12.

Site survey and shading analysis

Tzineyrakis Antonios TDK CRETE GR

Learning outcomes

After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to:

• Realise why and how on-site surveys are necessary

• List the data that need to be recorded during a survey
• List the documents and items necessary for a survey
• Fully comprehend the information that need to be gathered from the
consumer/owner of the installation
• Understand the effects of shading on PV modules
• Distinguish the different types of shadows
• Calculate the effect of shading on the performance of the installation
• Optimize a PV installation to minimize the effects of shading, when shading is
unavoidable

Site survey

A site survey is essential in order to begin planning a grid-connected PV system. The

site survey enables the assessment of the basic conditions for the PV system. First, it
is important to establish whether the site or the building is suitable for installing a PV
system. A thorough initial investigation avoids planning errors.

The installation work for the PV array, the installation site for the inverters, the
wiring routes, the actual laying of cables and the expanding or modifying the meter
cupboard can be better estimated and agreed in consultation with the customer.
Before planning gets under way, the customer should also be asked how much they
expect to spend as well as possible subsidies that should also be taken into account
since those will have a deciding influence in the size of the system.

Data recording during site surveys

During site surveys the following points should be taken into account. Those data
form the basis for good planning:

 Customers' wishes with regard to module type, system concept and method
of installation.
  Desired PV power or the desired energy yield.
 The financial framework, taking the respective subsidy conditions into
account.
 Usable installation area.
 Orientation and angle of inclination.
 Roof shape, roof structure, roof substructure and type of roofing in case of
roof installations.
 Data on shading.
 Installation sites for junction boxes and inverters.
 Meter cupboard and space for extra meters.
 Cable lengths, wiring routes and routing method.
 Access, particularly when equipment is required for installing the PV array
(crane, scaffolding, etc.).

A checklist of information for a site survey is provided at the end of this chapter
that will help the recording of data at an on-site visit.

Documents and items at the on-site visit

The following documents and items at the on-site visit can assist in the planning of
the PV system:

 Site plan of the area or the building to ascertain its orientation.

 Construction drawings of the building to ascertain roof slope, the usable
area and the cable lengths, in case of building installations.
 Photographs of the construction area or the roof, of the surrounding area and
of the electric meter location.
 Checklists for recording the on-site visit (such as the checklist at the end of
this chapter).
 Information on photovoltaics (general information, company brochures and
product descriptions, photos of existing PV systems).
 Compass.
 Tape measure.
 Shading analyzer or sun path diagram on acetate.
 Camera.

Consulting with the customer

The planning and building of a photovoltaic system is generally initiated by a

customer's enquiry. Consultation with the customer is therefore an important and
essential step before commissioning the building of a photovoltaic system. When
talking to the costumer, the PV installer must recognize the customer's expectations
and wishes. Consultation in this case, first and foremost, consists of helping the
customer to make up their mind on the system they want to be installed. The PV
installer should possess technical knowledge concerning structure, function, sizing
and the installation of photovoltaic systems, as well as knowledge regarding the
financial costs of PV systems and their components. The installer should be prepared
to answer the following questions:

 What is the difference between a PV module and a solar collector?

 How a solar cell works?
 How much electricity the system will produce in a year?
 What happens to the power supply when the sun isn't shinning?
 How much power the system does produce when the sky is cloudy?
 What does 'kilowatts peak' power mean?
 Whether the area or the roof is suitable for a system like this.
 What happens if the modules get dirty from snow or dust?
 Whether hailstones can damage the modules.
 Whether it is worthy having a moving mount that tracks the sun.
 Which are the necessary permissions for the installation of a PV system?
 What will the system cost, including installation?
 What are the available subsidies?
 How much money the customer gets for the electricity that goes into the
main grid?
 How long the approximate payback time for a PV system is.
 What kind of maintenance the system requires?
 Whether a lightning can destroy the system.
 How long will the system last?
 What the system’s warranties are.

