Introduction to Bridge Design Fundamentals

Topic: Introduction to Bridge Design (revised)
By : Engr A.O.Idolor FNIStructE

Idolor - Vob Konsult
References
1. Reynold’s Reinforced Concrete Designer’s Handbook, 11th Edition by
Charles E.Reynolds, James C.Steedman and Anthony J. Threlfal
2. Design of Piled Foundations 2nd edition by Thomas Whitaker
3. Elements of Foundation Design by G.N. Smith and E.I.Pole
4. Reinforced Concrete Design Fourth Edition by W.H.Mosley and J.H Bungey.
5. Design Codes:
BS 5400 Part 2: 1978 Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges
Specification for Loads.
BS 5400 Part 4: 1978 Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges

Code of Practice for Design of Concrete Bridges.
BD 37/01 Loads for Highway Bridges
BD 44/95 The Assessment of Concrete Highway Bridges and Structures.

Project Job No
IDOLOR-VOB KONSULT Made by Date Sheet No
CONSULTING CIVIL & STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS
Checked Section Made by
REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT
Table of Contents
Item Page
Introduction 1
Bridge Location 1
Soil Investigation 1
Locating Abutments and Deck Positions 1
Types of Bridge Decks
Reinforced Concrete Decks/Girder Bridges 1
Prestressed Concrete Bridge Decks 2
Composite Decks
Reinforced Concrete Deck and Steel sections 3
Prestressed Beam and Slab Composite Sections 3
Steel Trussed Decks 3

Cable Stayed Decks 4
Suspension Bridges 4
Rough Guide for Selecting Type of Construction
for Various Span Ranges 5
Design Considerations
Loadings
I. Permanent Loads 7
ii. Transient Loads 7
HA Load 7
Carriageway 7
Notional Lanes 7
HA Load Intensity graph 8
Table 13 BD 37/01- Type HA Uniformly

Distributed Load 8
Table 14 HA Lane Factors 9

HB Load 10
HB Vehicle Configuration 10
Arrangement of HA and HB on Deck

I. HA only on Deck 10
ii. HA and HB Loading Combined
Case 1. HB vehicle wholly within I
One Notional Lane 11
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Case 2. HB vehicle straddles

Two Notional Lanes 11
Case 2. HB vehicle straddles

Two Notional Lanes 12
Load Distribution
Nominal Loads 13
Partial Safety Factors 13
Design Loads 13
Load Combinations
Load Combination 1 13
Application of Loads 14
Loads Due to Movement Caused by Shrinkage(3),
Temperature (T), and Creep ( c ) 14
Stresses Due to Restrained Shrinkage 14-15
Example- Calculation of resulting stresses on a
composite section due to differential
shrinkage 15-17
Temperature Effects 18-20
Annual Temperature Variation 21
Example- Calculation of residual stresses
due to temperature effect 21-23
Bridge Columns and Piers 23

Leaf Pier 23
Columns 23-24
Portal Frames 24
Applied Loadings on Column 25

Hydraulic Forces on Piers 25
Example - Rectangular bridge pier col design with
sidesway, and with no sidesway 25-29
Reinforced Concrete Design 30
Serviceability Limit State 30
Ultimate Limit State 31-32
Example- Design of Slab Bridge 33-38 ii
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Abutment 39
Types of Abutment 39-40
Bridge Foundations
I. Spread Foundations 40
ii. Piled Foundations 40-41
Soil Investigation 41
I. Standard Penetration Test (SPT) 41
ii. Dutch Cone Penetration Test (CPT) 41
iii. Tests 41
Borehole Log 42
Bearing Capacity of Foundations 42
I. Spread Foundations 42
Application Example 43
a. Abutment Location 43
b. Pier Location 43
ii. Piled Foundations 43

Cohesive Soils
a. End Bearing 43
b. Skin Frictions 43
Cohesionless Soils 43-44

Meyerhof’s Correlations 44
The Dutch Cone De Beer’s Method 44
Piles on Rock 44
Pile Driving Formula 45
Application Example 45
Forces on Abutment
Horizontal Forces 45
Vertical Forces 45
Typical Abutment Configurations 46

