Pacific Replacement of non-recyclable cutlery, stirrers, cups [72]
the packing like metal cages and pallets and returns abandoned packing with sustainable alternatives
material to owners or interested third parties [28]. Old staff uniforms are Qantas Group Aims to be the world’s first airline to employ material [72]
recovery of at least ¾ of the general waste by 2021.
also donated to charity for making quilts.
Operated the world’s first zero waste to landfill flight
Some of the other potential actions which can reduce the wastes at and replaced more than 1000 single-use plastic items
the airport include: with biodegradable alternatives.
British Recycling target of 50% at Heathrow and Gatwick [74]
• Contractual agreements to use refillable containers for cleaners and Airways airport units.
Air New Cabin waste recycling in association Auckland [74,75]
other fluids Zealand Airport and New Zealand government; introduction
• Use of compostable and durable serving ware for foodservice of edible coffee cups to reduce wastes.
operations Qatar Airways Food donation in association with Qatar charity RAF. [40]
• Agreement to reduce the packaging in cargo transport services Donation of refurbished IT equipment for use by local
communities.
• Passengers encouraged to carry fewer liquids, gels, aerosols, etc. as
Cathay Pacific Use of recyclable plastic cutlery in economy class. [76]
carry-on items. Increasing the use of recycled plastic instead of virgin
plastic. Blankets, carpets, etc. in economy class made
Employing Green Concessions Program and other incentive-driven of recycled materials. Aims to eliminate 50% single-
programs will encourage the airport tenants and surrounding busi use plastics by 2022, despite COVID-19 challenges.
Air France Replacing plastic with biomaterials and 31% [77]
nesses to reduce the use of non-biodegradable packaging and switch to
KLM reduction in non-recycled wastes from 2011.
sustainable compostable alternatives. A typical Green Concessions Pro Virgin Essential items on request instead of amenity kits, [78]
gram encourages airport concessionaires to adopt sustainable practices Atlantic removal of plastic raps for headphones, plastic
for business and the environment. Use of recyclable food packaging, and stirrers and straws, and 100% diversion of cabin
wastes from landfill. 96% reduction in landfilling of
serve ware, elimination of single-use plastics by choosing alternative
ground wastes during 2008–2018. Catering waste
materials, source-segregation of recyclables, compostables, and dispos that cannot be recycled is incinerated for energy at
ables, elimination of Styrofoam use in daily operations, use of biode Gatwick airport incinerator.
gradable trash bags, etc. are some of the green initiatives specific to Alaska Air Ban on straws, plastic stirrers to be replaced with [73]
waste management. Airport concessionaires who adopt such sustainable white birch and bamboo stirrers,
American Lounges to have alternatives for plastic flatware and [73]
practices get certified as ‘Green Concessions’, and receive exclusive
Airlines stirrers
marketing support from the airport authorities [66,67]. Some airport
authorities also rely on incentive-driven programs to encourage
compliance by the airport businesses. Vancouver Airport Authorities companies to deal with waste generated during airline operations
were exploring such programs for eliminating plastic bags and encour including passenger flights, cargo processing, etc.
aging the use of compostable tableware in the food courts [68]. While recycling is relatively more prevalent in large airports, it is
Incentive-driven programs have also been employed by some airports to more or less dependent on the local legislation, management players and
reduce waste generation and disposal. Vienna Airport has ‘green airline’ contracts in place, logistical constraints, and economic limitations [79].
award and financial benefits to promote sustainable waste management For instance, Flughafen München GmbH (FMG) helms the infrastructure
practices among airlines [69]. Los Angeles International Airport pro management at Munich Airport. A four-bin system is employed to collect
vides incentives to businesses for participating in voluntary recycling paper, mixed recyclables, organics, and residual waste separately at the
programs [5]. Staff and business recognition awards for diversion source. The system which has been in place since 1992 has been sub
practices have also been employed by different airports as a jected to amendments with changes in legislation. Mixed waste papers
non-financial incentive [57]. This is further augmented if the local/re and cardboards as well as foils, mixed glass, wood, metals, etc. are
gional authorities have an active ban on single-use plastics [70]. Pas recycled, whereas food wastes are sent to the biogas plant for energy
senger engagement and education through recycling advertising recovery [80].
programs can help passengers and other occupants become aware and Victoria Airport Authority also employs recycling and on-site com
responsible for the waste they generate [70]. posting of organics including coffee grounds. The composting facility
Waste compaction is another method in use to reduce the volume of has generated 27 tonnes of soil, which has been used as fill material.
wastes being handled and is often used while transporting wastes from 21% diversion was achieved through these activities by the Victoria
airports to treatment and disposal facilities. San Diego International Airport Authority (VAA) [81].
Airport employs 25 and 35-yard cube compactors for recyclables, or Table 4 shows the major waste diversion initiatives taken up by some
ganics, and cardboard to store the wastes at Central Recycling and Waste of the airport authorities. These include specific initiatives and targets
Disposal Facility [57]. However, it does not reduce the actual quantum set by airport authorities to deal with wastes generated by airport
of waste generated and merely helps in volume reduction to simplify businesses and tenants and airport operations. This may be influenced
storage and transportation. by local municipal regulations and sustainability targets.
Over 80% of the waste generated in aircraft cabins has been reported There should be continuous auditing in place to determine the effi
to be recyclable [71]. Articles made of plastic, paper, metal, glass, and ciency of the existing strategies in diverting wastes.
rubber are a significant presence in the waste collected at airports. The pandemic has however had an adverse effect on the 3-R strate
Table 3 lists the waste diversion initiatives undertaken by major gies at airports. Since reuse and recycling were deemed unfavourable
airline companies. These are primarily initiatives taken by airline due to potential risk for COVID-19 exposure, waste generation rates
8
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
9
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
10
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
Fig. 7. Variation in the degree of landfilling of wastes at (A) London Stansted Airport (B) SFO Airport.
