Received: 31 October 2019 Revised: 15 January 2020 Accepted: 19 February 2020

DOI: 10.1002/pip.3265

APPLICATIONS

Airport-based photovoltaic applications

Sukumaran Sreenath1 | Kumarasamy Sudhakar2,3 | Ahmad Fitri Yusop2

1
Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency
Research Cluster, University Malaysia Pahang,
Pekan, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Mechanical and Automotive
Engineering Technology, University Malaysia
Pahang, Pekan, Malaysia
3
Energy Centre, Maulana Azad National
Institute of Technology Bhopal, Bhopal, India
Correspondence
Kumarasamy Sudhakar, Faculty of Mechanical
and Automotive Engineering Technology,
University Malaysia Pahang, Pekan 26600,
Malaysia.
Email: sudhakar@ump.edu.my
Funding information
University Malaysia Pahang through Doctoral
Research Scheme (DRS), Grant/Award
Numbers: PGRS1903172, Internal grant
RDU18003., PGRS1903172, Internal grant
RDU18003
Abstract
Nowadays, airports' interest in solar photovoltaics (PVs) is increasing. It is a way
to lower the burden of energy costs and to show environmental stewardship. This
paper aims to study the application of PVs in the airport environment. Solar pro-
jects in airport areas across the world were studied to find the techno-economic
and environmental aspects of airport-based solar PV application. The favorable fac-
tors for solar PV are observed to be effective land utilization, low height profile,
versatility, flexibility, and mature silicon PV technology. The major considerations
for airport-based solar PV applications were glare occurrence, radar interference,
and penetration into airspace. Airport's weather and soil conditions, selection of
PV technology, glare impact, site selection, and grid interconnection issues were
the technical challenges. It was observed that economic factors such as reduced
energy cost, life cycle cost, and sustainability grants and incentives make solar
projects in airports attractive. Carbon mitigation and achievement of sustainability
goals through solar PV installation emphasized the environmental stewardship
of airports. From case studies, it was understood that prior planning, glare
assessment, and careful implementation are essential for the success of airport-
based solar PV farms. Airport-based solar PV has immense scope in the
near future.

KEYWORDS

airport, carbon mitigation, glare, payback period, solar PV

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N years.3 The global mean CO2 concentration is currently rising at a

Many countries are witnessing harmful effects of global warming
such as forest fires, floods, snow cover reductions, and habitat
alteration. This can be correlated to the rise in carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions and other greenhouse gases due to human activi-
ties, particularly from the burning of fossil fuel and deforestation.
As of April 2018, the average monthly level of CO2 in Earth's
2
atmosphere exceeded 410 parts per million (ppm).
concentration of CO2 may be the highest in the last 20 million
rate of approximately 2 ppm annually and has an increasing
trend.4,5 With the present rate of fossil fuel usage, the 450 ppm
limit will be exceeded by 2034.6 This may reduce the chance to
keep the global temperature rise at 2
C, and the subsequent effect
of this will be dangerous and irreversible.7 In addition, the global
1
demand for energy is increasing exponentially, which is met
through fossil fuel reserves. This excessive use of fossil fuel
The present may lead to its shortage and result in an increase in electricity
costs. In this regard, it is important to reduce the emission of
greenhouse gases such as CO2 at the earliest time from every

Abbreviations: ASPV, airport solar PV; CO2, carbon dioxide; FAA, Federal Aviation
sector of human activities.
Administration; HV, high voltage; HVAC, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning; ICAO, The role of the transport sector in air pollution is significant,
International Civil Aviation Organization; IEA, International Energy Agency; NAVAIDs,
after the combustion of coal. The greenhouse emissions due to
navigational aids; ppm, parts per million; PV, photovoltaic; VALE, Voluntary Airport Low
Emission; ZEB, zero-energy building. road, rail, air, and water transport are one of the main reasons for

Prog Photovolt Res Appl. 2020;28:833–853. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/pip © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 833

834
acid rain, ozone depletion, and climate change.8 The aviation indus-
try has a significant contribution to the rise of greenhouse gas con-
centration in the atmosphere. As per statistics, the exhaust gases
from aviation contribute to 3.5% of global emissions, and its share
is expected to double in the coming 15 years.9 The scenario in air-
ports changed dramatically in the last decade in terms of energy
use and passenger amenities. The landing and takeoff of aircraft
cause the emission of carbon particulates into the atmosphere.
Besides carbon dioxide, the aviation field has a number of other
pollutants, including nitrogen oxides (NOX), particulates, unburned
10
hydrocarbons (UHCs), and contrails. Higher atmospheric concen-
trations of greenhouse gases—notably carbon dioxide (CO2), meth-
ane, and NOx—cause the atmosphere to absorb more heat from the
earth's surface and accelerate the impacts of global warming.11
Apart from air pollution, the negative ecological impact of the avia-
tion industry, in general, and airports, in particular, includes land-
scape modification, noise pollution, local climate change, excessive
water use, and effects on the social structures of local communities.
Some negative impacts are direct, and others are indirect ones. The
direct impact involves disturbance of aircraft noise on nearby com-
munity and aviation emission, which affects local air quality and
climate, while the indirect impact corresponds to the usage of
electrical energy in airports, which mostly comes from polluting
energy sources. At the same time, airports create direct and indirect
employment and socioeconomic benefits to passengers, which is
the positive aspect of airport operation.12
The electricity demand in airports is mainly met through elec-
tricity generated from conventional energy sources such as coal,
natural gas, and petroleum. Electricity consumption in airports is
mainly from air-conditioning loads in the passenger area, the lighting
loads of the building and the airfield, and the electromechanical
installations.13 The operation of heating, ventilation, and air condi-
tioning (HVAC) loads in the airport causes the emission of harmful
greenhouse gases and chlorofluorocarbons into the atmosphere.
According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), about 50% of
energy needs in the built environment is consumed by heating and
14
cooling loads. Round-the-clock operation makes even small and
rural airports energy intensive. Energy costs account for about 10%
15
to 15% of an airport's operational budget in general. Also, the
increase in the number of travelers increases the electrical energy
use of the airport.
It is in the best interest of airports to develop means by which
they can reduce their energy use and augment it with renewable
sources.15 This can be done by implementing energy conservation
methods and by using renewable energy (RE) to meet the airport's
energy requirement (partly or fully), which are suitable for existing
16
as well as upcoming airports. The substitution of electricity usage
is one of the best practices in an airport to reduce its carbon foot-
print. In addition to that, this helps the airport company to reduce
its energy costs. Since unused areas are available, power generation
plants can be implemented within an airport area through a suitable
financial model. Also, airports have to handle more travelers during
a short period, such as festivals and vacations, leading to peak
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SREENATH ET AL.
power demand. During such a situation, an in-house power plant
helps in effective load management.13 To add on, fossil fuels cannot
power an airport throughout its lifetime. An alternative energy
source will be needed at some point in time. So, operating an air-
port in a sustainable way is the need of the hour.
Baxter et al found out the design aspects and operational behav-
ior of the airport that affects its sustainability for Munich airport, and
significant impact was observed from aircrafts' noise, waste genera-
tion, and water management. The energy conservation strategies of
the Munich airport reduced its energy cost.17 The New Mexico airport
has planned an investment of $21.8 million (for a photovoltaic
[PV] project) and an aggregate investment of $5.6 billion for the con-
struction of green buildings.16 This airport aims to operate with 100%
RE and achieve reductions of 30% in water and 40% in energy
consumption compared with the existing airport. Like the New
Mexico airport, sustainable practices can be planned initially in other
airports as well.
The use of solar electricity for airport operation supports an
airport's green initiatives. Solar PV–based energy generation is
matured now, and the cost of solar cells has decreased exponen-
tially. Solar PV power plants of varying capacity were installed
across the globe. But the application of PVs in the airport environ-
ment is relatively new. Baek et al18 concluded that solar PV systems
are the optimal way to achieve energy self-sufficiency in the
case study of Incheon International Airport, South Korea. The
implementation of solar PV technology in the airport was studied
by few authors.13,19-30 Important findings from relevant pieces of
literature published in the area of airport-based solar PV systems
are given in Table 1.
Airport solar PV (ASPV) systems are a relatively new application
of solar energy technology. A review on such topic helps the research
community to familiarize with the present reach of study and future
scope.31 There is only one publicly available and federally issued guid-
ance for installing solar technologies at airports. The significant con-
tent of this guidance may change on the basis of new information and
field experiences.32 Compared with the total number of airports oper-
ating worldwide, only a handful has installed solar PV systems in their
premises. This may be due to the knowledge gap in different aspects
related to PV applications in airport systems. The present study
addresses the various gaps in the literature regarding the solar PV
application in airports. A comprehensive study involving design
considerations and techno-economic and environmental aspects of
ASPV systems is not addressed by the research community (see
Figure 1). Thus, there is a need for a proper and in-depth study in this
research area.
The objectives of the present research work are
1. To study the suitability of PVs in airports and provide general
considerations for siting PV in airports.
2. To analyze the techno-economic and environmental aspects of
airport-based solar PV systems.
3. To understand the risk factors and future prospects of airport-
based solar PV systems.