Ear Abutment with Toe Emphasis 46
Haunched Abutment 46
Abutment Design 47
Abutment on Spread Footing 47
Application Example 47-49 iii
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Pile Cap 50
Ultimate Limit State Considerations 50
Serviceability Limit State Considerations 50
Pile Cap, Sections and Pile Arrangements 51
Structural Design
a. Abutment with Ear 51
b. Abutment with Sidewall and Ear 51
Pile Design
Steps in Estimation of Deflection, Shear Force
and Bending Moment on the pile 53-55
Points to Note 55
Boundary Conditions 55-56
References 56
iv
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Bridge Design
Introduction:
The following which can generally serve as a guide should be considered in the
design of bridges. However more detailed guidance can be obtained in the
Codes of Practice and other references attached.
Bridge Location
There is need to get involved at an early stage in the determination of the
location of the horizontal alignment where the bridge is to be situated. This
involvement will influence the geometry and aesthetics of the proposed bridge
as large skew of the bridge can be avoided, adequate longitudinal and
transverse gradients necessary for storm water disposal from the bridge deck
can be incorporated in the design.
Soil Investigation
Soil investigation at locations of piers and abutments of the proposed bridge
must be done to determine the soil strata type, load bearing capacities of the
strata, the suitable foundation types and their location in the ground.
Locating Abutments and Deck Positions

Proper location of the abutments and deck can be determined from
hydrological studies of the river channel across which the bridge is to be
located. For land bridges, it will be necessary to determine whether the
underpass will serve for a motor way or railway. The former will require a
determination of the tallest vehicles to ply the road while the latter will
involve knowledge of the height of the locomotives. In either case adequate
clearance needs to be given below the soffit of the bridge and the facilities
using the space below. It will be necessary to obtain the approval of the client
with regards to the bridge length and vertical position of the deck before
proceeding to the structural design of the bridge.
Types of Bridge Decks:

Reinforced Concrete Decks:
The common types of bridge decks in use are solid slab bridge with no support
beams, voided slab decks, beam and slab decks and box girders. These are
shown below. For small, single span or multi-span bridges, solid slab deck are
most useful and can be adapted to high skew. Voided slab and beam and slab
decks are used for larger single or multi-span bridges. Beam and slab decks are
the commonest in Nigeria. The ratio of depth of void/depth of slab should be
less than 0.79 and the maximum area of void should be less than 49% of deck
sectional area. 1
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Reinforced Concrete Deck/Girder Bridge:
Solid Slab
Voided Slab
Beam and Slab
Voided Slab Box Girder

T-Beam 16m<Span<30m Span>30m
Span<20m
Prestressed Concrete Bridge Decks:

There are two types of decks of this type
- Pre-tensioned beams with insitu concrete
- Post-tensioned concrete
Pre-tensioning is used to describe a process of prestressing in which the
tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed. The prestress is
transferred to the concrete when a suitable cube strength is reached.
Post- tensioning is used to describe a process of prestressing whereby the
tendons are tensioned after the concrete has reached a suitable strength. The
tendons are anchored against the hardened concrete immediately after
prestress.
Types of beams in common use are shown below.
T-Beam M-Beam Y-Beam

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Composite Decks:
Composite deck construction usually refers to the interaction between insitu
reinforced concrete deck and structural steel used (as replacement for the
reinforced or prestressed concrete girder) to carry the deck . Composite
deck construction can also refer to the interaction between insitu reinforced
concrete deck and reinforced concrete precast planks and/or beams.
The following are three advantages derived from use of composite

construction:
I. There are economies in the approach embankments because smaller depth
of beam is achieved for a given span and loading system
ii. The cross-sectional area of the steel top flange is reduced because the
concrete can be considered as part of it
iii. Because of the restraint against buckling provided by the concrete deck,
transverse stiffening for the top compression flange of the steel beam can
be reduced.
Generally the concrete deck is 220mm to 250mm thick with beams or plate
girders between 2.5m and 3.5m spacing and depth between span/20 and
span/30.
Steel Girder
Reinforced Concrete Deck and Steel
In situ cast
Prestressed
Y-Beam
Prestressed Beam and Slab Composite
Generally it is more economical to use post-tensioned construction for

continuous structures rather than insitu reinforced concrete at spans greater
than 20m. For simply supported spans it may be economic to use a post-
tensioned deck at spans greater than 20m.
Steel Trussed Decks:

Where the construction depth is limited trusses are generally used. They are
generally used for bridge spans between 30m and 150m. The small depth and 3
height causes a reduction in the approach embankments leading to overall cost
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reduction of the bridge. High fabrication cost for the truss and maintenance
has however made this type of bridge less popular.
Through Truss
Cable Stayed Decks:

Cable stayed bridges are generally used for bridge spans between 150m and
350m. They are often chosen for their aesthetic appeal and are economical for
spans of 250m or more. Straight cables are connected directly to the deck and
induce significant axial forces in the deck. Decks are often of orthotropic steel
plate construction. Composite slabs can be used for spans up to 250m. Box
girder or plate girders can be used in the deck.
Suspension Bridges:
Suspension bridges are used for spans in excess of 350m. The suspension
bridge is essentially a catenary cable prestressed by dead weight. The cables
are guided over the support towers to ground anchors. The stiffened deck is
supported mainly by vertical or inclined hangers.
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The following are to serve as a rough guide for selecting type of construction
for various span ranges.
Steel beams with insitu slab.
30m to 300m Box girders bridges- as the span increases the

construction tends to go from ‘all concrete to steel
box/concrete deck’ to ‘all steel’.
Truss bridges - for spans up to 50m they are generally
less economic than plate girders.
150m to 1000m Cable stayed bridges.
350m to ? Suspension bridges.
Bridges in Nigeria are currently generally designed to the UK Code BS 5400
supplemented by the Department of Transport Memoranda BD 37/01 and BD
44/95. It is expected that Eurocode, the most advanced design code to date
will be adopted in the near future by Nigeria for bridge design, in line with
5
best practices. BS 8110 is also incorporated in the design of bridges where
information from BS 5400 is lacking.
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Loadings:
Whether the bridge carries a road, railway, waterway or just pedestrians,
it will be subjected to the following load types:
Ÿ self weight (sw) and loads from surfacing , parapets and walkway
referred to as superimposed dead loads(SDL)
Ÿ Environmental loads which included the effects of wind , temperature
and snow, for cold regions.
Ÿ Traffic which included HA and HB loads also referred to as standard
loadings in BS 5400.
Ÿ Accidental loads such as impact
Ÿ Temporary loads during construction and maintenance.
These loads can be separated into two groups; Permanent and Transient
Loads.
I. Permanent Loads
This includes the dead weight of the structure and the superimposed dead
weights (parapet, asphalt and walkway) and filling soil materials. The effects
of differential settlement of supports are also to be included as permanent
load.
ii. Transient Loads
The transient loads are all other loads expected on the bridge structure
and excludes the permanent loads. This includes the HA and HB loads and
the effect of temperature.
HA load:
BD 37/01 Loads for Highway bridges states that HA loading is the normal
design loading in the UK and this adequately covers the effect of all
permitted normal vehicles other than those used for abnormal indivisible
loads. The normal vehicles are vehicles up to 44 tonne gross weight.
HA load is a formula load and consists of a uniformly distributed load
(HA UDL) and a knife edge load(HA KEL) ; this adequately covers the
effect of these vehicles on highway bridges. The HA load which has been
enhanced includes the effect of:
I. Impact load(caused when the wheel ‘bounce’ in the course of striking
potholes or uneven expansion joints)
ii. Overloading
iii. Lateral bunching ie more than one vehicle occupying the width of a lane.
The magnitude of the HA load depends on the loaded length of the bridge
as determined from influence line for the member being considered. For
simply supported decks the loaded length is the span of the bridge.
To obtain the magnitude of the HA load, the carriageway is divided into
notional lanes and the UDL and KEL values given for one notional lane are 6
multiplied by the appropriate lane factors as given in BD 37/01.
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The loads so obtained are termed nominal loads. The UDL varies with the
loaded length and the KEL extends over a length equal to the width of the
carriageway. An alternative single wheel load (SWL) can be placed at any
point on the carriageway and applied over a circular (340mm diameter) or
square equivalent to 1.1 N/mm2 pressure on the surface of the deck.
The dispersal of this SWL may be taken at spread to depth ratios of 1
horizontal to 2 vertical through asphalt or similar material and 1 horizontal
to 1 vertical down to the neutral axis of structural concrete.
Carriageway:
The carriageway width in the standard is defined as the part of the running
surface which includes all traffic lanes, hard shoulders, hard strips and
marker strips. It is the width between raised kerbs. In the absence of
raised kerbs it is the width between safety fences, less the amount of set-
back required for the fences. The carriageway width is measured in the
direction at right angles to the line of the raised kerbs, lane marks or edge
markings.
Notional Lanes:
These are parts of the carriageway width for deriving the intensity of the
HA live load. They have a maximum width of 3.65m and minimum of 2.50m.
The carriageway shall be divided into an integral number of notional lanes,
have equal widths .The number of notional lanes is based on the carriageway
width (b) and is given by Int[(b/3.65)+1].
Alternatively refer to Clause 3.2.9.3.1 BD 37/01 Vol 1.
The carriageway shall be divided into an integral number of notional lanes,
have equal widths as follows:
Carriageway width m Number of notional Lanes

5.00 up to and including 7.50 2
Above 7.50 up to and including 10.95 3
7
Project Job No

Load W per m of lane (KN)
w=336(1/L)0.667KN
w=36(1/L)0.1KN
24.4
17.2
0 50 Loaded length L (m) 1600
HA Load Intensity (not to scale)