11
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
6.1. Stakeholder engagement with monthly updates on the waste management statistics and in
vitations for critical inputs could be a positive engagement technique
Despite various techniques and strategies in place, waste manage [116]. The janitorial staff and the cleaning contractors involved in the
ment targets can be achieved only when the various stakeholders have collection of waste from the designated areas bear responsibility in
active involvement and awareness of their roles and responsibilities preventing further contamination and ensuring diversion. The employee
(DEFRA, 2008). Airports, being a business hub, host numerous stake turnover and the resultant loss of knowledge and need for additional
holders, involved in different activities and operations. Identification of training can be an inhibitory element, besides the stringent clauses on
the various stakeholders and ensuring their active engagement is an the recycling standards in the contractual agreements.
integral part of transitioning to sustainable airport operation. The key Communication, continuing education, and awareness campaigns
stakeholders in an airport waste management paradigm are presented are instrumental in ensuring the cooperation and compliance of the
below. tenants, businesses, and other stakeholders. Instrumentation manuals
and signage in the local language, besides English, are also necessary to
• Airline passengers on the groundside and airside, parking, etc., and address different stakeholders [5]. Vancouver International Airport
accompanying parties in the waiting areas, external food courts, etc. surpassed its diversion target through regulatory policies and corporate
• Tenants including, but not restricted to restaurants, airline offices, engagement and accountability [117].
rentals cars, hotels, shopping, and retail stores, flight kitchens, golf Another stakeholder, who is mostly neglected is the airport security
courses, and recreational and industrial activities, etc. agency. The security restrictions often interfere with the sustainability
• Contractual operators like cleaners, waste haulers, construction practices at the airport and hence the strategies should account for the
worker, and contractors of tenants security regulations, especially with respect to the passengers, baggage,
• Airline office employees like catering crew, cabin crew, ground crew, personal materials, etc. in an airport [115].
etc. Post COVID-19, additional stakeholders have also played a role in the
• Maintenance and support team waste generation and management at airports. Airports, being gateways
• Regional/local governmental parties to cities have stringent screening protocols in place. Most airports have a
COVID-19 testing facility on-site, which in turn, is a source of biomed
Passengers, who are one of the major stakeholders, belong to ical wastes. The staff operating the facility have a key role in properly
different regions, following different waste management philosophies, segregating and disposing these wastes. Additional security and
which can be challenging in implementing waste diversion practices at screening staff play another important role in handling the wastes
airports. Waste minimization is the primary strategy to be implemented, brought in by the passengers. Most passengers are required to carry
and yet the most challenging as it is directly proportional to the stake documentation to justify reasons for travel, details of pre-flight COVID-
holder behaviour [111], which in turn, depends on the cultural, 19 tests, vaccination etc. Proper instruction and orientation by the se
educational, and socio-economic background [112,113], and the resul curity and screening personnel can reduce risk of improper disposal,
tant consumption patterns [114]. The language barrier becomes yet litter etc. Janitorial staff and other contractual cleaning staff have a very
another hindrance to effectively communicating the waste diversion and prominent role in carrying out regular disinfection of the common areas
disposal practices in place at the airport. In a recent survey of selected including trash cans. They also can effectively segregate the bio
airports by the Transportation Research Board, passenger participation hazardous and normal non-contaminated waste streams to an extent,
was cited as one of the major challenges to sustainable waste manage which can reduce the amount of biohazardous wastes. Furthermore, the
ment at airports [115]. regulations from the local health department, environmental depart
Retail and restaurant operations at the airport constitute around 41% ment, WHO, and national regulations decide the waste collection and
of the waste stream and can potentially determine the net waste diver management protocol to be followed. This could vary across jurisdic
sion rates at the airport. Assuring the compliance of these activities was tions with infrastructural and human resource challenges, extent of the
also cited as a challenge in the survey, with pre-consumer compostable spread of COVID-19 and the variants, incoming passenger traffic, etc.
and recyclable streams being the most prominent. Employee rotations, Being constantly evolving, the regulations and stakeholders are bound to
space limitations, and passive participation in waste reduction activities change. Fig. 8 shows the key stakeholders in airport waste management
can be a few deterrent factors [115]. Although education and outreach based on the current scenario.
can help in increasing the compliance of tenants, the high employee
turnover necessitates frequent training programs, which may not always 6.2. Segregation inefficiency and contamination
be feasible.
Uniformity in the tenant contracts with regard to the recycling re Segregation of solid waste has a significant impact on the waste
quirements and adequate training to ensure effective source segregation management system in place [118]. While diversion through recycling
is another hurdle to be faced. Moreover, incorporating the recycling and composting may seem ideal, the degree of contamination during
clause into lease agreements eliminates financial incentives, which source segregation and transport can affect the recyclability or com
makes the tenants reluctant participants. This stymies the active postability of the waste stream. The presence of undesired waste com
engagement of the stakeholders in the recycling initiatives [26,115]. ponents in the stream to be diverted is generally termed contamination
Airline operations also form a complicated part of the waste diver in this context. Poor segregation and disposal practices of the waste
sion activities. Most airlines engage independent contractors for waste generators are major causes of contamination. Further, the heteroge
collection and disposal and the airports lack the complete authority of neity of the segregated waste stream, due to the differences in the
these leased areas. Moreover, the time constraints of the airline opera physical and chemical composition, right from the production to the
tions and the aircraft employee rotations leave a lot of ambiguity in the disposal stages can affect the recyclability and the quality of the recycled
components which are recyclable at the destination airport. Combined products. This is particularly prominent in the case of recycled plastics,
with improper segregation and resultant contamination, the quantum of where the polymer characteristics, size or designs can affect the quality
waste being diverted could be significantly low. of the recycled products [119]. Most recycling facilities have threshold
The involvement of the airport employees, who frequent airport limits of contamination, and contamination, especially due to liquid
premises is also important to the waste management paradigm. How wastes can reduce the recycling value of the wastes. This is one of the
ever, poor housekeeping or the word of mouth regarding mismanage reasons why liquid disposal stations are installed prior to security
ment of wastes can affect the compliance of these players. Continual screening in many airports.
staff engagement reassurance should hence be ensured. Internal emails Segregation has gained a lot of relevance since the outbreak of the
12
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
pandemic. Despite having dedicated collection bins for used PPE kits transitioning to a circular economy and closing material loops [119]. It
and masks, improper disposal by the passengers has been reported at can also significantly reduce the overall waste management costs.
many airports. The consequent manual segregation is an exposure risk to However, if the recycled products do not enter the local market at an
the staff, although it can be minimized with adequate safety equipment. optimal rate, the probability of these recycled products being discarded
A transition to integrated automated-artificial intelligence (AI) system to landfills, at an elevated cost is high [124]. Recycling of materials like
for segregation can minimize the health risks while improving the effi metals is further burdened by the lack of advanced sustainable tech
ciency and rate of recycling [121]. Improved quality of recycled prod nologies and the demand for virgin metals by manufacturers [125].
ucts and opportunities for reutilization can provide increased Despite numerous pathways for the reuse of glass [126], lack of tech
employment opportunities as well [122]. Fig. 9 (a), (b) show typical nical understanding, poor investments, and the resultant uncertainty in
dedicated PPE and liquid waste disposal bins, and Fig. 9 (c) shows the the combined with challenges in the segregation of glass wastes have
waste segregation bins used at Leonardo da Vinci International Airport, affected the recycling of glass wastes as well. Circular economy in the
Rome. aviation industry is an evolving concept, with two key elements, viz.
airports and aircrafts. Air France-KLM Airlines group adopted the cir
cular economy principle by the following actions:
6.3. Circular economy challenges
• Changes to catering services for efficient waste segregation
The circular economy principle allows the integration of various • Reduction of food packaging wastes
processes of material flow, aimed at maximizing the service life and • Digital manuals and on-flight pamphlets
minimizing loss of service with time [123]. Recycling is essential for
Fig. 9. (a) Typical PPE collection bin and (b) liquid disposal bins at airports [120] (c) Segregated collection bin at Leonardo da Vinci International Airport, Rome.