SREENATH ET AL.
TABLE 1 Review of research work carried out in the area of PV application in airports
Author(s) and Year Studied Airport (Name and Country) Work Done
25
Sreenath et al, 2020 Kuantan Airport, Malaysia Analyzed the possibility for glare from
the solar PV plant proposed in an
airport site.
Banda et al, 201926 Kamzu International Airport, Malawi Assessed the performance of the
830-kWp airport solar power plant
using 4-y operational data duration
Anurag et al, 201723 - Reviewed three main roadblocks
during the implementation of a solar
PV system in the airport.
Sukumaran and Cochin airport, India Assessed the technical performance of
Sudhakar, 201719 the 12-MW solar PV plant installed
in the airport
Mostafa et al, 201628 Hurghada airport, Egypt Carried out a prefeasibility assessment
of the solar PV system in Hurghada
airport, Egypt.
Alba and Manana, - Analyzed the different aspects of
201627 energy in the airport environment
such as available energy sources,
energy indicators, energy
conservation, and its benchmarking
Barrett et al, 201429 - Studied various safety issues that may
occur from the implementation of
energy technologies in the airport
area such as solar energy, wind, and
biomass.
Mpholo et al, 201530 Moshoeshoe airport, Lesotho Performance assessment of the
281-kWp solar PV farm operating in
the airport is carried out
Zomer et al, 201320 Santos Dumont airport and Performance of proposed BIPV and
Florianopolis airport, Brazil BAPV system in the airport
environment was assessed
Ruther et al, 200621 Floarinopolis airport, Brazil Proposed a 1670-kWp BIPV system
for the airport's terminal building
Elgun and Shahrabi, - Reviewed the passenger traffic and
200822 energy demand in the largest
airports of the world and studied
the effectiveness of levying
surcharge from passengers for
funding solar projects.
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835
Significant Findings
The predicted glare on air traffic
control tower last for 6778 min
annually, mostly between 7.00 AM
and 8.00 AM, hence the selected
zone was not suitable for solar PV
installation in a given tilt angle as
per FAA's interim glare policy.
The capacity factor of 17.7% and
performance ratio of 79.5% are
observed.
Used HIT PV technology.
The average array, inverter, and
system efficiencies were 15.3%,
95.2%, and 14.6%, respectively.
Glare occurrence, airspace protection,
and interference to CNS facilities
must be taken care of for safe
deployment of PV projects.
The plant performed well with
performance ratio (86.56%) and
capacity utilization factor (20.12%)
Apart from technical barriers, three
major challenges were high bank
interest rates, comparatively
expensive PV modules, and varying
exchange rates of the Egyptian
pound.
In the wake of special characteristics
of the airport and significance of air
safety, rules and regulations are to
be reviewed so as to keep the
airports compatible for energy
generation.
Authors suggested that preparation of
general guidance is important, but it
is difficult as the nonphysical
impacts such as glare and
turbulence are not well defined.
The plant's performance ratio is 70%,
which is the bottom threshold for a
sufficiently well-performing solar PV
system. Higher energy production
can be obtained with enhanced
monitoring of the solar PV plant.
BIPV system gave higher values of
energy density than its BAPV
counterpart in two case studies.
Energy generated from the BIPV
system can meet the energy needs
of the airport.
Authors stated that the collection of
$1 surcharge from each passenger
of Atlanta airport (ATL) can be used
to fund a 120-MW PV system in
that airport.
(Continues)
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836 SREENATH ET AL.

TABLE 1 (Continued)

Author(s) and Year Studied Airport (Name and Country) Work Done Significant Findings
13
Koroneos et al, 2010 Makedonia airport, Greece Developed an optimization model to Solar PV did not come into the optimal
find the optimum share of solution because of its higher cost in
renewable energy sources needed the Greek's solar PV market.
to meet the energy uses of the
airport such as heating, cooling, and
lighting.

Abbreviations: BAPV, building-applied PV; BIPV, building-integrated PV; CNS, communication, navigation, and surveillance; FAA, Federal Aviation
Administration; PV, photovoltaic.

FIGURE 1 Study of different aspects of solar photovoltaic (PV) installations in the airport [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.
com]

2 | APPLICATION OF PVs IN THE AIRPORT
ENVIRONMENT
Airport land has enormous potential for solar energy production. The
approach toward the implementation of airport-based solar systems
was a slow pace. Researcher Dr Travis DeVault analyzed the land use
pattern at or near airports and found that US airports contain 1276
square miles of idle grassland, which can be utilized for solar PV
installation.
The solar PV system consists of PV modules that convert the
sun's light energy into electricity (DC). Since the power output of the
single PV module is less, multiple modules are connected until the
amount of electricity generated is sufficient. Most electric grids utilize
alternating current (AC), which allows many users to draw off from a

SREENATH ET AL.
single system. Therefore, the solar facility includes an inverter, which
converts the electricity from DC to AC form. The electrical energy
generated is either consumed on-site or exported to the electricity
grid. The power flow in the solar PV plant is shown in Figure 2.
2.1 | Suitability of solar PV
Airport landscapes are well suited for implementation of solar projects
because of the following reasons:
• Since the airport premises consist of buildings that are typically
large, isolated low-rise structures with little or no shading, there is
plenty of room to accommodate PV modules on rooftops, façades,
and parking lots. The surrounding land in the airport is often not
suited for other uses because of aviation regulations and noise
from low-flying aircraft. Similar to the floating solar PV plant, ASPV
systems use space effectively.33
• The solar initiative at the airport is good for the environment. Air-
ports create an immense amount of air pollution and solar can help
to offset some of those emissions. Since airports are visited by
millions of people each year, solar PV plants create awareness
about solar technology and its carbon mitigation potential to
passengers.34
• Accelerated development of energy sources, including solar and
wind, has generated numerous conservation concerns, especially
while installing new ones.9 In this regard, the potential for alterna-
tive energy production at airports is relevant. Airport solar PV sys-
tems being strategically located with no damage to forest cover
and wildlife should be more beneficial than large-scale solar power
10
plants in other off-airport sites.
• Solar module cost has come down from $2.60 to $0.80 per watt,
and the cost of the components of PV systems such as racks and
inverters are reducing gradually. In this way, solar systems have
become more economically viable around the world. Through suit-
able lease terms, a solar plant can become a significant nonairline
revenue source.
• The huge energy costs for airports can make the payback period of
the solar PV systems comparatively quick. In a land lease or power
F I G U R E 2 Pictorial representation of the main components of the solar photovoltaic (PV) plant [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
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837
purchase agreement (PPA) situation where the array is owned and
managed by a third party, there is virtually no up-front cost for the
facility.
• A good match can be observed between air conditioning loads and
PV panel maximum power output. While airport buildings call for
high energy in warm and sunny climates because of the extensive
use of air-conditioning units in large open areas, the solar energy
output also will be more because of better insolation and longer
daytime.13
• Moreover, solar plants have little to no maintenance cost because
of the absence of moving parts (in most cases). Unlike the
construction of airports and power plants, environmental impact
during the installation of the solar plants is very low as there is no
need for large machines and foundation.
• A solar plant provides a reasonably long product warranty for a
minimum of 20 years. Certain plants that were installed 25 years
back are still generating electrical energy. A solar system can work
more efficiently in an airport area since there is no or negligible
shading factor.
• Airports can make use of grants provided by funding agencies like
the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) toward environmentally
sustainable practices. The free-standing PV arrays in the airport
can act as barriers to deflect aircraft noise from the passenger
terminals.15
2.2 | Types of ASPV installations
The main types of mounting for a solar PV project in airport installa-
tions are ground-mounted, roof-mounted, and canopy supported
(as shown in Figure 3).
2.2.1 | Ground-mounted solar system
PV modules are mounted on structures fixed in the ground and have
the greatest flexibility in siting and design. Such systems customarily
have an azimuth of 180
and a tilt angle equal to the latitude of the
site.35 Ground-mounted systems are comparatively cheaper to

