CHAPTER 2

HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

AND INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Stone Age

The stone age technology could be shown by the ignition of fire by rubbing two stones,
handmade weapon, manufacturing, utensils making using stones and the use of clothing from
animal skin and fur. Furthermore, the stone age people also developed canoe-ship technology
which enabled them to travel across the ocean. They learned informally about ocean currents,
weather conditions, sailing techniques, astro navigation and star maps. Further technology was
shown by producing polished stone tools using hard rocks which became a prelude to the mining
industry

Bronze age

The bronze age period showed the development of agricultural technology, fishing
techniques and domesticating animals and establishment of permanent homes instead of going
from one place to another. The people also developed metal technology using copper and bronze.

Iron Age

During the iron age, the people made Progress by resorting to iron smelting technology since
iron was cheaper than bronze. The iron age was the last period prior to the discovery of writing.

Educational Technology During the Period of Ancient Civilizations

Paul Saettler (2004), traced the development of educational technology during the ancient
civilization when the tribal priests introduced bodies of knowledge and ancient culture, and
introduced sign writing or pictographs to record or transmit information. In pictographs, the
people draw their ideas like house, fruits, vegetables, events and other thoughts and ideas.
Instructional technique was found in every stage of human civilization based on the number of
investigations and evidences. Technology of instruction was found to be more complex in highly
advanced cultures, and social behavior. Likewise, diverse significant shift in educational values,
goals or objectives led to diverse technologies of instruction

The greatest advances in technology and engineering came with the rise of the ancient
civilizations which stimulated and educated people and societies in the world to adopt new ways
of living and governance. An important example of ancient language development was shown by
the Harappan people whose writing was described as pictographic script. The script contained
400 basic signs with variations This writing technology, done from right to left was found on
seals used in trade and official and administrative activities. More so, the Harrapan people
expanded their craft through technology in making measuring tools of length, mass, and time.
They also pioneered the development of uniform weights and measures (P.N. Rao et al 2009).

The Chinese Civilization, contributed technology like paper, seismological detectors,

toilet paper, matches, iron plough, suspension bridge, wheelbarrow, parachute, natural gas as
fuel, magnetic compass, elevated relief map and gun powder. With the invention of paper, came
their first step towards developments of educational technology by further culturing different
handmade paper products as means of visual aids.

Another language-related technology was the ancient Egyptian language which was one
of the longest surviving and used languages in the world. Their script was made up of pictures of
the real things like birds, animals, different tools, etc. These pictures are popularly called
hieroglyph. Their language was made up of above 500 hieroglyphs which are known as
hieroglyphics. The stone monuments or tombs which were discovered and rescued later on
provides the evidence of existence of many forms of artistic hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt.

Educational Technology During Medieval and Modern Period

Paper and pulp papermaking process which was developed in China during the early 2
century AD, was carried to the Middle East and was spread to the Mediterranean by the Muslim
conquests. Evidences support that a paper mill was also established in Sicily in the 12" century.
The discovery of spinning wheel increased the productivity of thread making process to a great
extent and when Lynn White added the spinning wheel with increasing supply of rags, this led to
the production of cheap paper, which was a prime factor in the development of printing
technology.

The invention of the printing press took place in approximately 1450 AD, by Johannes
Gutenburg, a German inventor. This event was a prime developmental factor in the history of
educational technology to convey the instruction as per the need of the complex and advanced-
technology cultured society.

During the pre-industrial phases, when industry was at the handwork or artisan level

instructional processes utilized gadgets like the slate, the horn book, the blackboard, d chalk.
During this time, only textbook was used with a few illustrations. Educational technology during
those times was associated with simple aids like charts and pictures.

In 1873, educational technology paved its way to be known as audio-visual education

when an international exhibition held in Vienna showcased the winning American exhibition of
maps, charts, textbooks and other equipment. This was followed by Maria Montessori (1870-
1952), an internationally renowned child educator, when she introfuced the Montessori Method,
which developed graded designed activities to provide for the proper sequencing of subject
matter for each individual learner.

This effort marked the beginning of the dynamic educational technology. Modern
educational technology flourished as an extension of Montessori's idea of prepared child centered
environment.

Earlier than Montessori's innovation, Charles Babbage's design of a general purpose

computing device laid the foundation of the modern computer in 1883.

The art of teaching recommended for the application of knowledge derived from
behavioral psychology to classroom procedures along with the use of automated teaching
devices.