13
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
• Reuse of flight seats and entertainment systems in alternative for recycled products or compost, etc. can improve diversion practices
domains considerably [115].
• Recycling of aircraft components like trays, trolleys, carts, blankets,
pillows, drawers, etc. 6.4. Regional policy influences
Within an airport, implementing circular economy could be chal The success of airport waste management enforcement is influenced
lenging. On the one hand, Schiphol Airport in collaboration with Philips by the regional policies as well. The accountability of airport waste
transitioned to an energy-efficient lighting system that allows 75% management initiatives is higher when there are jurisdictional targets to
longer service life, and a 50% reduction in energy consumption by the be met. Any local or regional goals and mandatory waste diversion re
lighting system. Philips collects and recycles the lighting systems at the quirements which the airport authorities need to abide by improves the
end of the service period. The system reduces maintenance costs, allows performance of airport waste management systems. For instance, the
easy servicing and replacement, and minimized raw material con German Waste Management and Product Recycling Act 2012, which
sumption. At the same time, airports like Gatwick face market chal requires all the products procured by the airport to abide by specific
lenges in employing the circular economy principle. The recovered environmental and economic criteria, governs the Munich airport,
resources from Gatwick are subsequently used within the airport which in turn, has one of the highest recycling rates of 79%. The Clean
wherever possible [127]. The waste management system at Gatwick was India Mission in India is responsible for gradually eliminating single-use
hence, redesigned to allow efficient waste collection, segregation, and plastics in nearly 34 airports under the Airport Authority of India (AAI)
on-site utilisation. The resultant reduction in the consumption of energy, [135]. A similar trend was observed in the US, where the FAA set waste
and water, and offsite processing and disposal costs, combined with the management goals for commercial airports, to facilitate reduction and
financial benefits of increased recycling have led to a net reduction of 1 recycling. Single-use plastic ban in the EU has had a significant impact
million USD in the annual operation costs [127]. Organic waste man on the airports in Europe too [73]. Beijing Capital International Airport,
agement through composting is also challenging as the compost may not which is the only airport operator partner with United Nations Envi
have a local market in many jurisdictions. Moreover, contamination can ronment, has achieved considerable energy and resource efficiency and
considerably reduce the compost quality and can contain a higher targets a diversion rate of 35% during 2016–2020 [136]. The ‘Refill’
fraction of heavy metals. In the absence of a sustainable market, one of scheme at the national level helped collect more than 140 million tonnes
the best ways to use composts is for site remediation and restoration. of bottled drinks at Manchester Airport Group sites, comprising Stans
Even in the absence of significant market value, alternative applications, ted, East Midland, Manchester, and Bournemouth airports, serving over
especially in an industrial environment can be explored [128]. 42 million passengers annually. Table 8 lists some of the airport initia
Like any other business, airports are also driven by cost-effective tives inspired by regional actions.
sustainability practices and without financial and market drivers, recy Irrespective of the challenges, monitoring, and services under a
cling and recovery practices may seem futile. Segregation practices, centralized agency have been reported to be more effective when it
employee costs, and the local landfill tipping fees primarily determine comes to airport waste management. Lack of centralized governance had
the waste management costs at an airport. Fig. 10 below demonstrates affected the waste diversion and auditing efforts at Boston Logan In
the variation in the tipping fees at different developed and developing ternational Airport [139].
countries/cities. Around 103 USD/tonne was spent as landfill disposal
charges by airports on average. The recycling rate per passenger 6.5. Impacts of COVID19
amounted to around 0.02 USD [129–134]. It should however be noted
that merely increasing the tipping fees may not necessarily encourage COVID-19 pandemic has had grave public health impacts over the
waste diversion from landfills. Opportunities and incentives to alter past few months. However, the true environmental impact of the
nately manage the waste streams economically decide the efficiency of pandemic is yet to emerge on the face of the earth. The unprecedented
diversion. Rebates on recycling or composting costs, market incentives outbreak of the pandemic led to the disruption of waste management
14
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
Table 8 Table 9
Airports with waste management initiatives influenced by regional policies. Persistence of coronavirus on different component surfaces at 20–30 ◦ C.
Airport Reginal policy influence Reference Material Surface retention period Reference
Delhi International Elimination of single-use plastics within the [89] Cardboard 24 h [144]
airport airport in accordance with Plastic Waste Glassware 4h [145]
Management Rules, 2016 and Clean India Disposable gowns/PPE kits 24 h [146]
Mission Latex gloves <8 h [147]
Munich Airport German Waste Management and Product [83] Copper 4h [147]
Recycling Act (2012) made it mandatory for Aluminium 2–8 h [147]
products purchased by Munich Airport to satisfy Steel 2–3 days [144]
environmental and economic criteria. Plastics 3 days [145–147]
SFO Airport Ban on sale of packaged water ban in city [137, Silicon rubber 5 days [148]
property in 2017 led to a subsequent ban on the 138] Paper 4–5 days [145]
sale of single-use plastic water bottles within Wood 4 days [145]
SFO airport, the first in the US. Ceramic 5 days [148]
San Diego airport Aims to meet or exceed local and regional waste [57]
diversion targets and timelines. Targets 90%
diversion by 2025, imminent challenge is the process of autoclaving. A few private com
panies reportedly provide autoclaving services and equipment to ster
ilize waste streams. It is said that the autoclaved wastes can be treated as
chains in many developed and developing economies. During the peak,
normal wastes, irrespective of its contact with the virus [151]. For
China used to generate around 247 tonnes of medical wastes daily, while
smaller waste quantities, chemical disinfection may be adopted for
the long lockdowns had increased the domestic waste generation
sterilization prior to the final disposal. Wastes, mostly after size reduc
significantly. The amount of food waste alone has been reported to have
tion, can be mixed with chlorine-based disinfectants and retained for an
increased by 12% during lockdown [140]. With the traditional waste
adequate period. Microwave disinfection, i.e. exposing wastes to specific
diversion systems crumbling under the pressure of mounting wastes and
wavelengths of electromagnetic wastes has been reported to deactivate
infection risk, landfilling and incineration have re-emerged as inalien
pathogens and hence sterilize biohazardous waste streams. The tech
able elements of waste management, replacing sustainable alternatives
nology was promoted in China as a supplement to incineration [152].
[141].