Shadow types

Ideally, PV arrays should be installed in a shade-free location. However, grid-

connected systems are usually found in urban and suburban areas and the modules
are usually installed on roofs, where some shading is sometimes inevitable. Shading
can reduce the output of a PV array considerably and ideally should be avoided. As
far as PV arrays for stand-alone systems are concerned, they are usually located in
rural areas and have sufficient land around the building usually available, so they can
be situated where there is no shade.

A shadow cast on a PV system has a much greater effect on the solar yield than, for
example, in the case of solar thermal systems. Shading can be classified as
temporary, resulting from the location or from a building, or caused by the system
itself (self-shading).
Temporary shading

Typical temporary shading includes factors such as snow, leaves, bird droppings and
other types of soiling. Snow is a significant factor, especially in mountainous areas.
Dust and soot soiling in industrial areas or fallen leaves in forested areas are also
significant factors. Snow, soot and leaves collecting on the PV array cause shading,
the effect of which will be lower if the array self-cleans, for example if it is washed
away by flowing rainwater. A till angle of 12 or more is usually sufficient to achieve
this. Greater tilt angles increase the flow speed of the rain water and, hence, help to
carry away dirt particles. This type of shading can be reduced by increasing the tilt of
the PV array. Snow on a PV array melts faster than the surrounding snow, so that,
generally, shading only occurs on a few days.

In snowy areas, arranging the standard modules horizontally, enables losses caused
by snow to be reduced by half. In this way, shading caused by the snow generally
affects only two and not four rows of cells on each module, as is the case in the
vertical arrangement. Figure 1a shows the horizontal arrangement and Figure 1b the
vertical arrangement of the modules.

(a) Horizontal arrangement (b) Vertical arrangement

Figure 1. Arrangement of photovoltaic panels in case of snow shadowing [1].

Shading caused by leaves, bird droppings, air pollution and other dirt has a stronger
and longer-lasting impact. If a system is heavily affected by this, regular cleaning of
the PV modules will noticeably increase the solar yield. In a normal location and with
sufficient tilt, it can be assumed that the loss due to soiling amounts from 2% to 5%.
Generally, this loss is considered acceptable. If heavy soiling is present, the modules
may be cleaned using water and a gentle cleaning implement (as a sponge) without
using detergents.

Shading resulting from the location

Shading resulting from the location covers all shading produced from the
photovoltaic system's surroundings. Neighboring buildings, trees and even distant
tall buildings can shade the system. It must be taken into account that, due to the
growth of trees and shrubs, vegetation may shade the system only after years.
Overhead cables running over the building also have a negative effect, casting a
small but effective moving shadow.

Shading resulting from the building

Shading resulting from the building involves direct shadows, which should therefore
be viewed as particularly critical. Special attention should be paid to chimneys,
antennae, lightning conductors, satellite dishes, roof and facade protrusions as well
as roof superstructures. Some shading can be avoided by moving the photovoltaic
modules or the object causing the shading (for example, an antennae). If this is not
possible, the impact of the shading can be minimized by taking it into account when
selecting how the cells and modules are wired up and during the system's concept.

Self - shading

Self-shading of the modules may be caused by the row of modules in front. Space
requirements and shading losses can be minimized through optimization of the tilt
angles and distances between the module rows. A poorly designed or installed
mounting system may also cause micro-shading in sloping roof installations.

Direct shading

Direct shading can cause high energy losses. The closer the shadow-casting object,
the darker the shadow will be since the module is hit by the core shadow and the
less diffuse light reaches the photovoltaic module. Thus, the core shadow cast by a
near object reduces the energy incident on the cell by approximately 60% to 80%,
while a partial shade leads to a reduction only half as high. The larger the distance to
the shadow-casting object, the brighter the shadow is and the more shading losses
are reduced. Figure 2 shows the creation of core and partial shadows.
Figure 2. Core shadow and partial shadow on a photovoltaic panel [1, 2].

Based on the thickness of the shadow-casting

shadow object d,, the optimum distance aopti
from the modules can be calculated. The optimum distance aopti from the modules
is determined by the following
owing relation:

(1)

where
 as distance Earth to sun: 150 million km.
 ds diameter of sun: 1.39 million km.
From relation (1), since aopti << as the following relation occurs:

(2)

Thus, for example, an overhead cable with a diameter d = 5cm must be at least 5.4m
away so that no core shadow is cast onto the modules. Direct shading should be
reduced in any case. The fluctuation of the shading depending upon the season and
time of day, as well as the resulting losses, may be calculated using
using corresponding
simulation programs.