In 1929, the first practical use of regular television broadcasts was done in Germany. The
Olympic Games in 1936 were shown on television in Berlin. Then, open circuit television began
to broadcast entertainment in 1950. In 1960, television was used in education.
 In 1943, the first computing machine was designed by Babbage. In 1966, O.K. Moore
developed a talking type tutorial Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI). Since 1974, computers
are interestingly used in schools, colleges, and universities. In the beginning of the 19th century,
there were noteworthy changes in the field of education. british Broadcasting Corporation
(BBC), right from its start of school broadcasts in 1920 had maintained rapid pace in making
sound contribution to formal education. In the USA, by 1952, 20 states had the provision for
educational broadcasting. Parallel to this time about 98% of the schools in United Kingdom were
equipped with radios and there were regular daily programs.

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom from USA introduced the taxonomy of educational objectives
through his publication. "The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, The Classification of
Educational Goals, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain.”

Educational technology begun in 1960 from America and Russia and now, it has reached
England, Europe and India.

In 1961, Micro teaching technique was first adopted by Dwight W. Allen and his co-
workers at Stanford University in USA.

Electronics is the main technology being developed in the beginning of the 210 century.
Broadband Internet access became popular and occupied almost all the importan offices and
educational places and even in common places in developed countries with the advantage of
connecting home computers with music libraries and mobile phones.

Today's classroom is more likely to be a technology lab, a room with rows of students
using internet connected or Wi-Fi enabled laptops, palmtops, notepads, or perhaps, students are
attending a video conferencing or virtual classroom or may have been listening to a podcast or
taking in a video lecture. Rapid technological changes in the field of education have created new
ways to teach and to learn. Technological changes also motivated the teachers to access a variety
of information on a global scale via the Internet, to enhance their lessons as well as to make them
competent professionals in their area of concern. At the same time, students can utilize vast
resources of the Internet to enrich their learning experience to cope up with the changing trends
of society Nowadays, students as well as teachers are attending seminars, conferences,
workshops at national and international level by using the multimedia techno-resources like
PowerPoint and they even pursue a variety of important courses of their choice in distance mode
via online learning. Online learning facility has opened an infinite number of doors of
opportunities for today's learner to make their life happier than ever before.

Educational technology is a multifaceted and integrated process which are applied and
used by people, procedure, ideas, devices, and organization. It utilized varied technologies
derived from different fields of science. The technology use is based on specific needs and
requirements of education to address education-related problems to facilitate the implementation,
evaluation, of programs about human learning. Educational technology development went
through five stages.

Stage 1

The first stage of educational technology is associated with the use of aids like charts,
maps, symbols, models, specimens and concrete materials. Educational technology referred to
audio-visual aids. Examples of these visual aids are those that cater to the sense of sight, sense of
hearing, sense of touch, sense of smell, and sense of taste. Reading materials such as books,
magazines, journals, encyclopedia, charts, pictures, graphs, and illustrations fall under the
category of materials under the sense of sight. For the sense of hearing, technology involved the
sound system, tapes and cassettes which were used during programs and school activities. Visual
aids used to learn through sense of touch are materials showing texture, real objects, materials
which can be manipulated by the learners. Sense of smell and sense of taste are usually used in
experiential learning in vocational and livelihood courses where the materials to be produced are
manipulated by the learners as they produce new projects, and items in food technology, clothing
technology, and related crafts projects like wood craft, metal craft. fiber craft and recycling
activities. In other instances where resources were limited, the chalkboard, chalk, charts and
pictures were used.

Stage 2

Stage 2 in the development of educational technology refers to the introduction of

electronics through the sophisticated hardware and software. This stage shows the use of varied
audio-visual gadgets like projector, tape recorder, radio and television which ed changes in the
educational scenario. These gadgets were used for effective presentations in lectures and lessons.
Stage 3

The third stage of educational technology revolved around the use of communication
enhancement equipment to promote mass media for instructional purposes. Computer-assisted
Instruction (CAI) became an important component of instruction. Both students and teachers
used the computer to surf for topics and some researches. The ERIC search was used to make a
review of researches undertaken on becific topics but for a corresponding fee usually paid in the
library.

Stage 4

The fourth stage of educational technology exemplified individualized teaching and learning
with the use of programmed learning and programmed instruction It created a new approach to
educational technology with the introduction of self-learning based on self-instructional
materials and teaching machines. Students could avail of these instructional materials in the
library, in the computer store or in their own classrooms. The teachers select materials for self-
learning which are usually self-learning kits and modules accessed in prints or via the computer.
They are sometimes prepared by the teacher or a group of teachers teaching common subjects.