Radiowave disinfection may also be used, similar to the microwave
One of the acute effects of the pandemic from a waste management
technique. Inactivation of the biohazardous wastes using microwave
perspective is the increase in the production of plastic wastes. Dispos
and Radiowave systems have been proved to be more cost-effective than
able masks which are made mandatory during air travel and even in
autoclaving or incineration by previous studies [153].
many cities have been reported to be an emerging source of micro
In any case, as an immediate action, plastic wastes, which form the
plastics in the environment [142]. While eco-friendly alternatives like
bulk of the waste being generated currently should be directed to
reusable masks are gradually being employed to some extent, the pres
incineration with energy recovery, than landfilling, when recycling
ence of disposal PPE continues to be a significant aftermath of the
proves to be not feasible. Many airports have third-party contractors
pandemic. This has overwhelmed the waste management systems at
who are responsible for the collection and incineration of biohazardous
airports as well, where returning travellers are mandated to have PPE.
wastes including discarded PPE kits. Moreover, the cost of recycled
Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Hyderabad, and Bengaluru, six of the
plastic is not competitive with the cost of virgin plastics as per current
busiest airports in India generate 6 tonnes of biowaste daily and another
data. While use of PPE is imperative in the post-COVID-19 world; the
0.5 tonnes of plastic wrapping for these wastes. Most of these airports
manifestation of the impacts of the generated plastic waste is yet to
used to have zero to negligible biohazardous waste generation before the
surface.
pandemic. Airlines in India alone reportedly generate around 80,000
For cities with no access to thermal treatment or other facilities that
PPE kits daily [143].
can handle potentially contaminated wastes, deep burial could be relied
Yet another effect of COVID-19 on waste management at the airport
on, until alternative options have been developed [154].
is the potential risk of contamination from recyclable materials. Since
Fig. 11 shows the probable shift in waste management hierarchy
most of the studies on the surface retention of coronavirus are ongoing
post-COVID-19, from a public health perspective.
and evolving, containment of wastes to prevent the spread of infection is
In order to prevent bio-contamination, airports, like other in
preferred to diversion, out of an abundance of caution. The subsequent
stitutions, currently also employ rigorous disinfection protocols.
increase in landfilling and incineration of wastes due to COVID-19 has
Collection bins are disinfected using 250–500 mg/L chlorine-based or
affected the environmental and economic sustainability of the opera
other chemical disinfectants after waste collection. Any biohazardous
tion. Table 9 lists the surface retention periods of the virus on various
wastes are normally disposed of according to the local biomedical waste
components present in the waste stream, as per current studies.
management protocol. In-flight used disposable PPE kits are recom
The sudden challenges posed by the pandemic have necessitated a
mended to be soaked in chlorine-based disinfectant of 500–1000 mg/L
reassessment of the existing waste management systems. While capacity
concentration, cleaned, and bagged prior to disposal [155].
constraints will be resolved post-COVID-19, the existing systems may
Fig. 12 summarises the major impacts of COVID-19 on airport waste
need to be reoriented adequately to allow flexibility and capacity-
management.
building. A combination of centralized and decentralized systems for
collection, storage, treatment, and disposal are essential for this.
7. Conclusions
Availability of mobile incinerators and sterilization facilities (autoclave,
chemical disinfection, Radiowave and microwave treatments, heating,
Waste management at airports is a complex multi-stakeholder task,
etc.) can further facilitate sustainable operation. Automated or smart
with a multitude of waste streams, operations, and inherent challenges.
infrastructure for waste management can further improve the efficiency
Not only is the efficacy of the process affected by the integrated waste
of segregation and treatment, with minimal exposure [149].
management system in place, but also by the regional waste manage
While WHO recommends high-temperature thermal treatment
ment rules and regulations. Although sustainable airport management is
techniques like incineration as the preferred treatment and disposal
a multifaceted task, very few studies have been conducted to assess the
technique for biohazardous wastes [150], most systems are not designed
various aspects of sustainable waste management at airports right from
to handle such high waste quantities. One of the solutions to this
generation to end-of-life disposal. In light of the COVID-19 pandemic
15
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
which affected the aviation industry drastically, while also generating • The study observed that there exists limited literature on waste
unprecedented waste streams and quantities, it has become quintes management at airports, despite airports being significant generators
sential to look at the sustainability of waste management at airports. of wastes, some as high as a small city. The study takes into account
This article considers existing academic works, as well as published zero numerous small, medium, and large airports and explores their waste
waste plans, sustainability plans, and master plans developed by airport generation, minimization, diversion, and disposal. It may be
authorities and directives by local governments, IATA, and WHO. This observed that while many large airports successfully transitioned to
paper categorises these studies as those dealing with the management of zero waste airports despite an increase in passenger volume, there
airport wastes, airline wastes, and challenges due to COVID-19. This is are airports still disposing of 75% of their wastes in landfills.
then reviewed to compile information on waste generation, diversion, • The article gives a first-of-its-kind detailed data compilation on
treatment, and disposal in pre-COVID-19 and the post-COVID-19 world, passenger statistics and waste generation at various airports, and
on both the airside and groundside of the airport. The major findings of diversion strategies adopted by airport authorities and airlines. The
the study are presented below. study also compiles information on the composition of the waste
generated at different airports. It was observed that general mixed
wastes, paper wastes and organic wastes formed a significant
16
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
fraction of the wastes generated at airports considered in the study. the work reported in this paper.
The data may be used by decision-makers, airport authorities, and
sustainability specialists to understand the waste profile and develop Appendix A. Supplementary data
sustainable waste management strategies at airports.
• Details of diversion programs, predominantly, incentive-driven Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
programs, education campaigns, green concessions programs, etc. org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111229.
that have been successfully implemented by different authorities to
encourage compliance and improve sustainability and circular References
economy were reviewed. Various programs and initiatives at airports
to encourage the use of recycled materials in their daily operations [1] Air Transport Action Group. Commercial aviation speaking with one voice. 2021.
https://www.atag.org/. [Accessed 8 April 2021].
were also collected. The article also gives details on existing waste [2] Li XD, Poon CS, Lee SC, Chung SS, Luk F. Waste reduction and recycling strategies
management infrastructure-segregated collection systems, compost for the in-flight services in the airline industry. Resour Conserv Recycl 2003;37:
facilities, on-site recycling facilities, incineration, and other WtE 87–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-3449(02)00074-5.
[3] World Bank. Air transport, passengers carried. 2019.
systems and disposal units at different airports. Both busy airports [4] Ferrulli P. Green airport design evaluation (GrADE) - methods and tools
like Los Angeles International Airport and smaller airports like improving infrastructure planning. Transp Res Procedia 2016;14:3781–90.
Cochin International Airport had on-site C&D recycling unit and https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2016.05.463.