For loaded length>1600m the HA UDL shall be agreed with the appropriate.
Table 13 (BD 37/01) Type HA uniformly distributed load:

Loaded Length Load Loaded Length Load Loaded Length Load
m KN/m m KN/m m KN/m
2 211.2 55 24.1 370 19.9

4 132.7 60 23.9 410 19.7
6 101.2 65 23.7 450 19.5
8 83.4 70 23.5 490 19.4
10 71.8 75 23.4 530 19.2
12 63.6 80 23.2 570 19.1
14 57.3 85 23.1 620 18.9
16 52.4 90 23.0 670 18.8
18 48.5 100 22.7 730 18.6
20 45.1 110 22.5 790 18.5
23 41.1 120 22.3 850 18.3
26 37.9 130 22.1 910 18.2
29 35.2 150 21.8 980 18.1
32 33 170 21.5 1050 18.0
35 31 190 21.3 1130 17.8
38 29.4 220 21.0 1210 17.7
41 27.9 250 20.7 1300 17.6
44 26.6 280 20.5 1400 17.4
47 25.5 310 20.3 1500 17.3
50 24.4 340 20.1 1600 17.2
Multiple Lanes:
HA is applied to every notional lane across the carriageway attenuated by
factor β as defined in Table 14 BD 37/01 reproduced below. The attenuation
8
takes account of vehicle bunching along and across the bridge.
Generally β=1.0 for the first two lanes and β=0.6 for the remainder.
Nominal HA load =βHA UDL + βHA KEL
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Table 14 HA Lane Factors
Loaded length First lane Second lane Third lane Fourth &
(m) Factor factor factor subsequen
t
β1 β2 β3 lane
0 < L ≤ 20 α1 α1 0.6 0.6α1
20 < L ≤ 40 α2 α2 0.6 0.6α2
40 < L ≤ 50 1.0 1.0 0.6 0.6
50 < L ≤ 112 1.0 7.0 0.6 0.6

N<6 √L
50 < L ≤ 112 1.0 1.0 0.6 0.6

N ≥6
L > 112 1.0 0.67 0.6 0.6

N<6
Note 1:
α1=0.274bL and cannot exceed 1.0
α2=0.0137[bL (40-L) + 3.65 (L-20)]
where [bL is the notional lane width (m)
Note 2:
N shall be used to determine which set of HA lane factors is to be applied for
loaded lengths in excess of 50m. The value of N is to be taken as the total
number of notional lanes on the bridge (this shall include all the lanes for dual
carriageway roads) except for a bridge carrying one-way traffic only, the
value of N shall be taken as twice the number of notional lanes on he bridge.
9
Project Job No
HB Load:
BD 37/01 Loads for Highway Bridges states that the Type HB loading
requirement derives from the need to transport exceptional loads e g
electrical transformers, generators, pressure vessels etc which are
indivisible loads on vehicles likely to use the roads in the area. The vehicle is
therefore exceptional and is represented by a four axle vehicle with four
wheels spaced on each axle. The load on each axle is defined on the number
units which is dependent on the class of road. 1 unit = 10KN and one wheel
weighs 2.5KN. In the UK motorways and trunk roads require 45 units,
principal roads require 37.5 units and other public roads require 30 units. In
Nigeria FMW specifications require that all public highway bridges be
designed to 45 units.
The design procedure is to analyze the bridge for HA and HB load effects
applying the appropriate load factors. The member is then designed for the
more onerous of the effects of these two types of loads.
1 unit 1 unit
Axle Axle
1 unit 1 unit
1 4
Axle Limit of vehicle Axle
0.25m 0.25m
2 3
0.25m
1.0m
3.5m
overall 1.0m
width
1.0m
0.25m
I unit HB Vehicle
1.8m 6m, 11m, 16m, 21m, 26m 1.8m
Whichever dimension gives the most severe effect on the member under consideration.
Arrangement of HA and HB on Deck:

I. HA only on Deck:
Load on each lane is obtained by multiplying the nominal load by the lane factor,
β and arranged on the deck as shown below. Loadings are interchangeable
between lanes and a lane or lanes may be left unloaded if this produces a more
severe effect.
Loaded length
β1[HA UDL + HA KEL] N1

Central reserve No loading for global analysis
βn[HA UDL + HA KEL] N4
10
HA UDL HA KEL N1, N2, N3..........N6= notional lanes
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ii. Type HA and HB Loading Combined
Case 1: HB vehicle wholly within one notional lane
Loaded length for intensity of HA UDL

Overall vehicle length
for axle spacing having
most severe effect.
25m 25m
β2[HA UDL] No loading HB Vehicle 3.5 No loading β2[HA UDL] N1