Shading analysis
In order to assess the shading resulting from the location, a shading analysis should
be performed. For this, the shadow outline of the surroundings of the photovoltaic
systems is recorded for one point in the system, usually the centre point of the
photovoltaic array. For larger systems or if greater accuracy is desired, the shading
analysis should be carried out for several different points. The shadow outline for
the surrounding area can be found using:

 site plan

 sun path diagram

 shading analyser (a digital camera and software or Solar Pathfinder).

Using a site plan

When using a site plan, the distance and the dimensions of shadow-casting objects
are calculated. From this information, the azimuth angle a and the elevation angle γ
are calculated, Figure 3.

Figure 3. Calculation of an object's azimuth angle a and elevation angle γ [3, 4, 5].

The elevation angle γ is calculated from the difference between the height of the PV
system ℎ1 and the height of the shading object ℎ2 and its distance d:

ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
tan arctan arctan (3)

The elevation angle is worked out for all obstacles in the area surrounding the
photovoltaic system, requiring the height and distance of the objects from the
photovoltaic system. The azimuth angle of the obstacles can be calculated directly
from the site plan.
Using a sun path diagram

In order to assess the shading a sun path diagram can also be used using as axes the
elevation angle γ and the azimuth angle a,, as in Figure 4. The observer, from the
perspective of the system, now looks at the objects through this diagram and can
directly read off and note down the elevation and azimuth angles. Figures 4 and 5
illustrate the use of this simple shading analyser.

Figure 4. Surrounding areas with angular grid [3-5].

[3
Figure 5. Typical sun path diagram with shadow outline [3-5].

The outcome of the shading analysis is the silhouette of shading caused by the
surroundings in the sun path diagram. From Figure 5 it is possible to read the level of
shading that occurs in a particular month. In the example shown in Figure 5, the
location is 50 per cent shaded on 21 December. From 21 February onwards, no more
shading occurs. There will be no shading in the period from March to October.

Further evaluation can be performed graphically, by calculation or (the easiest way)

by using simulation programs, such as PVSol. The geometry of the PV array and the
way in which the modules are wired is only taken into account in more complex
simulation programs, such as PVSyst. Without software, irradiance levels are
required for the individual months at the installation site. This allows the irradiance
loss for the respective month to be estimated from the percentage share of shading,
which is calculated from the sun path diagram.

4.3 Shade analysis tools using software

Several software shade analysis tools are available. These enable an accurate shade
analysis and are less prone to error than manual methods.

The Solar Pathfinder uses a transparent, convex plastic dome to give a panoramic
view of the entire site. All the trees, buildings or other obstacles to the sun are
plainly visible as reflections on the surface of the dome. Because it works on a
reflective principle rather than actually showing shadows, it can be used any time of
the day, any time of the year, in either cloudy or clear conditions. The actual position
of the sun at the time of the solar site analysis is irrelevant. Once the Solar
Pathfinder has been properly set up, it can be used to provide shading data manually
or digitally.

Further evaluation of the sun path diagram is performed via suitable simulation
programs. Most simulation programs calculate the irradiance losses and compute
rough values for the yield losses from them. The yield reductions generally turn out
to be greater than one would suspect based on the shaded surface area. More
complex simulation programs PVsyst, PVcad and 3DSolarwelt enable a three-
dimensional shading analysis that also takes inhomogeneous shadow outlines into
account.

Shading and configuration of the photovoltaic system

The effect of shading on photovoltaic systems depends upon the following factors:

 Number of shaded modules.

 Cell and bypass diode interconnection.
  Degree of shading.
 Spatial distribution and the course of shading over time.
 Interconnection of the modules.
 Inverter design.