[5] Federal Aviation Administration. Recycling, reuse and waste reduction at
anaerobic digestion unit, respectively, to handle the dominant waste airports: a synthesis document. 2013. p. 1–48.
streams. [6] Baxter G, Srisaeng P, Wild G. Sustainable airport waste management: the case of
• COVID-19 was found to have disrupted the current waste profile at Kansai international airport. Recycling 2018;3:6. https://doi.org/10.3390/
recycling3010006.
different jurisdictions, including airports, considerably. Waste
[7] Upham P. A comparison of sustainability theory with UK and European airports
quantities and characteristics changed significantly post the policy and practice. J Environ Manag 2001;63:237–48. https://doi.org/10.1006/
outbreak of the pandemic, in the efforts to minimize the spread of the jema.2001.0469.
virus. A higher fraction of PPE kits, single-use plastic wastes, pack [8] Louise S, Santa B, Marcelo J, Ribeiro P, Mazon G, Schneider J, et al. A Green
Airport model : proposition based on social and environmental management
aging wastes, etc., and potential exposure due to improper segrega systems. Sustain Cities Soc 2020;59:102160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
tion was found to significantly increase the quantities of scs.2020.102160.
biohazardous wastes. Wastes with potential COVID-19 exposure [9] Santos AJ dos, Mancini SD, Frutuoso Roveda JA, Ewbank H, Roveda SRMM.
A fuzzy assessment method to airport waste management: a case study of
need to be disinfected either chemically or through microwave/ Congonhas Airport, Brazil. J Air Transport Manag 2020;87. https://doi.org/
radiowave treatments, or steam treatment prior to disposal as normal 10.1016/j.jairtraman.2020.101838.
wastes. If disinfection is not employed, incineration, deep-burial, or [10] Connor P. More than nine-in-ten people worldwide live in countries with travel
restrictions amid COVID-19 2020.
encapsulation is recommended to be used for disposal to minimize [11] Gilttens A. Impacts of COVID-19 on aviation and the airport business. Int Airpt
the spread of the virus. The waste management hierarchy was found Rev 2020. https://www.internationalairportreview.com/article/117249/covid-
to have changed for airports post the outbreak of COVID-19. 19-airport-business-aci-world-recovery/. [Accessed 10 September 2020].
[12] ICAO. Passenger totals drop 60 percent as COVID-19 assault on international
• Various challenges associated with sustainable waste management at mobility continues 2021. 2020. https://www.icao.int/Newsroom/Pages/2020-p
airports were identified through this study. Role of stakeholders, assenger-totals-drop-60-percent-as-COVID19-assault-on-international-mobilit
influence of regional policies and regulations, efficiency of segrega y-continues.aspx. [Accessed 9 April 2021].
[13] IATA. Aircraft cleaning and disinfection during and post pandemic. 2020.
tion, and challenges with employing circular economy. Experiences
[14] IATA. IATA updates COVID-19 financial impacts -relief measures needed. 2020.
of various airports were collected to corroborate the practical chal https://www.iata.org/en/pressroom/pr/2020-03-05-01/.
lenges of sustainable waste management at airports. [15] Sarbassov Y, Venetis C, Aiymbetov B, Abylkhani B, Yagofarova A, Tokmurzin D,
• The article identified the need to reassess the existing waste man et al. Municipal solid waste management and greenhouse gas emissions at
international airports : a case study of Astana International Airport. J Air
agement systems to make it more flexible with respect to the quantity Transport Manag 2020;85:101789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
and characteristics of the waste stream. Most systems do not have an jairtraman.2020.101789.
intermediate storage facility which could have dealt with an sudden [16] European Environment Agency. Annual European union greenhouse gas
inventory 1990–2016 and inventory report 2018. 2018.
increase in waste quantities. Reorienting the systems in future [17] Blanca-Alcubilla G, Roca M, Bala A, Sanz N, De Castro N, Fullana-i-Palmer P.
considering these factors could potentially be beneficial for sus Airplane cabin waste characterization: knowing the waste for sustainable
tainable waste management. management and future recommendations. Waste Manag 2019;96:57–64.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.07.002.
[18] IATA. IATA forecast predicts 8.2 billion air travelers in 2037. 2018.
While this study tries to bridge an evident gap in the literature, [19] Fredricks S. Airport medical waste? Handling medical waste in the least likely
airport waste management studies are still at a nascent stage. The places. MedXWaste; 2016.
[20] Tchobanoglous, Theisen H, Vigil S. Integrated solid waste management:
complexity of the system is further aggravated by COVID-19. Moreover, engineering principles and management issues. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1993.
being highly influenced by regional environmental regulations, the [21] USEPA. Developing and implementing an airport recycling program. 2009.
waste management principles adopted by airports are highly evolving. [22] Turner ME. Airport waste management and recycling practices. 2018. https://doi.
org/10.17226/25254.
While this study conducts an overall review of airport waste manage
[23] Sweet N, Morris E, Roberts M, Patterson K. IATA cabin waste handbook.
ment systems and the imminent challenges posed by the pandemic, BANBURY; 2019.
future studies into the cost-benefit analysis of airport recycling systems [24] Enelow-Snydr S. Atlanta: an airport case study in trying to manage plastic waste.
and the influence of passenger behaviour on diversion initiatives can Ski Tak; 2019. https://skift.com/2019/07/16/atlanta-an-airport-case-study-in-tr
ying-to-manage-plastic-waste/. [Accessed 28 August 2020].
support decision-makers in formulating sustainable strategies for airport [25] BCIA. Corporate social responsibility report. Beijing. 2016.
waste management. Furthermore, detailed field characterization studies [26] Atkin P. Trash landings how airlines and airports can clean up their recycling
can give a more realistic understanding of the waste profile and asso programs. 2006.
[27] Chicago O’Hare International Airport. O’Hare international environmental
ciated challenges on both the groundside and airside. Such studies could impact statement. 2005. Chicago.
prove to be beneficial in the future, with the anticipated drastic changes [28] London Stansted Airport. Making a material difference London stansted airport
in the aviation industry post the pandemic. waste management strategy 2010-2015, vol. 247; 2010. https://doi.org/
10.2979/jfemistudreli.30.2.150.
[29] Shanghai Airport Authority. Pudong airport leads the way in garbage sorting,
Declaration of competing interest recycling. 2019. https://www.shairport.com/en/jcjt/info_226820497_itemid_2
80146243.html. [Accessed 21 August 2020].
[30] Aeroporti di Roma. Sustainability report 2018. Rome. 2018.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial [31] ACI asia-pacific green airports recognition. Waste Minimization; 2018.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
17
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
[32] Changi Airport Group. Sustainability report 2017–18. 2017. Singapore. [72] Aviation Benefits Beyond Borders. Circular economy. 2020. https://aviati
[33] San Francisco International Airport. Zero waste plan A roadmap to reduce, onbenefits.org/environmental-efficiency/circular-economy/. [Accessed 2 August
recapture, recycle and reinvent SFO’s material system. 2016. 2020].