β1[HA] N2
β3[HA] N3
βn[HA] N4
βn[HA] N5
βn[HA] N6
HA UDL N1, N2, N3..........N6= notional lanes
Case 2: HB vehicle straddles two notional lanes
HB Vehicle Overall vehicle length

for axle spacing having a1<2.5m
most severe effect. a2<2.5m
25m 25m
ββ33[HA
[HAUDL]
UDL] No loading a1 β3[HA
No loading β [HA UDL]
UDL] N1
3
HB Vehicle 3.5
ββ2[HA
2[HAUDL]
UDL] a2 ββ22[HA
[HA UDL]
UDL] N2
β1[HA]
[HA UDL + HA KEL] N3
βn[HA]
βn[HA]
[HAUDL + HA KEL] N5
βn[HA]
HA UDL N1, N2, N3..........N6= notional lanes
Type HA and HB Loading Combined

11
Project Job No

Overall vehicle length
HB Vehicle a1 for axle spacing having a1>=2.5m
most severe effect. a2<2.5m
25m 25m
β2[HA]
a1 β1[HA UDL]
HB Vehicle 3.5
β33[HA UDL] a2 β3[HA UDL]
βn[HA]
[HA UDL + HA KEL]
βn[HA]
[HAUDL + HA KEL]
βn[HA]
[HA UDL + HA KEL]
HA UDL
Load Distribution:
The application of traffic load on any area of the deck causes the deck to
bend transversely and twist, thereby spreading the load to the other side.
The assessment of how much of the load is shared in this way and the extent
to which it spreads across the deck depends on the bending, torsion and shear
stiffness of the deck in the longitudinal and transverse directions and is
referred to as the load distribution. Computer method are generally used to
analyze the structure for this load effect, a versatile procedure uses grillage
analysis which treats the deck as a two dimensional series of beams elements
in both orthogonal x, y directions. Guyon, Massonnet and Bares have also
developed a method, referred to as Method of Distribution Coefficient to
obtain this load distribution; the method simplifies this analysis and lends
itself to hand or computer solution when the skew of the bridge is not
o
greater than 20 . The procedure recommended in BS 5400 specifies that the
deck HB load be moved to different positions on the deckThe author has
developed a computer program for this method and an extensive application of
the method can be seen in the attached Bridge Design Project Example. The
distribution analysis procedures are referred to as rigorous analysis methods.
The method has also been codified in the USA by AASHTO. Clause 6.1.3 of
BS 5400: Part 2: 1978 specifies that where appropriate the effects of design
standard loadings be distributed in accordance with a rigorous distribution
analysis or from data derived from a suitable test.
Limit States Considered:

Two limit states-serviceability and ultimate limit states are usually considered
for any structural element. Considering ultimate limit state ensures that the 12
structure does not collapse. Considering the serviceability limit state ensures
that deflection of the bridge deck does not exceed acceptable value, the
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crack width does not exceed values specified for the code for different
environmental conditions and also that the stresses in the reinforcement are
maintained within acceptable limits.
Nominal Loads:
Where adequate statistical distribution are available, the nominal loads are
those appropriate to a return period of 120 years. In the absence of such
statistical data, the nominal load values considered to approximate to a 120-
year return period are given.
Partial Safety Factors:

ƔFL is the partial safety factor for each load for each load combination
Ɣf3 is additional factor which takes account of any inaccurate assessment of
the effect of loading, unforseen stress distribution in the structure and
variation in dimensional accuracy in the construction.
Ɣf3 = 1.0 for serviceability limit state.
Ɣf3 = 1.15 for ultimate limit state
Design Load:
Design load are selected and applied in such a way that the most adverse total
effect is caused in the element or structure under consideration.
Nominal Loads are multiplied by appropriate value of ƔFL to obtain the
combination load for moment, shears and other effects for each limit state
being considered.
Additional Factor Ɣf3 - The total combination load effects for moment, shear
and other effects are multiplied by Ɣf3 to obtain design load effects.
The moments, shears etc must be resisted at any of the limit states.
Design load effect S = Ɣf3 * (Σ combination load effects)
= Ɣf3 Σ(ƔFL* nominal load effects)
Load Combination:
The loads to be considered in the different load combination together with
the specified values of ƔFL for each load are given in the code.
There are five (5) load combinations as follows:
Combination 1: For highway and foot/cycle track bridges, the loads to be
considered are the permanent loads together with the appropriate primary live
loads, and for railway bridges, the permanent loads, together with the
appropriate primary and secondary live loads.
Combination 2: For all bridges, the loads to be considered are the loads in
combination 1, together with those due to wind and where erection is being
considered, temporary erection loads.
Combination 3: For all bridges, the loads to be considered are the loads in
combination 1, together with those arising from restraint to the effect of 13
temperature range and difference and where erection is being considered,
temporary erection loads.
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Combination 4: Combination 4 does not apply to railway bridges except for