838
F I G U R E 3 Different types of mounting of photovoltaic (PV) arrays in airport-based solar installations [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
develop and are typically used for large-scale solar installations. It can
be a fixed-tilt system as well as a tracking one. Fixed-tilt systems have
less weight, use less material, and have low maintenance as compared
with tracking systems. This freestanding position is adopted in most
of the ground-based PV systems at airports. Ground-mounted solar
projects with tracking systems adjust the panel's position with respect
to the movement of the sun (throughout the day and vary with the
seasons). Tracking systems maximize the amount of sunlight falling on
PV array and hence electricity generation. But these systems are cost-
lier to build, operate, and maintain in the long run.
2.2.2 | Roof-mounted solar facility
It is often the smallest in installed capacity because of limited
space in the rooftop. These systems are expensive as it is attached
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SREENATH ET AL.
to existing buildings, requiring detailed engineering and extra
material. PV modules fixed on building rooftops mostly assume
the design of the roof. Thus, panels on flat roofs are tilted
at around 5
to permit water flow (drainage) and minimize wind
loads. PV modules on slope roofs are fastened directly to the
roof itself.
2.2.3 | Canopy-supported solar system
In this case, PV modules are integrated into existing parking areas.
Along with shade for vehicle parking, energy generation also occurs.
These projects consist of a canopy structure that is aligned with the
parking design such that vehicles can be parked under it. Canopies
have a lower tilt angle (7
or less) to maximize shading benefits to
parked vehicles and to limit stress from wind loads.
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SREENATH ET AL. 839

2.3 | Airport- and land-based solar systems TABLE 2 Comparison of airport- and land-based solar PV system

Airport Solar PV Systems Land-Mounted Solar PV Systems

In general, open spaces with good southerly exposure and minimal
Similarities
obstructions to sunlight are best suited for the installation of solar PV
Consist of solar PV modules, inverters, transformers, and other
panels. Unlike land-based solar PV power plants, the site selection of balance of systems.
airport solar systems is complex as it involves consideration of
The land footprint of both systems with the same installed capacity
compatibility to air navigation and airport operation. These constraints and PV technology is almost equal.
depend mainly on regulations put forward by the International Environmental impact assessment is needed for both land-based and
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and regional aviation authority. airport solar systems.
Table 2 compares the different features of airport- and land-based Proximity to electrical infrastructure and low vegetation sites are
solar PV installations. desirable.
Differences
Apart from general constraints, Site selection is influenced by
2.4 | General considerations of ASPV system the site selection procedure general constraints such as
considers airport-specific solar resources, climatic
factors such as glare impact, conditions, shading factors,
The three main difficulties in the process of site selection in airports
radar interference, soling, etc.
are possible glare strikes, interference to communication systems, and penetration into airspace
penetration into restricted airspace due to the presence of PV mod- from PV array.
ules. Each of these roadblocks has its own consequences to aviation Tilt angle and PV module PV modules have a tilt angle of
safety if not properly addressed. Mr Allee of the Denver airport said orientation may be varied in the location's latitude and are
order to mitigate glare oriented to true south in the
that the three parameters that must be free from disturbance within
hazards. northern hemisphere or vice
aviation space are the air traffic control (ATC) tower, pilots landing or versa.
taking off, and navigational aids (NAVAIDs) in airport premises.36 The
In certain cases, PV module Crystalline silicon PV technology
glare occurrence, interference from communication, navigation, and technologies with low is mostly chosen.
surveillance (CNS) facilities, and penetration into imaginary airspace reflectivity are preferred.
are the main concerns during the siting and design of ASPV systems. Dark-colored and roughened Usually, glass material on the top
Reflections from solar installations do not cause a retinal burn, but it solar PV modules are selected of the PV module is smooth
for certain design cases. textured.
has the potential to cause afterimage.
Project implementation involves A comparatively fewer number of
approvals from multifaced approvals are required
authorities
2.4.1 | Reflections from PV array
Since the green cover is less in Environmental and wildlife impact
the airport region, impact on is more if sited on vegetated
A solar PV module reflects sunlight falling on its surface, and its wildlife and removal of areas
potential impact can be glare or glint. The reflected light may enter vegetation is less

the eyes of the pilot or airport staff and affect their visibility. Ho Maximum height of 3 m from PV modules can be fixed without
37 ground level is recommended any height limitation
et al coined a new metrics for temporary flash blindness when the
for PV structures
eyes are exposed for 0.15 seconds. As per the updated FAA docu-
Frameless modules are Metal (aluminum) framed modules
ment released in 2018, solar project developers from federally obliged
suggested in wake of chance are usually used.
airports must show that the system produces no glare/glint potential for infrared emission from
in existing or planned ATC towers and no glare potential or low after- metal parts
image potential along the flight approach path.38 In this regard, Forge Energy performance shows a Solar plant performance is
Solar (glare prediction software) can be used to find the position of slight deviation from normal influenced by normal weather
weather due to microclimatic patterns.
PV modules that cause glare hazard to pilots and airport staff.
condition in the airport
Subsequently, the locations causing an impermissible level of glare
environment
can be omitted during the site selection process.
Abbreviation: PV, photovoltaic.

2.4.2 | PV penetration into airspace
All unused or vacant land cannot be sited for the installation of solar
PV modules. Airspace inside and around an airport is predefined. Stan-
dards are framed in ICAO Airport Planning Manual or FAR part 77 and
can be used for assessment of the obstruction in navigable airspace.39
Imaginary airspace surfaces extend out from the runway in a manner
that reflects where the aircraft are likely to fly including the
unforeseen aircraft maneuvers. The height of the imaginary surface
above the ground is lowest near the runway and increases as one
moves away from the runway. Any object (including structures, trees,
movable objects, and even the ground itself) that penetrates into one

840
of the airspace surfaces is considered as an obstruction. The potential
of airspace penetration from PV structures is decided by its closeness
to the airport and the associated systems. The conflict with airspace
penetration occurs for siting on the land around the runway. On the
basis of predefined airspace dimensions, the location of safety zones
that affect the installation solar PV module is defined as object-free
area, runway safety area, or runway protection zone. It is suggested
that siting of a PV array be avoided in these zones.
2.4.3 | PV interference to CNS facilities
Solar PV systems may interfere with the operation of CNS instru-
ments used in airport areas. Mostafa and Zobaa40 described that navi-
gational equipment is important to the operation of the air traffic
controllers as well as the safe landing of aircraft by the pilot. The
proper operation of communication systems may be affected because
of the emission of electromagnetic waves or reflection of signals from
metallic parts of the PV module and solar inverters or because of the
physical obstruction of the PV module between the communicator
and receiver. As per FAA's latest technical guidance, it is advised that
the location of radars and NAVAIDs be identified, which help to avoid
siting of PV in locations that have the potential to either block, reflect,
or disrupt signals. Because of their low profile, it is supposed that PV
systems represent a little risk to the proper operation of communica-
tion systems, and hence studies on impacts of solar facilities on CNS
32,41
systems are not mandatory. However, it is suggested that a
500-foot radial distance between the communication systems and PV
modules be maintained.29
2.4.4 | Type of airport
Airports are classified as rural and urban. Airports situated in cities or
populated areas are considered as urban airports and have limited
open spaces. Rural airports are mostly situated in the village or in less
populated areas and spread vast areas of free spaces. The installed
capacity of the solar PV system and its type of mounting depends on
the location of the airport. Airports situated in city limits span over
fewer areas than rural airports. Hence, roof-mounted or building-
integrated solar PV systems are suitable for city airports. In airports
located in rural or remote areas, the availability of land area favors
ground-mounted systems, with less preference for roof-mounted and
building-integrated solar systems.
2.4.5 | Energy consumption
It is one of the main factors that influence the sizing of the solar PV
system. The electricity use of an airport depends on its terminal area,
passenger handling capacity, etc.27 The heating and cooling loads con-
tribute to most of the electrical energy consumption. Since these
loads vary with seasons, the load profile of the airport also varies
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SREENATH ET AL.
substantially. The extent of variation can be found from the energy
consumption pattern of the airport. The amount of energy generation
from a solar system depends on the available area for solar installa-
tion. If a large area for solar PV systems can be found in a relatively
small airport with less energy generation, there is a possibility to
achieve a grid neutral scenario. In certain cases, if ample land area is
available for a solar PV system, the on-site electricity generation
surpasses the energy demand, and excess energy can be fed to a
nearby grid.
The setting up of solar plants must support long-term develop-
ment plans of the airport. When compared with other installations,
additional cost may be incurred for airport solar projects in terms of
complicated planning and multiple discussions with regulatory bodies
on air safety–related issues, etc. The execution of solar PV projects
depends on well-defined feasibility studies involving glare analysis,
wildlife impact, system performance, and risk.38 For both solar sys-
tems, the closeness to existing electricity infrastructure and the least
impact on environmental resources are desirable. Table 3 gives the
main considerations for solar PV installations in airports.
3 | O V E R V I E W O F T H E A S P V SY S T E M
The first significant solar PV project in an airport started operation in
the early 2000s. The usage of solar electricity is increasing gradually
in airports. Ground-mounted, roof-mounted, parking canopy, and
building-integrated solar PV systems are possible types of solar PV
installations. Out of these, ground-mounted solar PV systems are the
most common type in airport-based projects. So, the information on
the land-based system was more available. The first airport operating
fully on solar power was the Cochin airport, and it is operational since
2016. A regional airport in George, South Africa, has installed a
750-kW solar plant surpassing the energy requirement of 400 kW
needed to run the airport. Though it is a small-scale solar application,
it has become the next fully solar-powered airport in the world after
Cochin International Airport (India). In this section, the technical, eco-
nomic, and environmental aspects of operational solar PV systems in
airports are discussed. Technical aspects highlighted the special siting
and design steps followed for an ASPV power plant.
3.1 | Technical aspects
A solar PV system is installed on a rooftop, ground, and over a car
parking lot. Usually, it consists of solar PV panels that are lightweight,
leak-proof, corrosion-free, and can withstand windy conditions.
3.1.1 | Influence of climatic conditions
Because of the frequent occurrence of typhoons on the island, the
Palau International Airport's solar installation consists of a PV mount-
ing system that is reinforced with extra support bars for enhancing
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SREENATH ET AL. 841