[34] Denver International Airport. Managing the environment at denver international [73] Chua JM. Basically everything you’re given on an airplane is wrapped in plastic.
airport 2011 annual Re. 2011. Denver. That’s a huge environmental problem. Goods by Vox. 2019.
[35] Sydney Airport. Sydney airport sustainability report 2019. 2019. [74] Gourdji H. Sustainable consumption and production for air transport. ICAO;
[36] Flughafen München GmbH. Environmental statement 2019 executive summary. 2018.
2019. Munich. [75] New Zealand Herald. Air New Zealand trials edible coffee cups to reduce waste.
[37] Airport Technology. Gatwick Airport: turning waste into energy. 2017. 2019.
https://www.airport-technology. [76] Aviation Benefits Beyond Borders. Cathay Pacific to eliminate 50% of single-use
com/features/featuregatwick-turning-waste-to-energy-5711024/#:~: plastics by the end of 2022. 2020. https://aviationbenefits.org/newswire/2020
text=InNovember last year%2Coperations,James takes a closer look. [Accessed /08/cathay-pacific-to-eliminate-50-of-single-use-plastics-by-the-end-of-2022/.
20 August 2020]. [Accessed 24 August 2020].
[38] Sydney Airport. Sustainability report. 2018. 2018. [77] AirFrance KLM Group. Sustainability report 2019. 2020.
[39] Vancouver Airport Authority. 2019 annual & sustainability report. 2019. [78] Atlantic Virgin. Sustainability report 2019. 2019.
[40] Airways Qatar. Qatar airways group sustainability report 2015 - 2016 reporting [79] ICAO. Waste management waste management at airports. 999 robert-bourassa
scope. 2016. boulevard, montréal, québec H3C 5H7. Canada; 2017.
[41] Eden R, Thomas A, Blumson J. Airport recycling program cuts landfill departures. [80] Flughafen München GmbH. Expertise in environmental protection the
2012. environment at Munich Airport. 2015. https://doi.org/10.13840/j.cnki.cn21-
[42] DOT-A. Sustainable HNL 2009 waste assessment. 2009. 1457/tq.2015.05.029. Munich.
[43] GTAA. Toronto pearson traffic summary. 2020. https://tpprodcdnep.azureedge. [81] Victoria Airport Authority. Environmental management plan 2016. 2016.
net/-/media/project/pearson/content/corporate/partnering/pdfs/traffic- Victoria.
summary.pdf?modified=20200723150038&la=en. [Accessed 24 August 2020]. [82] Stone A. Airports innovate as waste management challenges grow. EcoPresrve
[44] Australian Government. Western sydney airport environmental impact statement Buillding Sustain 2020. https://ecopreserve.net/airport-swm-innovation/.
volume 2a stage 1. Development; 2016. [Accessed 28 August 2020].
[45] Auckland Airport. Waste management & minimisation strategic plan to 2020 & [83] Baxter G, Wild G, Sabatini R. A sustainable approach to airport design and
beyond. 2016. operations: case study of Munich airport. 2014. https://doi.org/10.13140/
[46] Miedico M. Sustainable growth management at naples international airport, vol. 2.1.2986.6565. Eng Aust Conv 2014.
215. Italy: WIT Press; 2018. p. 233–40. https://doi.org/10.2495/EID180211. [84] Transportation Research Board. Lessons learned from airport sustainability plans.
WIT Trans. Ecol. Environ. 2015.
[47] Appleton R. Vilnius international airport master plan. Barcelona; 2012. [85] CVG. About. 2019. https://www.cvgairport.com/about A. [Accessed 29
[48] Indianapolis International Airport. Sustainability. 2019. https://www.ind. November 2019].
com/community/sustainability. [Accessed 29 November 2019]. [86] Airports Council International. Airport carbon accreditation annual report 2016-
[49] General Mitchell International Airport. Journey to sustainability milwaukee 2017. 2017.
county’s gneral mitchell international airport sustainability management plan [87] Tulsa Intenrational Airport. Green initiatives. 2020. https://www.tulsaairports.co
2018. 2018. m/airport-info/green-initiatives/. [Accessed 20 August 2020].
[50] The Port Authority of NY &NJ. Stewart international airport sustainable [88] Saad H, ICAO. Abu dhabi airport: sustainable airport in a desert environment. In:
management plan achievements 2012. 2012. ICAO semin. Green airports, montreal; 2017. p. 1–13.
[51] VHB. Erie international airport, tom ridge field 2015 sustainability baseline [89] GMR. Plastic fee airport” porgram- at Delhi airport. New Delhi: Waste Resour.
assessment technical memorandum. 2016. Manag. Summit 2018; 2018. p. 1–16.
[52] Shi H, Mahinpey N, Aqsha A, Silbermann R. Characterization, thermochemical [90] Adelaide Airport. Adelaide airport master plan 2019. 2019.
conversion studies, and heating value modeling of municipal solid waste. Waste [91] Oakland Airport. Recycling/waste reduction. 2020. https://www.oaklandairport.
Manag 2016;48:34–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.09.036. com/noise-environmental-management/environmental-management/recycling/.
[53] Los Angeles World Airports. Technical report LAX master plan EIS/EIR. 2001. [Accessed 24 August 2020].
[54] James G. Resource recovery in a post-COVID-19 pathogen world. Int Airpt Rev [92] Toronto Pearson International Airport. GTAA anuual report 2019 Sustainability
2020. https://www.internationalairportreview.com/article/117401/environme management approach and GRI index. 2019. Toronto.
nt-waste-covid19-safety-measures-iawma/. [Accessed 29 August 2020]. [93] GTAA. GTAA annual report 2018. 2018. https://www.torontopearson.com
[55] WHO. Operational considerations for managing COVID-19 cases or outbreak in /ar2018/sustainability/environment.html. [Accessed 24 August 2020].
aviation Interim Guidance. 2020. WHO reference number: WHO/2019-nCoV/Avi [94] Zambrano Monserrate MA, Ruano MA, Sanchez-Alcalde L. Indirect effects of
ation/2020.1. COVID -19 on the environment. Sci Total Environ 2020:728.
[56] Benchmarking T. SFO zero solid waste management plan. 2017. p. 1–13. [95] NEA. Waste statistics and overall recycling. 2020. n.d. .%0Awww.nea.gov.
[57] San Diego International Airport. Zero waste plan pathways to zero: rethinking, sg/our-services/waste-management/waste-statistics-and-overallrecycling, .
reducing, reusing, and recycling materials. 2020. San Diego. [Accessed 4 April 2020].