As described in the previous section, when predicting yield, the irradiance reduction
is determined for the photovoltaic array area. However, what this fails to take into
account is that the photovoltaic array characteristic I-V curve changes due to the
shading. This causes the maximum power point (MPP) to shift, which the inverter
tries to track. The change of the MPP determines the power reduction relative to the
unshaded array. The input voltage range of the inverter determines the
interconnection concept of the solar modules. With string inverters with high input
voltages, often all of the modules are connected in series. If the inverter has a low
input voltage, this leads to a PV array with several parallel strings.

Figures 6 to 8 demonstrate that the power curves with shading show two maximum
values, one with small voltages and a second with higher voltages. The factors
named before determine how pronounced the maxima are, whether they even exist
or not, or are just a slight bump on the characteristic curves, where the MPP lies and
whether this falls at all in the inverter's tracking range. The amount of power loss
with shaded arrays depends upon the input voltage range of the inverter and thus,
upon the sizing. Furthermore, the MPP tracking concept of the inverter is also
decisive. Depending upon the tracking concept and the course of shading over time,
the system is operated in one of these maxima. There are fundamental differences
between series and parallel connection.

Series connection of photovoltaic panels

With connection of photovoltaic panels in series, both power maxima are possible
operating points for the inverter if they lie within the operating range of the MPP
tracker. Which of these two points is reached depends upon the course of shading
over time and the behavior of the tracker.
Figure 6. Shading situations and characteristic I-V curves in the case of photovoltaic
connection in series [6-8].

With the initially unshaded PV array, the inverter operates in the only maximum of
the characteristic curve. The gradual extension of shadows across the array surface
causes increasingly more modules to be shaded. The left maximum, which initially
still represents the MPP, shifts towards smaller voltages. Since this maximum is well
pronounced, the inverter also remains at the left maximum even if the MPP lies at
the right maximum when there are a larger number of shaded modules.

If the modules are already shaded during the morning and there is already shading
at the moment of switching on, the inverter tracks from the open-circuit voltage to
the right maximum. If this is sufficiently pronounced and the tracking movement is
not too substantial, the inverter remains at this point regardless of whether the MPP
is situated here.

Parallel connection of photovoltaic panels

The shading situations observed with connection in parallel produce completely

different characteristic curves. The most favorable behavior occurs when the shaded
modules are either situated in the same string or are distributed across only a few
strings. The left power maximum here lies at half or less than half the open-circuit
voltage of the PV array and is therefore almost always outside the inverter's tracking
range. It is hardly pronounced, so that the inverter almost certainly tracks to the
right maximum.

With an increasing number of shaded strings, the left power maximum becomes
even more pronounced. Severe shading can make it is possible for the MPP to be
situated here. The left maximum lies at half the open-circuit voltage of the
photovoltaic modules and is therefore outside the inverter's operating range.
Figure 7. Shading
ng situations and characteristic I-V
I V curves in the case of connection in
parallel and shading in two strings [6-8].
[6

Figure 8. Shading situations and characteristic I-V

I V curves in the case of connection in
parallel and shading in one to four strings [6-8].
[6

Comparison of different connection concepts

With a series connection, both power maxima for the shaded characteristic curve
are clearly pronounced. When fewer modules are shaded, the voltages are within
the tracking range of the inverter. For this reason, both operating points must be
taken into account in the following comparison. With a parallel connection, the
inverter can only track the right power maximum effectively since the left is weakly
pronounced and the voltage is too low. It would only be possible to track the left
maximum if there is severe shading
shading in many strings. In this case, there would be a
somewhat lower power loss than in the right maximum.

With parallel connection it can be clearly seen that the power loss only depends
upon the number of shaded strings. With shading in two strings, despite the increase
from two shaded modules to eight, power loss remains almost constant. The series
connectionn shows considerably greater power losses. At the left maximum, the loss
increases with every additionally shaded module. At the right maximum, there is a
higher constant power loss with extensive shading [7].