TABLE 3 Main considerations for airport solar PV systems

Considerations Deciding Factor Remarks

Reflections from PV modules The orientation of PV array and sun's Orientation and tilt angle can be varied in
movement such a way that glare policy of FAA or
respective civil aviation authority of the
country is adhered
Interference to CNS systems The distance between PV modules and CNS A radial distance of 500 ft between solar PV
facilities and CNS systems is recommended.
Penetration into airspace The location of the PV array with respect to Siting must adhere to ICAO's restrictions on
the imaginary airspace airspace, which is given in the airport
planning manual (Doc 1984).
Type of airport Place of airport 1. Rural
2. Urban
Energy consumption The passenger and air traffic Rural airport with the vast area has high
possibility to achieve grid neutrality
Types of PV mounting Type of airport and its energy consumption 1. Ground based
2. Rooftop mounted
3. Parking canopy mounted
4. Solar fencing (along the boundary)

Abbreviations: CNS, communication, navigation, and surveillance; FAA, Federal Aviation Administration; ICAO, International Civil Aviation Organization;
PV, photovoltaic.

strength against wind pressure. Also, in this solar installation, PV mod-
ules are installed on the top of shade structures for the airport parking
zone, which in turn increases the effect of wind on the PV system.
Similarly, solar panels in an Athens airport are installed on fixed struc-
tures, which can withstand strong winds and hail. In addition, it is
ensured that the reflectivity from PV modules is much lower than
most of the objects present in and around the airport, such as mirrors
of parked cars and walls of buildings. The weather in George Town is
highly unpredictable and changeable. The solar project in George
Town Airport is considered as a perfect test hub for developing an
exclusive design for the upcoming projects in that region.42 Further-
more, feasibility studies on rooftop installations at other
South African airports with varying sizes, from 750 to 1500 kW, are
43
going on. Mactan-Cebu International Airport installed a 1.64-MW
PV on the rooftop using specially designed racking systems so as to
withstand wind speed experienced in that region (Visayas). Also, the
PV system is secured from lighting with surge protection devices. In
certain areas, geotechnical conditions affect the design of the module
mounting structure. Three inches of asphalt on the east side and irreg-
ular soft soil on the north side was used in the solar project develop-
ment in a Sacramento airport for proper stability. As the land lies
below sea level, the ground was spongy in nature. Necessary strength
can be achieved by increasing the length of piers.
3.1.2 | Selection of PV technology
Solar PV modules are chosen in such a way that the energy output is
maximum as per the site condition. High ambient temperature and
cyclonic conditions are present in the Darwin airport region. So, highly
efficient solar modules that can tolerate these conditions are selected
for a 4-MW solar PV plant in Darwin airport. Because of the high
efficiency and good dim light performance of thin-film modules, it is
used for the Schiphol airport solar project. The 180-kWp solar power
system in Hong Kong airport consisted of 700 numbers of monocrys-
talline silicon technology–based high-performance PV modules. Unlike
most airport solar projects, the 5-MWp solar plant in Chandigarh Air-
port employs a single-axis tracking technique. The 7.9-MW solar pro-
jects in the Sacramento International Airport had a fully operational
tracking system that tracks the sun's path (from east to west), thereby
maximizing the energy production. Other than conventional silicon-
based PV technologies, newer ones are also used in a few airport-
based solar PV systems. At an Aichi airport, Japan, a demonstrative
30-kW bifacial PV array was installed on the airport land.44 The Ade-
laide Airport, Australia, had installed a 1.17-MW solar PV system, and
it consists of high-quality tier1 260-W solar panels (accompanied with
DC power optimization), thereby providing safe and reliable electrical
energy. Bermuda's first utility-scale RE facility will be developed at LF
Wade airport. This airport solar project consists of 20 000 PV panels
and is expected to generate 12 000 MWh of electricity annually.
3.1.3 | Cooling of PV modules
Cuce and Bali45 studied the effect of temperature (15
C to 60
C) on
the performance of the polycrystalline silicon PV module and found
that its resistance parameters increase with temperature. A consider-
able amount of energy is lost from a solar PV plant installed in a hot
and humid climate. The efficiency of the PV module reduces with the
rise in temperature after a specified limit. Water and air are a cost-
effective means of heat removal. Air cooling uses heat sink or air
channels connected to the backside of the PV panel. Heat exchanger
and water spray methods are employed for water cooling. Zubeer
et al46 reviewed various cooling techniques that help in the reduction

842
of temperature of the PV module and concluded that water spray or
water-based cooling gave a better reduction in module temperature
than air-based cooling. Also, cooling with fins attached to the PV
module can enhance heat reduction much better. A significant reduc-
tion in energy loss can be achieved by cooling the PV modules. As per
the authors' knowledge, the use of water-cooling techniques for
airport-based solar plants is not reported. Since airport areas have a
conventional water supply facility, the availability of water may not be
a concern. So, it is suggested that water-based cooling for the PV
modules in airport areas be used with due consideration of compati-
bility to aviation. In addition, recycling-based water-cooling tech-
niques reduce water consumption and hence are in line with
sustainable practices of an airport.47
Currently, crystalline silicon-based PV technology dominates the
solar market globally. Other PV technologies such as CdTe and CIS
are grabbing the market slowly. Since airport solar projects are
installed in the megawatt scale, commercially available PV technolo-
gies are beneficial in terms of mass procurement and hence reduced
price per watt. Monocrystalline silicon (mcSi) cell is the most efficient
PV technology, followed by polycrystalline silicon (pcSi).48 Since mcSi
solar cells are dark colored, it absorbs more sunlight falling on it than
pcSi and thereby reduces the reflectivity and glare issues. The cost
per watt for an mcSi PV module is only marginally higher than pcSi.
So, monocrystalline PV technology is suitable for solar applications in
airports.
3.1.4 | Issues with connection to the grid
Electrical infrastructures present in airport premises possess chal-
lenges during the development of solar projects in certain cases.
The electrical distributor UK Power Networks kept an export limit
of 200 kW from solar PV installation in its service boundary, which
caused complications during the interconnection stage. A software
called GRIDEM for Export Limitation with integrated monitoring
solutions was used for solar PV in the London Southend site.49 In
addition, two high-voltage (HV) incomers were situated 1.7 km
apart, which in turn caused cabling issues. Also, the inverters for
the solar PV system are to be placed within the runway area. The
solar farm in Kimberley Airport took the advantage of 11-kV substa-
tions located on the airport's land and is situated on 0.7 ha of land
within the airport. Because of the intermittent cloud cover present
in Western Australia, huge and sudden variations in solar electricity
output occurs. So, the electric grid owner mandated energy storage
devices for large solar installations to overcome the output intermit-
tency. To address this issue, the solar PV developer employed a
power generation management system (GMS) with cutting-edge
cloud predictive technology (CPT).50 Tampa Electric Company
installed a 2-MWp system on a parking canopy at the Tampa Inter-
national Airport. Braun et al analyzed the impact of a large solar
power plant in Florianópolis International Airport on the local grid.
It was concluded that the voltage rise occurs only when the PV
input to the distribution network is maximum.51
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SREENATH ET AL.
3.1.5 | Complicated siting process
While offering benefits, solar PV energy in airports is accompanied by
new and unforeseen problems such as the possibility for reflectivity
from solar modules, interference to communication systems, and pen-
etration into restricted imaginary airspace. The land parcel at the edge
of the runway may look empty, but invisible lines are present that
decide where nonaeronautical structures are allowed to ensure safety.
The main consideration in site selection and design of solar PV sys-
tems in airports is to make sure that the proposed project does not
affect the action of pilots (takeoff and landing of aircraft), air traffic
controllers and ground staff and the operation of navigational and
communicational aids. In this regard, land parcels near the runway are
generally avoided for solar PV installation. A solar project in Chicago
Rockford airport was challenging because of its location near to the
runway protection zone. The tilt and orientation of 5.7-MW ground-
mounted PV solar arrays in Barnstable Municipal Airport were
adjusted to resolve the reflectivity and glare issues and to adhere to
the solar policy of the FAA. The solar PV system in Redding Municipal
Airport covered about three acres of land area and is located close to
the terminal building and the electrical infrastructure. San Diego air-
port is a small cum busy international airport, and the available land
for plant component lay down and storage is minimal. This creates a
problem for mobilizing and preparing construction operations related
to solar PV plants. With special review by FAA officials, PV arrays for
installation in a portion of the Fresno Yosemite airport's approach
zone was approved. Usually, structures are not allowed in the
approach zone of the airport.52 Solar PV installation of Lakeland Lin-
der Field airport is on a portion of the land falling on the runway pro-
tection zone. In the feasibility study conducted for a solar project in
Schiphol airport, the shadows caused by PV arrays during the landing
and takeoff of aircraft was analyzed. The elevation of the site located
on the west side of the main runway is lowered by 9 ft to comply with
the federal requirement for runway design. The solar array situated on
the 41-acre land parcel at the north end of the Dane County regional
airport has an installed capacity of 8 MW. The solar panels in Tucson
airport face to the east rather than optimal south direction to avoid
glare effects.
3.1.6 | Good energy performance
The analysis of energy generation from solar PV systems is carried out
in most cases. Sukumaran and Sudhakar have assessed the perfor-
mance of the 12-MW solar plant in the Cochin airport using the first-
year operational data. It was concluded that the plant was operating
sufficiently well with performance ratio (86.56%) and capacity factor
(20.12%). The annual exergy efficiency of this solar power plant is
estimated as 9.77%, and it is influenced by solar irradiation and mod-
ule temperature.53 The system is interconnected to the grid infra-
structure present in the airport and prioritizes the consumption of
solar power over the grid. Kathara airport, Australia, has a 1-MW solar
project with an estimated annual energy production of 1871 MWh
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SREENATH ET AL. 843