[58] Tofalli N, Loizia P, Zorpas AA. Passengers waste production during flights. [96] Yliluoma R. A study of U.S. consumer perceptions centered Around solid waste
Environ Sci Pollut Res 2018;25:35764–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017- recycling Management occurring within a large Public venue (airport
0800-x. transportation hub), the realities of consumer responsiveness, and actionable
[59] Kablitz S, Kavouras CN. Waste management at athens international airport. 2004. abilities of the venue’s Personnel and tenan. Jyväskylä University; 2020.
p. 19019. [97] Moccia M. Root Down at DIA introduces new composting system. Westword;
[60] Dimitriou DJ, Voskaki AJ. Regional airports’ environmental management: key 2014.
messages from the evaluation of ten European airports. Int J Sustain Dev Plann [98] Metro Detroit. Detroit Metropolitan Airport launches improved recycling
2010;5:150–62. https://doi.org/10.2495/SDP-V5-N2-150-162. program. 2019.
[61] Port of Portland. Environmental report. 2016. [99] CIAL. CIAL bags pollution control award. 2018.
[62] San Diego International Airport. Zero waste plan pathways to zero: rethinking, [100] European Biogas Association UK. First airport waste plant in the world. 2016. http
reducing, reusing and recycling materials. Sandiego International Airport; 2019. s://www.europeanbiogas.eu/uk-first-airport-waste-plant-in-the-world/.
[63] Christchurch Airport. Smarter waste solutions. 2019. [Accessed 20 August 2020].
[64] Austin-Bergstrom International Airport. Unsold sandwiches, salads donated to [101] Kansai Airports Technical Department. Kansai international airport
keep Austin fed. Aviat Pros 2017. https://greenlivingguy.com/2017/12/unsold-s environmental report 2017. Kansai; 2018.
andwiches-salads-donated-to-keep-austin-fed/. [Accessed 5 August 2020]. [102] Baxter G, Srisaeng P, Wild G. An assessment of airport sustainability, Part
[65] Denver International Airport. Denver international airport launches food 2—energy management at copenhagen airport. Resources 2018;7:32. https://doi.
donation partnership with Metro caring. 2015. Denver. org/10.3390/resources7020032.
[66] San Diego International Airport. Airport launches green concessions program. [103] Heathrow Airports Ltd. Heathrow launches new trial to improve recycling rates at
2017. https://www.san.org/news/news-detail/airport-launches-green-conc airports. Aviat Pros 2019. https://www.aviationpros.com/airports/press-release/
essions-program. [Accessed 6 April 2021]. 21106585/heathrow-airport-ltd-heathrow-launches-new-trial-to-improve-recycl
[67] Chicago Department of Aviation. Green concessions policy. 2021. https://www. ing-rates-at-airports. [Accessed 20 July 2020].
flychicago.com/community/environment/concessionspolicy/pages/default.aspx. [104] Solid waste and recycling. Hamilton airport waste; 2005.
[Accessed 6 April 2020]. [105] Burke M. Batten airport makes money with flight trash incineration. 2013. http
[68] Vancouver Airport Authority. Vancouver airport authority 2015-2019 s://journaltimes.com/news/local/batten-airport-makes-money-with-flight-trash
environmental management plan. 2015. -incineration/article_10ce7b1c-4594-11e0-a836-001cc4c002e0.html. [Accessed
[69] Pitt M, Smith A. Waste management efficiency at UK airports. J Air Transport 21 August 2020].
Manag 2003;9:103–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-6997(02)00063-7. [106] Sherwood J. The significance of biomass in a circular economy. Bioresour Technol
[70] Eugene Airport. Eugene airport master plan: appendix A- recycling. Reuse and 2020;300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2020.122755.
Waste Reduction Plan; 2018. [107] Association of cities and regions for sustainable resource management
[71] Heathrow Airport Limited. Towards a sustainable Heathrow A focus on waste. management (ACRPlus). Municipal waste management and COVID-19. 2020. htt
2011. ps://www.acrplus.org/en/municipal-waste-management-covid-19. [Accessed 4
April 2021].
18
R.M. Sebastian and J. Louis Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111229
[108] Ma Y, Lin X, Wu A, Huang Q, Li X, Yan J. Suggested guidelines for emergency [134] Regional District of Central Kootenay. Resource recovery system overview report.
treatment of medical waste during COVID-19: Chinese experience. Waste Dispos 2017.
Sustain Energy 2020;2:81–4. [135] Cross DT. Indian airports are taking steps to reduce plastic waste. Sustain Times
[109] Pitt M, Smith A. An assessment of waste management efficiency at BAA airports. 2019. https://www.sustainability-times.com/green-consumerism/indian-air
Construct Manag Econ 2003;21:421–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/ ports-are-taking-steps-to-tackle-plastic-waste/. [Accessed 30 June 2020].
0144619032000089599. [136] UN Environment. Gren airport: runway to sustainable development assessment
[110] Jian Y. Waste from aircraft gets special treatment. Shine 2020. https://www.sh report on beijing capital intrnational airport. 2017. Nairobi.
ine.cn/news/metro/2004075881/. [Accessed 5 September 2020]. [137] Slotnick D. Plastic water bottles are banned at San Francisco Airport starting this
[111] Wang H, Wang C. Municipal solid waste management in Beijing: characteristics week — here’s what you need to know. Bus Insid 2019. https://www.businessins
and challenges. Waste Manag Res 2013;31:67–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/ ider.com/plastic-water-bottle-airport-ban-san-francisco-sfo-2019-8#:~:text
0734242X12468199. =Plastic%20water%20bottles%20are%20banned,what%20you%20need%20to%
[112] Barr S, Guilbert S, Metcalfe A, Riley M, Robinson GM, Tudor TL. Beyond 20know&text=Starting%20Tuesday%2C%20plastic%20water%20bottles,Franc
recycling: an integrated approach for understanding municipal waste isco%20International%20Airport%20(SFO).&text=Other%20drinks%2C%20like
management. Appl Geogr 2013;39:67–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. %20flavored%20water,be%20sold%20in%20plastic%20bottles. [Accessed 25
apgeog.2012.11.006. June 2020].
[113] Dururu J, Anderson C, Bates M, Montasser W, Tudor T. Enhancing engagement [138] Winter M. Sustainability Series: how can airports reduce their plastic waste? Airpt
with community sector organisations working in sustainable waste management: Rev 2019. https://www.internationalairportreview.com/article/91476/sustaina
a case study. Waste Manag Res 2015;33:284–90. https://doi.org/10.1177/ bility-series-plastic-waste/. [Accessed 28 August 2020].