The reduction in the energy yield depends upon upon the duration of the shading
throughout the entire year. The shading effect with a series and parallel configured
array was studied and compared over a long-term basis using the PV facade at
Saarland University of Science and Technology. For comparison purposes, both
designs were implemented on the same photovoltaic system by switching between
the two. In order to limit the currents with the parallel connection, DC-DC
converters were connected to every module and linked with a central inverter via a
DC energy bus. The long-term measurements revealed that there was an up to 30%
higher energy yield for the parallel connection compared with the series connection
for this façade [9].

With no or low shading, the possible yields are independent of the photovoltaic
array configuration. Here, owing to simpler and more cost-effective mounting, string
inverters can provide the better solution economically. If it is not possible to have an
unshaded system, parallel-connected modules allow for lower power and, therefore,
yield losses, especially if careful planning leads to shading occurring in just a few
strings. The disadvantages of such array configurations, such as cable losses resulting
from higher currents or increased installation expenditure, are more than
compensated for by the increased yields, especially as other yield-reducing effects,
such as mismatching, have a greater effect with connection in series than with
connection in parallel. Standard simulation programs are unable to take sufficient
account of these complex situations, particularly when there is no direct shading.

Figure 9. Power losses with different connection concepts [6-8].

6. Shading with free-standing photovoltaic arrays

The photovoltaic arrays are frequently mounted on flat areas, such as in flat roofs or
flat fields. They can be mounted horizontally but the highest energy yield is attained
when there is optimum inclination. In Greece, a 30⁰ angle leads generally to an
increase of 10 percent in comparison with horizontal installation [11]. In addition,
horizontal systems must be cleaned more frequently, otherwise significant losses
may occur as a result of soiling.
To specify the utilization of a specific area, the area exploitation factor f is used,
which is defined by the ratio of the module width b to the module row distance d:

(4)

where the distances b and d are given in Figure 10.

Equation 4 usually results to an area exploitation factor between 0 and 1, or 0

percent and 100 percent. A factor of 100 percent area exploitation would, however,
cause considerable mutual shading of the individual module rows.

Figure 10. Shading with free-standing photovoltaic arrays.

With a low tilt angle β, there is less shading and the area can be better exploited.
However solar yield across the year then drops. For this reason, a tilt angle of 30⁰ is
usually chosen, as well as an area exploitation factor of between 30 percent and 40
percent. The distance between the module rows depends upon the module widths
as well as the tilt and shading angles by the following relation:
sin 180° β γ
d b (5)

where γ the shading angle, as in Figure 10.

In general, two rules of thumb have proven themselves with a tilt angle β of 30⁰:
1. To reduce losses: distance d1 = 6 × height h.
2. Taking into consideration optimum area exploitation: distance i = 3 × module
width b

Figures 11 and 12 can be used to determine shading losses [1-5]. From Figure 11
first, for a specific tilt angle and an area exploitation factor the shading angle γ is
selected. Then, using the shading angle γ and the tilt angle β in Figure 12, the
shading losses can be found.

For example, for a tilt angle of β=30ο and an area exploitation factor 50 percent, the
shading angle γ=24ο arises from Figure 11. From the shading angle γ=24ο and the tilt
angle of β=30ο, the shading losses of 12% are derived from Figure 12.

The resulting yield losses are also affected by the other panel shadings and the
system connection concept.

Figure 11. Shading angle as a function of the degree of land use f and the tilt angle β
[1-5].
Figure 12. Shading losses in relation to shading angle γ and the tilt angle β [1-5].

Checklist for site survey

A checklist is provided below for a site survey of grid-connected photovoltaic

systems. Copies of the construction documents, such as the site plan or roof plan,
should be obtained from the customer if available. The following data should also be
marked on the sketch or a copy of the site plan with additional photographs, if
necessary:

 Area, taking orientation into account.

 Usable area for the photovoltaic system.
 Chimneys, antennae and satellite dishes in building installations.
 Buildings situated close by (approximate distance and height).
 Trees (approximate distance and height).
 Overhead cables if these could shade the PV system.
 Other shadings.