collision loading on bridge supports. For highway bridges, the loads to be
considered are the permanent loads and the secondary live loads, together
with the appropriate primary live loads associated with them. Secondary live
loads shall be considered separately and are not required to be combined.
Each shall be taken with its appropriate associated primary live load.
For foot/cycle bridges, the only secondary live loads to be considered are
the vehicle collision loads on the bridge supports and superstructures.
Combination 5: For all bridges the loads to be considered are the permanent
loads together with the loads due to friction at the bearings.
Application of Loads:
Each element and structure shall be examined under the effects of loads
that can coexist in each combination.
Loads Due to Movement of Deck Caused By Shrinkage(S), Temperature

(T), and Creep (C):
The temperature of both the bridge structure and its environment changes
on a daily and seasonal basis and influences both the overall movement of the
bridge deck and the stresses within it.
The shrinkage deformation of concrete is dependent on the environment
particularly the humidity , the composition of the concrete (water/cement
ratio and the cement content), the size of the member and the amount of
reinforcement and age of concrete. Values of creep coefficient varies
from 1 to 3.
Temperature and shrinkage coefficients have universal constant values.
Horizontal forces acting horizontally on bridge deck are generated by
movement of the beam caused by the effect of S,T,C.
Movement due to shrinkage=shrinkage coefficient x beam length
Movement due to temperature=temperture coefficient x beam length
Movement due to creep=creep coefficient x beam length
Total beam movement=Movement due to shrinkage + Movement due to
temperature + Movement due to creep.
The horizontal forces produced by shrinkage, temperature and creep
produce beam movements which are taken up by the elastomeric bearings.
The magnitude of the horizontal force can be determined when the size and
other properties of the elastomer are known.
Stresses Due to Restrained Shrinkage

Shrinkage stresses are induced in all concrete bridges whether they consist 14
of precast elements or constructed in situ.
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Generally the stresses are low and are considered insignificant in most cases.
Where a concrete deck is cast in situ onto a prefabricated member (whether
steel or concrete) the amount of differential shrinkage and thus the
shrinkage stresses can be significant.
The figure below illustrates how the shrinkage of the in situ deck affects the
composite section.
In composite construction using precast reinforced beam or prestressed units
in combination with in situ concrete slab, a considerable proportion of the
total shrinkage would have taken place in the precast unit before casting and
hardening of the in situ concrete.
Due to the high w/c ratio used in the in situ concrete, there will be
considerable shrinkage of the concrete of this part in the composite section.
Consequently the differential shrinkage between the precast unit and in situ
cast slab will result in stresses in both units.
The magnitude of the differential shrinkage is influenced by the composition
of the concrete and environmental condition to which the composite member is
exposed.
-6
In absence of exact data, a general value of 200x10 for concrete strain is
applied in computing the shrinkage stresses..
Reasonable estimation of the stresses developed due to differential shrinkage
can be made using the following assumption:
Shrinkage is uniform over the in situ part of the section;
Effect of creep and increase of modulus of elasticity with age over the
shrinkage developed by the component units is negligible.
An illustration of the design procedure for the reinforcement to resist shear
forces at the interface of insitu slab and precast longitudinal beam is given
below. A further practical illustration of interface shear design is given in
the Bridge Design Project Example.
Example - Calculation of the resulting stresses on a composite section due

to differential shrinkage
A contiguous composite bridge over Ikosi river consists of a Y8 precast
prestressed concrete beam at 2.2m centres with a 230mm thick in situ
concrete slab. Young modulus of elasticity of the concrete in precast beam and
in situ slab are 50KN/mm2 and 28KN/mm2 respectively. Calculate the stresses
developed in the precast and in situ slab units adopting a differential shrinkage
-6
of 200x10 .
15
Project Job No
2200 2200
230 In situ cast slab
1400 Precast
Y8 beam
Deck cross-section
Solution
I. Calculation of section properties of composite section
Differential shrinkage Ɛs = 200x10-6
Modular ratio = 50/28=1.786
Effective width of the in situ slab =2200/1.786=1232.0mm
Effective area of the in situ slab =1232.0x230=283360.0mm2
3 9
Ix (slab) =1232.0x230 /12=1.24915x10 mm2
Section A: mm2 y:mm Ay: mm3