Stage 5

"The latest concept of educational technology is influenced by the concept of system engineering
or system approach which focuses on language laboratories teaching machines, programmed
instruction, multimedia technologies and the use of the computer in instruction. According to it,
educational technology is a systematic way of designing, carrying out, and evaluating the total
process of teaching and learning in terms of specific objectives based on research."
(http://blitzlondon.blogspot.com/2012/10/ history-of-educational-technology.html)

HISTORY OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN

EDUCATION

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) uses the term
ICTs, or information and communication technologies, to describe: "...the tools the processes to
access, retrieve, store, organise, manipulate, produce, present and exchange information by
electronic and other automated means. These include hardware, software and
telecommunications in the forms of personal computers, scanners, digital cameras, phones, faxes,
modems, CD and DVD players and recorders, digitised video, radio and TV programmes,
database programmes and multimedia programmes” (UNESCO Bangkok, 2003, p.75; Anderson,
p.5).

Historical context is important to better understand the evolution of Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) in education.

From the history of media, we know that new forms never replace the old one Television
did not kill radio and Internet did not kill TV. New forms of media rather complement the old
ones, but do not countervail them. This naturally leads to greater choice for people, but also
causes fragmentation. Different media devices and formats also get mixed up with each other
and this way generates new forms that contain features from each of them. iPod is a good
example of this. It is a kind of a walkman in the Internet era that can be used as a personalized
radio.

Five Phases of Using Computers in Education

1. Late 1970’s – Early 1980’s: Programming, Drill, and Practice

This is the era when computers were beginning to be used in school. It was in the early
years of 1980's when teachers were teaching "ADP" in class which stands for "automated data
processing" using Nokia MikroMikko.

The pedagogical reason to teach programming was not to train programmers, but to
develop students' logic and math skills. There were also software developed by teachers for
simple drills and practice exercises for math and language learning. These exercises didn't help
students much to reach any deeper understanding, as they were mainly simulating students' short
term memory and "trial, error, trial, error, trial, past" kind of activity but these programs kept the
wild children quiet (for a while) when teachers were teaching those who were more into
programming.

2. Late 1980's - Early 1990's: Computer Based Training (CBT) with Multimedia

Later, the multimedia computers, with advanced graphics and sound came to the markets.
It was an improvement of the drill and practice exercises which failed to teach the students that
much due to the absence of multimedia which contains colors and animation that motivated the
students to do the exercises.

This was known as the golden era of CD-ROMs and multimedia computers which
contributed a lot to students' learning. Students appeared to learn better by watching
movies/animations and listening to audios whereas some learned better by reading or watching
still images. The drill and practice component (now in colors) was kept in there, too, but now it's
role was more to control yourself if you learned what the multimedia was trying to teach you.

The multimedia CD-ROMs did not either get people to deep learning and understanding.
They failed to be useful almost in all other study subjects than language learning where part of
the study work of many people really requires hard practicing and repetition (vocabulary,
grammar etc.).

3. Early 1990's: Internet-Based Training (IBT)

The third wave of using computers in education came with the adoption of the World ide
Web. The failure of CD-ROMs were deemed related to the challenges to update tent in the CD-
ROMs. Since information changes so fast, the internet became source of the expanding
knowledge in giving Internet-based training, but again hout the multimedia, all one could do on
the internet were early experiments with stions, videos and audios. It was noticed that merely
clicking and reading e-learning course materials online didn't make people very smart. And
again, some people claimed the problem was the lack of multimedia.

Later, users of internet-based training found it not to be pedagogical, cost and time
efficient, because after going through the internet-based training, very little learning occurred.

4. Late 1990’s – Early 2000: E-Learning

Improvements were made on the Internet-based training in late 1990's and early 2000 in
the form of e-learning. The e-learning industry was built, even though it was not proven that
anyone (except the IT managers) needed these products. The markets for e-learning courses and
especially for Learning Management Systems (LMS) were created. An enormous number of
websites, articles and companies made it clear to all concerned with education that this is
something they must be involved in. The IT managers of thousands of educational institutions
and organizations were asked by the educational experts to come up with e-learning solutions
and companies were happy to help the IT managers. The pedagogical thinking around the e-
learning is closely related to the computer-based training. The point is to deliver courses for
students. Later on, the learning platform developers has become more aware that learning
requires social activities among the learners themselves.

5. Late 2000: Social Software + Free and Open Content

In the late 2000, social software and free and open content marked a real breakthrough in
the field of educational technology. Blogs and wikis have already brought web back to its
original idea: simple tool for personal notes that are easily accessible and even editable by peers
and your potential peers.

The pedagogical thinking behind the social software and the free and open content can
Tooted to the social constructivist theory and cultural-historical psychology. "Any true
understanding is dialogic in nature." Mikhail Bakhtin and Lev Vygotsky wrote that "all higher
[mental] functions originate as actual relations between human individuals."

Learning with computers is not only about programming or drill and practice, nor about
multimedia, nor about fast updating or cost-efficiency - it is all about people sharing ideas.