and annual carbon mitigation of 1254 tonnes. The energy generated T A B L E 4 Technical challenges faced during the implementation
is fed to the North West Interconnected System (NWIS) that requires of airport solar PV

the electrical energy fed into the grid to follow specific standards Solar PV Site Technical Challenges Remarks
(to maintain grid stability). The abundant sunshine in Southern Arizona Chicago 3-MW solar plant Installation on the
along with FAA grant money eases the 1.0-MW PV system mounted Rockford installed on the area, which belongs
on a canopy structure in Tucson airport. The 3.35-MW PV system in airport, USA runway protection to the runway
zone protection zone,
Bengaluru airport is installed on eight rooftops of buildings located
needs prior approval
within the airport premises and is expected to generate 47 lakh units from the regional
of electricity annually. Solar PV systems are installed in a few airports aviation authority.
around the world. Timely and proper operation and maintenance Barnstable Glare occurred when Solar panel orientation
(O&M) helps to maximize energy generation of the solar PV system. Municipal solar PV modules is adjusted to
Dubai World Central Airport has installed an array of solar panels that Airport, USA are fixed at default mitigate glare
tilt and orientation hazards.
generates 48.8 MWh electricity annually and also aims to increase the
angle
share of RE in its daily energy mix. The technical challenges con-
Mactan-Cebu High wind speed is A customized module
fronted by developers and airport stakeholders during the implemen- airport, present in the mounting system
tation of solar PV projects are summarized in Table 4. Philippines airport area that can withstand
high wind speed is
used.

3.2 | Economic aspects Hong Kong Used More output per unit
airport, Hong high-performance area or higher
Kong monocrystalline PV energy density
The total project cost for the solar PV system in Adelaide Airport, modules (totaling
Australia, was $2.45 million. This solar project is estimated to have an 180 kWp)
acceptable internal rate of return of 13.1%, a positive net present Tucson Airport, Glare effects Avoided by facing
value, and a payback period of 8 years.54 USA solar panels to the
east rather than
optimal south
direction
3.2.1 | Reduced energy cost
Chattanooga - Installation in area
Airport, USA unusable for
Using solar electricity for airport operations can reduce energy bills. aviation purposes
It may become a nonairline revenue as well. The Kuala Lumpur Fresno Yosemite Installation in a portion Implemented through
International Airport (KLIA), Malaysia, purchases electricity at a Airport, USA of the airport's customized design
approach zone and special approval
cheaper rate from the onsite solar PV power plant, which in turn
from FAA
helps the airport to save RM 2.1 million annually.55 The ReNew
London The complexity of the Software called
Power, an India-based RE company, signed a 25-year PPA with
Southend electrical GRIDEM for export
Chandigarh International Airport for the energy generation from a airport, UK distribution system limitation with
5-MW solar plant located in the airport. This plant helps the airport integrated
to reduce 20% of its energy cost. The 2.5-MW solar canopy system monitoring solutions
was used
in Tucson airport, USA, offsets more than 50% of energy needs and
Daniel K Inouye Hurricane-prone Carried out detailed
is funded mainly by grants from the FAA. With an initial investment
airport, USA region and salty and wind load testing
of $14.3 million, this project is likely to save $35 000 per month on
humid weather Used noncorrosive
energy bills. The solar parking canopy system creates a cooler
plastic material
microclimate in the parking area. The 7.9-MW ground-mounted mounting system
solar farm in Sacramento International Airport is expected to reduce Indianapolis PV panels are attached Maximize output from
airport energy costs by $850 000 per year. The new solar canopy Airport, USA to tracking systems the given airport
(4260 solar modules) offers shade to vehicles parked at the airport that move with the land area
movement of the
and is expected to generate more than $600 million reduction in
sun
energy cost over its lifetime of 20 years.
Abbreviations: FAA, Federal Aviation Administration; PV, photovoltaic.

3.2.2 | Life cycle cost its lifetime. For solar PV projects, the main five cost categories are
planning and approval (CPA), components and transport, (CCT),
Life cycle cost (LCC) involves the estimation of different costs of the installation and commissioning (CIC), and operation and maintenance
project over a given duration considering all potential expenses during (COM) as given in Equation (1).
 1099159x, 2020, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pip.3265 by IME - Instituto Militar de Engenharia, Wiley Online Library on [07/10/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
844 SREENATH ET AL.

LCC = CPA + CCT + CIC + COM , ð1Þ sustainable measures in airports. The 1501 kWp rooftop solar system
in Mumbai International Airport is installed through the build own
where CPA involves the cost incurred in planning stages, that is, site operate (BOO) model in which a third-party investor has invested in
survey, glare analysis, economic feasibility, environmental impact the solar plant and sells electricity to the airport per unit basis. The
study, grid impact study, and fundraising. Since land is already avail- 4.64-Crore initial investment in Trichy airport can be recovered in
able, the land purchase cost is not considered for airport solar sys- 3.75 years. The solar project at Chattanooga Airport is executed in
tems. If a third party is developing the project, it has to pay lease three phases with most of the cost paid by federal grants. The eco-
rental or royalty or both to the airport owner. nomic aspects of airport solar systems are given in Table 5.
CCT considers the expense to purchase PV modules, inverters,
transformers, mounting structures, the balance of the system, and
corresponding transportation cost. CIC, ie, installation and commis- TABLE 5 Economic aspects of solar PV systems in airport
sioning stage, involves site clearance, PV module fixing, construction
Solar PV
and civil work (control room, water drainage, and fence), grid connec- Plant Site Economic Facts Remarks
tion fees, inspection and checking, approval from regulatory bodies, Adelaide Payback period of 8 y Though a huge
and SCADA system. COM involves cleaning works, replacements, and airport, and positive NPV investment of
repair of plant components, security, and plant in-charge staff for the Australia with 13.1% IRR $2.45million was
needed initially, the
entire project lifetime. Sukumaran and Sudhakar reported that the ini-
project will be
tial investment for the 12-MW solar power plant in Cochin airport, profitable in the long
India, was 620 million Indian rupees.53 The land development cost run.
was negligible as the land belongs to the airport itself. On average, the Brookhaven - Electricity is sold under
cost per watt for the total initial investment of solar PV project is airport, USA a FiT rate fixed by
$1.184, and the operation and maintenance cost is $0.025 per watt. local administration