PV system checklist

Name of costumer:

Street, number:

Postcode, city:

Phone:

Fax:

Address of construction site:

Available area: Length= _______m × width = _______m = ________ m2

Additional elements:

 Chimney
 Skylight
 Antenna
 Lightning conductor
 Other:
Useful documents

Construction plans

 Site plan
 Photographs
 Building plan
 Sections
 Roof plan
 Building description

Customer wishes

Mounting on land

 Piles into concrete

 Piles into ground
 Reinforced concrete footings

Mounting on the building

 Roof mounted
 Roof integrated

Panel type

 Amorphous
 Mono – crystalline
 Polycrystalline
 Thin - film
 Other

Other wishes

PV power (approximately)_____________kWp
Maximum
investment €____
Desired energy yield ____kWh/a

Maximum area ____ m2

_________________________________________________
Other _____

Roof
Roof shape

 Flat roof
 Monopitch roof
 Gable roof
 Roof with industrial panel
 Other:____________________________________________________________
_______

Roof construction

Heat insulation? yesno

Roof
substructure__________________________________________________________
__

Distance between rafters = _____m

Accessibility of the
roof________________________________________________________

PV generator, inverters and meters

Orientation of the PV generator from -90⁰ (east) via 0⁰ (south) to +90⁰ (west): ____⁰

Tilt angle of the PV generator from 0⁰ (horizontal) to 90⁰ (vertical): ____⁰

Is there lightning protection?  yes no

Where can the PV generator be earthed?

_________________________________________

Place for generator junction box?

________________________________________________

Where is the electricity meter?

_________________________________________________

Meter connection?
____________________________________________________________

Is there still room for the meter?  yes  no

Is there space for the inverter ?  yes  no

Place for the inverter? _______________________________

Place for the DC main switch? _________________________

Lines and installation

Approximate cable length distance between PV generator and junction

box: ___m Distance between generator junction box and inverter: _____m

Distance between inverter and mains supply: ____m

Location and type of installation for the DC main cables: ________

Location and type of installation for the AC connection cables: _______

Other

Annual electricity consumption? _____ kWh/year

Is the house a listed building or in a conservation area?  yes  no

References

1. Haselhuhn, R. 2004, Auswertung von Betriebsdaten der PV-Fassadenanlage am Energieforum

Berlin, DGS, Berlin.
2. Haselhuhn, R. 2005, Photovoltaik - Gebäude liefern Strom, Hrsg, BINE -
Fachinformationsdienst Karlsruhe, TÜV-Verlag, Cologne.

3. Quaschning, V. 1996, Simulation der Abschattungsverluste bei solarelektrischen Systemen,

Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin.

4. Quaschning, V, 2000, Systemtechnik einer Klimaverträglichen Elektrizitätsversorgung in

Deutschland für das 21. Jahrhundert, VDI Verlag, pp. 40-50.

5. Quaschning, V., Grochowski A., and Hanitsch R., 1998, Untersuchungen von
Alterungserscheinungen bei Photovoltaik - Modulen an der TU-Berlin, Technische
Univerität Berlin, Berlin.

6. Siegfriedt, U., 1999, Optimierung von abgeschatteten Solargeneratoren bei Netzeinspeisung,

Diplomarbeit TU-Berlin Fachbereich Elektrotechnik, Berlin.

7. Siegfriedt, U, 2000, 'Solarmodule richtig verschalten - Leistungsverluste bei verschatteten

Solarstromanlagen verringern', Fachartikel Sonnenenergie 4.

8. Siegfriedt, U. and Slickers, G., 2001, Vergleich des solaren Ertrages von nachgeführten und
feststehenden PV- Anlagen, Fachbeitrag zum DGS- Workshop- Betriebsergebnisse von
Photovoltaikanlagen, DGS, Berlin.

9. Freitag, O. and Weber, U A, 2000, Systematische Untersuchungen zur Abschattungsproblematik

von PV-Generatoren mit ihren Auswirkungen auf den Energieertrag, Beitrag zum 12’,
Internationale Sonnenforum 2000 der DGS, Berlin.

10. Deutsche Gesellschaft fϋr Sonnenenergie (DGS), Planning & Installing photovoltaic systems. A
guide for installers, architects and engineers, second edition.
11. CRES, 2009, “Guidelines for installation of building integrated PV systems”