0734242X14567504. [139] Epler WM. Sustainable tourism on a finite planet: environmental, business and
[114] Moh YC, Abd Manaf L. Solid waste management transformation and future policy solutions. 2017. New York.
challenges of source separation and recycling practice in Malaysia. Resour [140] Aldaco R, Hoehn D, Laso J, Margallo M, Ruiz-salmón J, Cristobal J, et al. Food
Conserv Recycl 2017;116:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. waste management during the COVID-19 outbreak: a holistic climate, economic
resconrec.2016.09.012. and nutritional approach. Sci Total Environ 2020;742:1–13. https://doi.org/
[115] National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine. Airport waste 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140524.
management and recycling practices. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; [141] You S, Sonne C, Ok YS. COVID-19’s unsustainable waste management. Science
2018. https://doi.org/10.17226/25254. (80- ) 2020;368:1438. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abc7778.
[116] Labahn S. Zero waste design strategies in multi-unit residential buildings capstone [142] Fadare OO, Okoffo ED. Covid-19 face masks: a potential source of microplastic
professional report. 2019. https://doi.org/10.14288/1.0385134. fibers in the environment. Sci Total Environ 2020;737. https://doi.org/10.1016/
[117] Town M, Folk-Blagbrough S. Improving terminal waste diversion: education, j.scitotenv.2020.140279.
engagement and corporate culture at Vancouver International Airport. J Airpt [143] Chowdhury A, Rajagopal D. Covid-19 heaps up bio waste at airports. Econ Times
Manag 2018;12:186–97. 2020. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/transportation/airli
[118] Sukholthaman P, Sharp A. A system dynamics model to evaluate effects of source nes-/-aviation/covid-19-heaps-up-bio-waste-at-airports/articleshow/79552264.
separation of municipal solid waste management : a case of Bangkok , Thailand. cms. [Accessed 4 April 2021].
Waste Manag 2016;52:50–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.03.026. [144] Van Doremalen N, Bushmaker T, Munster VJ. Stability of Middle East respiratory
[119] Eriksen MK, Astrup TF. Characterisation of source-separated , rigid plastic waste syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) under different environmental conditions.
and evaluation of recycling initiatives : effects of product design and source- Euro Surveill 2013;18:20590.
separation system. Waste Manag 2019;87:161–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [145] Duan SM, Zhao X-S, Wen RF, Huang JJ, Pi GH, Zhang SX, et al. Stability of SARS
wasman.2019.02.006. coronavirus in human specimens and environment and its sensitivity to heating
[120] Arconas. Recycling bins & waste containers. 2021. https://www.arconas.com/ca and UV irradiation. Biomed Environ Sci 2003;16:246–55.
tegories/waste-and-recycling/. [Accessed 9 April 2021]. [146] Lai MYY, Cheng PKC, Lim WWL. Survival of severe acute respiratory syndrome
[121] Chidepatil A, Bindra P, Kulkarni D, Qazi M, Kshirsagar M, Sankaran K. From trash coronavirus. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41:e67–71.
to cash: how blockchain and multi -sensor -driven artificial intelligence can [147] Sizun J, Yu MWN, Talbot PJ. Survival of human coronaviruses 229E and OC43 in
transform circular economy of plastic waste? Adm Sci 2020;10. https://doi.org/ suspension and after drying onsurfaces: a possible source ofhospital-acquired
10.3390/admsci10020023. infections. J Hosp Infect 2000;46:55–60.
[122] Vanapalli KR, Sharma HB, Ranjan VP, Samal B, Bhattacharya J, Dubey BK, et al. [148] Warnes SL, Little ZR, Keevil CW. Human coronavirus 229E remains infectious on
Challenges and strategies for effective plastic waste management during and post common touch surface materials. mBio 2015;6.
COVID-19 pandemic. Sci Total Environ 2021;750:141514. https://doi.org/ [149] Singh N, Tang Y, Zhang Z, Zheng C. COVID-19 waste management: effective and
10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141514. successful measures in Wuhan, China. Resour Conserv Recycl 2020;163:105071.
[123] Clark JH, Farmer TJ, Herrero-Davila L, Sherwood J. Circular economy design https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105071.
considerations for research and process development in the chemical sciences. [150] WHO. Water, sanitation, hygiene, and waste management for the COVID -19
Green Chem 2016;18:3914–34. virus. World Health Organization; 2020.
[124] Diamadopoulos E, Koutsantonakis Y, Zaglara V. Optimal design of municipal solid [151] Ceitron. Airplane and quarantine waste disposal have become even more
waste recycling systems 1995;14:21–34. important because of the Coronavirus. 2020. https://celitron.com/en/blog/airpla
[125] Reck BK, Graedel TE. Challenges in metal recycling. Science (80- ) 2012;337: ne-and-quarantine-waste-disposal-have-become-even-more-important-because
690–6. -of-the-coronavirus. [Accessed 28 August 2020].
[126] Dhir RK, Dyer TD. Maximising opportunities for recycling glass. Int. Conf. Organ. [152] Wang J, Shen J, Ye D, Yan X, Zhang Y, Yang W, et al. Disinfection technology of
by Concr. Mason. Res. Gr. Thomas Telford; 2004. p. 1–16. hospital wastes and wastewater: suggestions for disinfection strategy during
[127] Thompson R. Gatwick’s circular system for becoming a zero waste airport. Towar. coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in China. Environ Pollut 2020;
a Circ. Econ., ICAO; 2019. 262:114665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114665.
[128] Farrell M, Jones DL. Bioresource Technology Critical evaluation of municipal [153] Zimmermann K. Microwave as an emerging technology for the treatment of
solid waste composting and potential compost markets. Bioresour Technol 2009; biohazardous waste: a mini-review. Waste Manag Res 2017;35:471–9. https://
100:4301–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.04.029. doi.org/10.1177/0734242X16684385.
[129] Samsudin MDM, Don MM. Municipal solid waste management in Malaysia: [154] Sharma HB, Vanapalli KR, Cheela VS, Ranjan VP, Jaglan AK, Dubey B, et al.
current practices, challenges and prospects. J Teknol 2013;62:95–101. Challenges, opportunities, and innovations for effective solid waste management
[130] Giroux L. State of waste management in Canada. 2014. during and post COVID-19 pandemic. Resour Conserv Recycl 2020;162:105052.
[131] CalRecycle. Landfill tipping fees in California. California; 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105052.
[132] PEMANDU. Solid waste management lab 2015. 2015. [155] Civil Aviation Administration of China. Preventing spread of coronavirus disease
[133] City of Saskatoon. Saskatoon regional waste management centre (landfill). 2020. 2019(COVID-19) guideline for airports. 2020.
https://www.saskatoon.ca/services-residents/waste-recycling/garbage/saskatoo
n-regional-waste-management-centre-landfill. [Accessed 24 August 2020].
19