So, the total LCC of the solar PV system is $1.21 per watt.56 On this Chandigarh Nearly 20% reduction Implementation of a
airport, India in electrical energy 5-MW solar system
basis, the LCC for a few airport-based solar PV plants is estimated,
cost through PPA with
such as the 2-MW plant in Fresno Yosemite airport, USA, which has third party company.
an LCC of $24,20,000, the 3.5 MW plant in Bengaluru airport, India,
Kuala Lumpur Collect revenue in Executed under the
which has an LCC of $42,35,000, and the 2.5-MW plant in London Airport, terms of lease rental Feed-in Tariff
Southend airport, UK, which has an LCC of $30,25,000. Malaysia and royalty. In program of SEDA,
addition, cost-saving Malaysia
of RM 21 million
from the use of
3.2.3 | Supportive financial schemes cheaper solar
electricity than TNB
Though there is a continuous drop in the cost per watt of the solar PV rate

system, economic feasibility depends on factors such as the electricity Mumbai Installed a 1505-kWp -
airport, India solar rooftop system
rate, tax reduction and depreciation schemes, incentives and subsi-
through the Build
dies, and loans and bank interest rates prevailing in the country.57 A
Own Operate model
total investment of USD 60 million was needed for the completion of
Trichy airport, An initial investment of Solar PV systems can
the project at KLIA. For the airport company, it was a win-win situa- India 4.64 Crore Indian meet 25% of the
tion as it can buy electricity at a much cheaper rate under Feed-in Tar- rupees with an energy requirement
iff (FiT) program and receive lease rental and royalty from the expected payback of the airport
period of 3 y and
developer.42 The favorable RE policies in Malaysia helped the airport
8 mo
company and the solar developer in the implementation of the solar
Tucson airport, 2.5 MW solar PV This solar PV plant
power plant. The 10 000-panel solar system in Brookhaven airport
USA system required helped in 50%
uses FiT awarded by the local administration for revenue estimation. $14.3 million reduction in energy
The solar PV system spans over 35 acres and consists of 23 000 LG investment and is cost
company solar panels. A net metering agreement was utilized for the funded by FAA

energy export into the nearby grid. Minneapolis-St. Paul International Sacramento Annual reduction in The net metering
airport, USA energy cost by system is used for
Airport on the behalf of the Metropolitan Airports Commission has
$850 000 the selling of
invested a lot to run the airport as sustainable as possible by reducing electricity
the possible impact on soil, water, and air quality and spending billions
Abbreviations: FAA, Federal Aviation Administration; FiT, feed-in tariff;
of dollars on noise mitigation. The 3-MW project, which received a
IRR, internal rate of return; NPV, net present value; PPA, power purchase
$2.1 million grant, will reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 6813 met- agreement; PV, photovoltaic; SEDA, Sustainable Energy Development
ric tons annually.58 This highlights the influence of fund availability on Agency; TNB, Tenaga Nasional Berhad.

SREENATH ET AL.
3.3 | Environmental aspects
The reduction in carbon footprint from a small solar PV may not be
huge. A collective approach from many airports plays a significant role
against climate change.
3.3.1 | Carbon mitigation
The solar panels (200 numbers) installed on the roof of the terminal
building of Birmingham airport can mitigate 22 tonnes of CO2 annu-
ally. Adelaide Airport, Australia, is expected to cut the airport's carbon
footprint by 915 tonnes of CO2e and highlights the sustainability cre-
dentials and the carbon reduction target of the airport.54 The ground-
mounted 500-kW solar PV system in Moi International Airport,
Kenya, will generate 820 000 units of electricity annually and offset
1300 tonnes of CO in a year. The 4.48-MWp solar facility at Belfast
International Airport can mitigate the emission of 2100 tonnes of car-
bon into the atmosphere in a year. The Tucson airport solar project
leads to a reduction of 25 000 gallons of gas usage and 245 tons of
carbon dioxide emission monthly.
3.3.2 | Environment-friendly development
The solar PV panels in Indianapolis airport are installed on the top of
natural land curves rather than flattening the solar plant site, which in
turn is an environmentally friendly solar development. In Massachu-
setts, a 6-MWp solar array was installed on the former Palmer Metro-
politan Airfield. It provides energy to the towns of Leicester and
Spencer and to Worcester State University. Although it is not an oper-
ational airport, it was the first and one of the largest facilities to be
built through a state program that incentivizes the development of
solar energy on landfills and brownfields. The upcoming 1.39-MW
rooftop solar project in an Algerian airport comply with the environ-
mental requirements of High Quality Environmental (HQE) new
buildings.
3.3.3 | Achievement of sustainability goals
In some cases, solar projects in airports are in line with governments'
developmental imperatives, energy security, and diversification of the
energy mix. The solar project at Daniel K Inouye International Airport
is in line with the state's goal to use 100% RE by 2045. Melbourne
Airport decided to build a 7.5-MW solar PV plant on its premises in
the context of evolving environmental and carbon regulations increas-
ing energy prices and climate change. This will also reduce airport reli-
ance on grid power. Because of terminal and airfield development, the
electricity demand of the airport is expected to increase significantly
in the near the future. European airport companies have committed to
reach the goal of 100 carbon neutral airports in the region by 2030.
Geneva's Cointrin airport is gearing up to install solar panels across
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845
50 000 m2 of roof space, which is capable of powering 2500 homes in
a year. Island nations such as Antigua and Barbuda have plans to use
one-quarter of the electricity requirement through RE technologies so
as to reduce the foreign exchange outlays for imported fossil fuel and
pollution from the burning of diesel.
3.3.4 | Use of sustainability funds
The airport stakeholders can make use of incentives and financial sup-
ports provided by various organizations and institutions for the devel-
opment of solar PV systems in its property. The 15-MW solar park in
Schiphol airport, Amsterdam, was developed under a Dutch's sustain-
able development program, which provides incentives for commercial
and utility-scale RE projects. The 2.1-MW solar farm in Chattanooga
Airport, USA, was funded through FAA's Voluntary Airport Low Emis-
sion (VALE) Grant.59 This airport aims to become carbon neutral by
expanding the installed capacity to 3 MW. A project entitled “Capacity
Building for CO Mitigation from International Aviation” is
implemented by the ICAO and funded by the European Union.60 The
ground-mounted 1.2-MW solar PV system at Douala International
Airport is executed using the financial support of ICAO for solar
energy systems. The 1-MW solar PV plant installed in the Trichy air-
port can meet 25% of energy requirements and is in line with the
national solar mission by the government of India. The 2.5-MW solar
plant spread on 10 acres in London Southend Airport is one of the
largest on-site solar installations at a European airport. This plant can
meet 20% of the annual energy consumption of the airport and has a
significant positive impact on its carbon footprint. This initiative hel-
ped it to get voted as the UK's best airport and one of the most sus-
tainable airports in the world. The environmental benefits of airport-
based solar systems are tabulated in Table 6.
3.3.5 | Social acceptance and awareness
The major factors for the acceptance of solar PV in society are its
being the least polluting energy source, independent energy genera-
tion, easier installation, reduced module cost, matured silicon cell
technology, and subsidies and incentives. In addition, the airport solar
project is an antidote to greenhouse emissions from the airport. Since
airports are visited by a number of passengers, it is the best platform
for raising awareness of solar technology with the public. This under-
standing helps in easier implementation of the polluter-pays approach
where the passenger is levied for his/her carbon footprint. This sur-
charge amount is huge considering the volume of air passengers, and
these funds can be used to make several fully solar-powered airports.
3.4 | Risk assessment and mitigation aspects
Potential hazards that may occur from solar PV systems installed in
airport areas are glare occurrence, interference to CNS facilities,
 1099159x, 2020, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pip.3265 by IME - Instituto Militar de Engenharia, Wiley Online Library on [07/10/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
846 SREENATH ET AL.

TABLE 6 Environmental benefits from various ASPV installations 4 | S O L A R P V I N A I RP OR T S : C A S E