Slab 283360 115 3.25864x107
8
Y Beam 584708 991.46 5.79715x10
8
868068.0 6.123x10
Distance of the neutral axis of composite section from topmost

fibre=6.13x108/868068.0=7050mm
6 6
Ix (Y beam) =638.54x186x10 =118768.44x10 mm4
Ix (composite) =1232.0x2303/12 + 283360.0x(705-115)2 +
118768.4 x 106 + 584708x(991.46-705.0)2
11
=2.2666358613x10 mm4
ii. Calculation of tensile stress at in situ slab
-6
Tensile force at in situ slab Nsh = Ԑcs. Ec. Ai =200x10 x50x283360.0=2833.60KN
Uniform tensile stress induced at in situ slab
3
=2833.60x10 /283360=10N/mm2(tensile)
iii. Calculation of properties of composite section
Eccentricity of induced compressive force from centroid of composite
section=705-115=590mm
Moment induced M = 2833.6x590x10-3=1671.8KNm
Section modulus at various fibres of composite section;
top fibre; Zt =2.666358613x1011/705=3.7821x108mm3
bot fibre; Zb =2.666358613x1011/(1630-705)=2.8826x108mm3
11 8
junction; Zj =2.666358613x10 /(705-230) =5.613x10 mm3 16
Project Job No
iv. Calculation of stresses due to compressive force and moment

3
a. Direct compressive stress f=2833.6x10 /868068.0=3.26N/mm2
(Compression)
b. Bending stresses
top fibre = 1671.8x106/(3.782x108x1.786)= 2.47N/mm2 (compression)
6 8
bot fibre = 1671.8x10 /(2.8826x10 x1.786)= 5.8N/mm2 (tension)
junction fibre;
(in slab)=1671.8x106/(5.613x108x1.786)= 1.67N/mm2 (compression)
6 8
(in precast beam)=1671.8x10 /(5.613x10 )= 2.98N/mm2 (compression)
v. Calcula on of resultant Shrinkage Stresses (compression +ve, tension -ve)
At in situ slab;
at top of slab =+3.26+2.47-10=-4.27N/mm2
at bot of slab = 3.26+1.67-10=-5.07N/mm2
At precast beam;
top of beam (junction)= +3.26+2.98=+6.24N/mm2
bot of beam =3.26-5.80=-2.54N/mm2
Conclusion:
The result which is show diagrammatically below indicates that there is a
substantial level of tension in the in situ slab which can not only cause
cracking but considerable shear at the beam slab interface. It will be
necessary in this case to design shear links to project from the precast
beam into the in situ slab to resist the shear.
2200
4.27 Compression
230 In situ cast slab 5.07 -
6.24
705
NA +
1400
Precast
Y8 beam
2.54 -
Resultant stresses due to differential shrinkage
Deck cross-section (N/mm2)
17
Project Job No
Temperature Effect
Daily and seasonal temperatures of the bridge and environment have a
considerable effect on the stresses within the bridge structure.
Changes in effective temperature of the deck will cause it to expand or
contract while differential temperature gradients through the concrete will
result in stresses that need to be considered in prestress design.
Where a deck is free to expand or contract, the overall change in effective
temperature will not give rise to any forces in the structure, although the
movement does need to be allowed for in the bearing and expansion joint
design.
When a restraint exists that restricts free movement, such as integral decks
or multiple fixed piers, forces and stresses are set up throughout the
structure which must be taken into account in prestress design.
The daily variation of temperature also gives rise to temperature variations
within the depth of the superstructure and varies depending on whether the
bridge is cooling or heating, the form of construction( concrete slab,
composite deck etc) and black top surface thickness.
The temperature variation is caused by the position of the sun, the intensity
of the sun’s rays, thermal conductivity of the concrete and surfacing, the wind
and the cross-sectinal make-up of the structure.
The temperature gradient results in self equilibrating internal stresses.
Two types of stresses are induced; primary and secondary stresses.
The primary stress is due to temperature differences throughout the
superstructure; whether simply supported or continuous.
The secondary stresses is due to the continuity of the superstructure.
Both stresses are determined and catered for in design.
The effects are complex to evaluate but guidance is given by the UK Dept of
Transport and Research laboratory.
The critical parameters are the thickness of the deck slab and the nature of
the beam.
Concrete construction falls within Group 4.
The distribution of thermal gradients can be idealized for different group of
structure as in Fig 9 BD 37/01 Cl 5.4.
Primary Stresses
Ÿ Primary stresses occur in both simply supported and continuous bridges.
Ÿ They are observed as stress variation with depth caused by redistribution
of restrained
temperature.
Ÿ They are determined by balancing the restrained stresses with an
equivalent system of a couple and direct force acting at the neutral axis
position. 18
Project Job No
Ÿ The section is divided into slices and restraint force in each slice is
determined
Ÿ The sum of the moments of each force about the neutral axis and sum of
the forces across the section give the couple and direct force
respectively.
Secondary Stresses
Ÿ Secondary stresses occur in continuous bridges only and are due to
change in global reactions and bending moments.
Ÿ They are determined by applying the couple and force at each end of the
continuous bridge and determining the resulting reactions and moments.
Ÿ These are the added the self weight and live load reactions and moments.
Ÿ They are included in combination 3 refer to cl 4.4.3 BD 37/01
Primary Stresses determination :