PV Plant Site Environment Benefits Remarks STUDIES AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
Adelaide Solar PV system Solar PV program
airport, mitigates emission of highlighted the In this section, the description of solar PV projects installed at differ-
Australia 915 tonnes of CO2e sustainability ent airports over the past 10 years is presented. For each case study,
annually credentials of technical details such as plant capacity, PV technology, and economic
Adelaide airport
details are given. The information provided throws light into the real-
Melbourne Installed a 7.5-MW -
world experience and the decision-making process involved in project
airport, solar PV system,
execution.
Australia which reduced
airport reliability on The application of solar PV in the airport is relatively new. When
grid electricity compared with the total number of airports across the globe, only a
Indianapolis The natural land curve The solar PV plant site few airports have onsite solar power plants. In North America (mainly
airport, USA is preserved during a is not flattened and the United States) and the European region, a number of airports use
solar PV installation hence
solar electricity generated from their own land. In the Asian and
environment-friendly Pacific region, India and Australia have some either fully or partially
Moi airport, 500-kWp solar system Implemented as a part
solar-powered airports. Cochin airport, India, is the world's first fully
Kenya prevents the of the capacity
emission of building for CO solar-powered airport. The solar potential in airport premises is yet to
1300 tonnes of CO2 mitigation From be tapped effectively.
International
Aviation Program by
ICAO
4.1 | Indianapolis airport solar farm, USA
Belfast airport, The solar system PV modules are fixed
Northern mitigates close to the terminal
Ireland 2100 tonnes of CO2 building, which helps The Indianapolis airport solar farm has an installed capacity of
annually in easy 25 MWdc (20 MWac) and covers 183 acres of airport land. This solar
transportation,
power plant generates 36.1 million kilowatt-hour of electricity in a
loading, and
unloading year, which is enough to power 3650 average-sized American
homes.62 At the time of completion, it was the largest solar farm on
Tucson airport, Solar PV plant reduces Reduction of carbon
USA 25 000 gallons of emission into the airport land in the world. The solar facility includes 87 488 PV mod-
gas consumption atmosphere ules with a peak power rating of 280 to 305 W. The stakeholders
and prevents involved in the project were the following: developer: Telamon Cor-
245 tonnes of CO2
poration; developer and phase III owner: Johnson Melloh Solutions;
emission monthly
landowner: Indianapolis Airport Authority (IAA), the City of
Abbreviations: ASPV, Airport solar PV; ICAO, International Civil Aviation Indianapolis; utility: Indianapolis Power & Light Company (IPL); owner
Organization; PV, photovoltaic.
(phase I): General Energy Solutions (GES); owner (phase II):
Washington Gas; and engineering, procurement, and construction
penetration into airspace, bird strike, accidental incursion, detachment (EPC) contactor: Cenergy Power. The first phase (phase I) of the
of PV parts, and electric fault. Although solar PV systems have been Indianapolis solar farm was commissioned in October 2013, spanning
successfully implemented in a number of airports worldwide, there 75 acres and consisting of 44 000 PV modules. In August 2015,
are examples of imperfect installations because of inadequate plan- phases II and III became operational. The phase I solar farm is a fixed
ning and proper analysis. Air traffic controllers complained about glare ground-mounted system, and phases II and III are tracked ground-
from the 530-kWdc solar PV system installed in Manchester-Boston mounted system, which is oriented toward the sun to maximize
Regional Airport, USA. As a temporary remedy, the glare-causing energy output, located on the east and west sides of the terminal near
61
section of the PV array (approximately 25%) was covered with tarps. the airport entrance. The energy generated is fed into the existing
Later, it was decided that the PV arrays be rotated by 90
from the transmission lines that connect the airport terminal to the IPL substa-
current position. The reduction in energy generation is estimated to tion (located in the west of the airport). The facility was built by a
be 10% for the corrected design. Mostafa and Zobaa40 concluded that third-party company that leased project sites from the IAA on a long-
solar PV systems can be safely deployed on airport premises with term basis. The solar energy generated is sold to IPL under a 15-year
additional caution during system design, installation, and maintenance, power purchase scheme. Figure 4 depicts the solar PV installation at
which in turn helps to mitigate the potential risks. Researchers and the Indianapolis airport.
engineers must work along with officials of aviation and airports to The IPL was interested to buy renewable electricity from projects
develop solutions to risks that may occur from solar PV installation in located in its service territory. The IAA was approached by private
the airport. Table 7 summarizes the aviation risks associated with the developers to host a solar facility in support of a bid to IPL. The IAA
installation of solar PV modules on the premises of the airport. had a considerable amount of land that was unused for aviation
 1099159x, 2020, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pip.3265 by IME - Instituto Militar de Engenharia, Wiley Online Library on [07/10/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
SREENATH ET AL. 847

TABLE 7 Brief description of various risks associated with solar PV in airport

Risks Description Impact Remedies

Glare occurrence
Interference to CNS
facilities
Penetration into
restricted airspace
Strike from birds
Accidental incursion into
PV site
Detachment of PV plant
components
Electric fault
Reflections from solar PV modules
may enter the eyes of a pilot in
cockpit or airport traffic staff in
ATC
The presence of PV module/inverters
may block or modify or reflect the
signals from communication and
navigational aids.
Any object (including structures,
trees, and movable objects) that
penetrates the navigational
airspace cause safety issues
Birds may sit in the PV plant site for
shading and perching.
The aircraft may enter the solar PV
site in case of incidents such as
veering off from the runway.
Components of the PV system may
detach and come into the runway
area in case of strong winds or
similar extreme climatic events.
Live parts of the PV system in an
open position cause an electric
shock to airport staff or workers.
It can affect the visibility of observers,
which in turn affects their decision
making
May affect the line of sight of CNS if
sited too close to it.
False signals affect the control of
aircraft landing and takeoff.
Aircraft movement is affected in
certain instances.
The birds may come into the path of
aircraft and affect the smooth
landing and takeoff of aircraft
Loss of life or injuries to the
passenger.
Damage to aircraft and solar PV
modules.
In addition, there is a possibility for
fire breakout.
Parts of solar PV systems such as
modules, mounting structures,
cables can move to the runway
area and affect the movement of
aircraft.
Electric arc may subsequently lead to
an outbreak of fire especially if
flammable liquids, gas, or solids are
present and may cause injury or
death to a small group of people.
Prior glare assessment for the
proposed PV site. In certain cases,
blinds or protective films can be
fixed to the control tower or
windscreen.
Suggested to keep a setback of 500 ft
or so the distance between CNS
facilities and solar PV.
Radar absorbing material (RAM) can
also be used.
Any deviation from airspace
regulations must be accompanied
by prior consultation with aviation
authorities and ICAO.
Proper lighting and signboards can
help in easy identification of the PV
module.
Monitoring of bird activity in solar PV
array areas especially during
summer and rainy days
Provide extra spacing between the
rows of PV array.
Use frangible material for module
structures.
Reduce the salient and sharp
elements in the PV system.
Check for debris on the runway after
episodes of strong winds and
interventions on the PV system.
Insert a resistant weft in the PV panel
can ensure its integrity.
Fencing the solar PV plant site
Use underground cables wherever
possible.
Installation of plant shut down switch
Periodical inspection of electrical
components

Abbreviations: ATC, air traffic control; CNS, communication, navigation, and surveillance; ICAO, International Civil Aviation Organization; PV, photovoltaic.

purposes. In July 2011, the airport authority offered to lease land for
30 years for solar farm development without taking the risk of owning
the project. At the same time, it will enhance the airport's reputation
for environmental stewardship and help to generate nonaviation reve-
nue. The airport receives an annual payment for land lease. The pro-
ject was given to Indianapolis-based companies (Telamon Corporation
and Johnson Melloh Solutions). Later, GES USA joined the team and
financed the project as well as supplied PV modules. Following this,
the developers obtained a 15-year PPA from IPL that gave long-term
revenue and took approval from the Indiana Utility Regulatory Com-
mission (IURC).
IAA actively worked with the project developers as and when
issues arose. The solar project consists of a network of participants
involved in the development, regulation, approval, design, and
construction process. For example, the duration of PPA needs to be
extended from 10 years to 15 years in order to make the project
economically viable. IAA stood with the developers patiently to
complete required approvals and negotiations with IURC and IPL.
The airport authority has to decide the suitable level of risk it can
take for such a long-term project. IAA made a prior decision to act
as a landlord and facilitate the project but not as an active partici-
pant. This enables IAA to focus on its primary mission of operating
the airport. Also, IAA did not guarantee financial support to the pro-
ject or agreed to purchase any of the power, hence its financial risk
was the least. The airport and the developers worked closely with
the FAA and conducted rigorous analyses to confirm that reflectiv-
ity or glare would not pose a problem for either the ATC tower or
approaching aircraft.

848
4.2 | Kuala Lumpur International Airport
KLIA is one of the major airports in Southeast Asia and the largest in
Malaysia. KLIA1 and KLIA2 use RE for meeting its electricity needs
partially, through its PV solar power system. Since 2014, the solar PV
system has fed 93.096 million units of clean electrical energy as per
the airport's sustainability report 2018. Malaysia Airports Holdings
Bhd (MAHB) is expected to save RM 2.1 million annually in its elec-
tricity bills by using electricity generated from a solar PV system in its
vicinity. The system uses SunEdison-Silvantis solar PV modules. The
system generated 18 284 MWh of energy in 2018 and reduces car-
bon dioxide emissions by 18 million kg annually.63 This is equivalent
to 6742 tonnes of wastes prevented from being sent to the landfill
every year. The installed solar capacity in the airport is 19 MWdc and
is the largest and first of its kind in Malaysia. This solar system con-
sists of ground-mounted (5 MW), parking canopy (10 MW), and roof-
top (4 MW) systems with a total investment of USD 60 million.42
Within KLIA, MAHB owns 24 200 acres (9791.32 ha) and has utilized
only half of the land. The three areas within KLIA are selected for
solar PV installation—at the peripheral of KLIA, the car park, and the
satellite building. The solar PV installation in the carport of KLIA is
seen in Figure 5.
Solar technology manufacturer and provider (developer), Sun-
Edison Inc, built and funded the RM200 million solar system.55 The
developer owns the assets and took the airport land on lease from
MAHB for 21 years. There is no financial commitment from the air-
port company. It provided unutilized airport property to the devel-
oper. The developer, SunEdison, is required to pay lease rental and
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SREENATH ET AL.
F I G U R E 4 Solar photovoltaic
(PV) installation in Indianapolis
airport [Colour figure can be
viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
royalty to MAHB, which runs the airport. The electrical energy gener-
ated in the solar plant is bought by the airport at a rate of less than
the previous company. The FiT was granted to the developer by the
Sustainable Energy Development Agency (SEDA) Malaysia.
The favorable RE policies in Malaysia helped the airport and
the solar developer in setting up the plan. Following the success,
MAHB plans to expand the airport solar system at its other loca-
tions especially in short takeoff and landing ports (STOL ports)
located in remote areas. It was suggested that the airport operator
has to study the glaring effect of the solar panels on the pilots
before building solar PV systems within the vicinity of airports in
the country. Excellent feed-in program in Malaysia helped the
developers to execute the project successfully. The SunEdison
Renewable Operation Centre will provide round-the-clock manage-
ment and monitoring services for the project to ensure maximum
energy generation.
4.3 | Cochin International Airport
The successful implementation of solar PV systems in airport premises
made Cochin airport the world's first fully solar-powered airport. This
project took off with a 1.1-MWp rooftop solar system on airport
building as a pilot project. Later, the airport installed a 12-MWp
ground-mounted system at a location close to the cargo complex.
Presently, the airport produces solar power up to 30 MW (including a
6-MW canal-top solar project and 2.7 MW on the car park) to meet
its energy requirement. Excess energy is fed to a nearby electricity

SREENATH ET AL.
FIGURE 5 Carport solar installation in Kuala Lumpur airport [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
grid. Figure 6 shows the top view of a part of a solar PV installation at
Cochin airport.
A 100-kWp pilot solar PV plant is installed on the rooftop of the
international arrival terminal in 2013.64 Following its success, a
1-MWp solar system was installed near the premises of Cochin Inter-
national Airport Ltd (CIAL) academy building. The total yield from
100-kWp and 1-MWp solar PV power plants constitute only a mere
portion of the total electricity consumption of the airport from the
state electricity board. The airport requires around 48 000 units daily
on an average for its normal operation. The entire demand had been
met from the energy supplied by the Kerala State Electricity Board
(KSEB). In addition to the huge electricity bill, the tariff is varied from
time to time, which in turn posed a huge economic burden on the air-
port. So, the stakeholders decided to make the airport grid neutral by
commissioning solar PV plants of adequate capacity.
Phase I (12 MWp and 2.4 MWp) was executed by Bosch Limited
(EPC contractor) within a short span of 6 months. Around 45 acres of
land was identified near the cargo building of the airport for this pur-
pose. Because of the high capital expenditure and difficulties associ-
ated with their routine maintenance of battery storage, the “energy
banking” facility provided by KSEB for the RE developers is utilized. In
this scenario, the excess energy generated during day time can be
injected into the grid and can be taken back as and when required
without remitting any excess charge. The 12-MW solar plant consists
of 46 150 solar panels of 260-Wp capacity. The DC energy is
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849
converted into AC form by means of 10 central inverters (1-MW
capacity). The outputs of every two inverters are connected to a
2-MVA transformer for enhancing the voltage level to 110-kV state
electricity grid through the 110-kV substation of CIAL. Sukumaran
and Sudhakar have studied the performance of the 12-MW solar plant
in the airport using the first one-year operational data. The plant was
working with a good value of performance ratio (86.56%) and capacity
utilization factor (20.12%) during the analysis period.19 It is to be
noted that prior permission and glare analysis is carried out as part of
the feasibility study.
Phase II (13.7 MWp) is proposed to meet the energy requirement
of the new international terminal, and thus the airport can retain the
grid neutral status. It consists of a 3-MWp solar installation near the
hangar area, 6-MWp canal top, and 2-MWp ground-mounted PV sys-
tem near the sewage treatment plant. Apart from that, a 2.7-MWp
carport solar PV project was also executed, which consists of 8527
solar PV panels of 315-Wp capacity. This unique carport can provide
clean energy to the airport and shade to the cars parked in the airport.
4.4 | Future prospects
The availability the vast unused areas and the rise in air passengers
are the main market drives for solar PV applications in the airport. In
this regard, the ASPV market is expected to reach $577.7 million by

850
FIGURE 6 Solar photovoltaic (PV) installations in Cochin airport [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
2021. The influence of nanotechnologies can accelerate the wide
spread of ASPV system to a great extent.65 There are tens of thou-
sands of airports or airfields around the globe. Flat stretches of land
that are easily accessible (near a city, town, or populated area) can be
66
seen in the airport. According to the Central Intelligence Agency's
World Factbook, 41 788 airports or airfields are visible from the top.
On this basis, the United States has the highest number of airports
67
(13 513), and Brazil stands second in the list with 4093 airports. This
data may include closed or abandoned installations but not those that
are no longer recognizable (overgrown, no facilities, etc). As per an
optimistic estimate, if the 1-MWp solar PV system is installed on each
of these airfields, then a cumulative power output of above 40 GWp
could be generated from airports. The cumulative PV capacity of
200 GWp is operational globally till the end of 2015 and is expected
to double or even triple by 2020. The Airports Authority of India plans
to generate 50 MW from solar plants at 30 airports. Only eight out of
130 airports of India, including those owned by private companies,
are using solar electricity generated from on-site plants. Aena Airport
Company, Spain, plans to install a solar PV system in 20 airports (out
of 46), focusing on those airports with more land availability and bet-
ter solar resource. Airports having solar installation can guide other
similar ones in the development and operation of solar PV systems. In
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SREENATH ET AL.
order to set up a solar power plant at Hazrat Shahjalal International
Airport in Bangladesh, an official team visited Delhi and Kolkata air-
ports to observe and analyze the technical and engineering issues that
may occur while installing solar plants at airports.68 From similar char-
acteristics in terms of weather, sunlight, and related factors, it was
estimated that a solar PV system with capacity ranging from 15 to
17 MW can be installed, which will meet one-third of its electricity
requirement. The concept of zero-energy airport building means a
building having a net energy use of zero units for a particular duration
and is getting attention all over the world. Airport premises have the
scope for solar PV installation in buildings, rooftop, and land. In
building-integrated PV (BIPV) systems, solar cells/modules are fixed
into the building. Since airport buildings are typically horizontal and
cover a vast shade-free area, the scope for building-integrated appli-
cations is enormous. From a case study presented for Florianopolis
International Airport, a 1670-kW BIPV installation can make the air-
port a net exporter of electrical energy. Through the wise use of
ground-mounted and BIPV techniques, the zero-energy building (ZEB)
concept can be well implemented in the airport environment.69
Many US airports consider solar-based portable airfield lighting as
an ideal contingency solution for commercial airports as it provides
help to airport operators at the time of failure of airfield lighting.

SREENATH ET AL.
Aircrafts parked at airport gates of the Norman Manley International
Airport, Jamaica, uses solar energy to power onboard systems and to
provide heating and cooling amenities. This helps to avoid the use of
diesel-fueled power units and hence is a practical and cost-effective
means of reducing aviation carbon emissions.70
5 | C O N CL U S I O N S
The application of solar PV technology in the airport environment is
relatively new. Air navigation safety has the utmost importance in air-
port operation. An extensive web-based data collection is carried out
to know the present reach of the study. The technical, economic,
environmental, and safety aspects are studied for the airport solar
systems.
• Solar PV systems are versatile and compatible with various con-
straints of the airport environment, and it is concluded that solar
PV plants can be installed in any airport across the world. With
14.4-MWp installed solar PV capacity, Cochin International Airport
in south India is the first airport that runs fully by solar energy.
• The general considerations for airport-based solar PV systems
include the possibility of glare hazard, interference to CNS facili-
ties, and penetration into airspace. The tilt and orientation of the
PV module are varied so as to mitigate the glare hazard. Deviation
from typical siting and design procedures was observed in some
solar projects. Hence, it was concluded that site selection and sys-
tem design of airport-based PV systems are a bit complex than the
land-based system.
• Though the initial investment is huge, solar PV projects are
observed to be economically feasible in the airport environment.
This can be attributed to a huge energy bill, availability of grants,
and tax incentives. The total project cost for the solar PV system in
Adelaide Airport, Australia, was $2.45 million. This solar project is
estimated to have an acceptable internal rate of return of 13.1%, a
positive net present value and a payback period of 8 years.
• It was observed that the carbon mitigation potential of a solar-
powered airport is enormous. For example, Adelaide Airport is
expected to cut the airport's carbon footprint by 915 tonnes of
CO2e. This PV installations will show the airport's environmental
stewardship to the public.
• From the present study, it was understood that project developers
faced various challenges such as airport-compatible system design,
suitable ownership model, and profitable selling tariff from plan-
ning to the execution stage. In addition, multifaceted discussion
and approvals from stakeholders is also a challenging task for pro-
ject developers.
• It is recommended that an individual feasibility study for the airport
helps in addressing the airport-related risks and accounting local
regulations. The feasibility report may include the technical, eco-
nomic, and safety aspects of the airport solar system.
• Since the number of airports across the world is in the order of
tens of thousands (10 000) and airports are answerable for its
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851
carbon emission and ecological damage, the solar potential of air-
port land must be tapped to the fullest.
AC KNOW LEDG EME NT
The authors are grateful to the financial support provided by the Uni-
versity Malaysia Pahang through Doctoral Research Scheme (DRS),
PGRS1903172, Internal grant RDU18003.
OR CID
Sukumaran Sreenath https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0236-3561
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