T1 σ1
h1 F1
T2 σ2
F2
h2
e
0 0 0
NA
h
0 0 0
h3 F3
T3 σ3
h4 T4 σ4 F4
I. Typical temperature ii. Equivalent restraint iii. Equivalent

gradient stresses restraint Forces
σ=T.βL.Ec
where βL is the coefficient
of thermal expansion
T is temperature change
Ec is elastic modulus of
concrete
Equivalent Stresses:
M/z=∑(Fe)/Zb
b. Moment release
∑F/A
iv. Balancing stresses 19
a. Axial stress
Project Job No
+ + =
Stress Relieving axial force from Relieving moment from Resultant stress
from (ii) (iv)(a) (v) distribution
iv. Differential temperature

stresses
Determination of Secondary Stresses:

iv. Balancing
∑(Fe) ∑(Fe)
stresses
∑F ∑F
Relieving moment distributed

(iv). Relieving
down structure
effect
20
Project Job No
Annual Temperature Variation

Annual or seasonal changes result in a change in length of the bridge and
therefore affect the bearings and expansion joints.
Movement is related to the minimum and maximum expected ambient
temperatures and this information is available in the form of isotherms for
any particular geographic region.
The total expected movement (Δ) takes place from fixed point referred to
as thermal centre or stagnant point and is given by
Δ = thermal strain x span
= βL.T.L
where βL is the coefficient of thermal expansion
T is temperature change
and L is the bridge length as defined from the thermal centre (or
stagnant point)
T is based on the total possible range of movement given by the difference
of the maximum and minimum shade temperatures.
It is specified in the code as isotherms.
The temperatures are further modified to take account of the bridge
construction in Tables 10 and 11 of BD 37/01 to give the effective bridge
temperature.
Example - Calculation of residual stress due to temperature effect

A simply supported reinforced concrete bridge deck 700mm thick is overlaid
with 100mm thick surfacing. Determine the resultant residual stress in the
section due to temperature effect. Grade of concrete for the deck,
fcu=40N/mm2.
surfacing
100
700 RC deck slab
Deck cross-sec on
Solu on
Consider 1m wide strip of deck sec on:
Apply the temperature difference given for group 4 in Fig 9 in BD 37/01.
Coefficient of thermal expansion = 12 x 10-6/oC (Cl 5.4.6 BD 37/01)
From BS 5400 Part 4
Elas c modulus of the concrete Ec=19+0.3fcu=24N/mm2
o 3 -6
Restrained temperature stress per C= 34x10 x12x10 =0.408N/mm2
h=700mm
21
Project Job No
For +ve temperature:

0.3h=0.3x700=210mm≤0.15 h1=0.15m
0.3h=210≥0.10 but ≤ 0.25m h2=210mm
0.3h=210 must be ≤0.1+0.1=0.20m h3=0.20m
T1=13.2oC
o
T2=3.0 C
T3=2.25oC
Reverse Temperature:
h1=h4=0.2x700=140≤250mm
h2=h3=0.25x700=175≤200mm
T1=7.05oC T2=1.75 oC T3=1.5oC T4=5.5oC
1000
13.25oC 7.05oC
150 140
1.75oC
2.0oC 175
350
210
175
350
1.5oC
200 140
2.25oC 5.5oC
Cross-section +ve reverse

Temperature
Consider 1.0m wide strip
Section Properties
Area=1000x700=700000mm2
Second moment of area=1000x7003/12=2.8583x1010mm4
+ve temperature effects:
5.48 -0.932 -2.84 +1.64
150
0.82 -1.73
210
-0.07
+0.29
200
+2.84 +2.83
0.92
Axial release Moment release Residual
Restrained stress
=F/A =M/Z stress due to
=0.408xT
22
Project Job No

Total restrained force=-((1000x140x2.04/2) + (1000x140x0.84) +
(1000x175x0.8/2) +(1000x140x1.63/2) + (1000x140x0.61) +
(1000x175x0.61/2))
=-(142800 +117600+73500+114100+85400+53375)=-586.775KN
Axial release stress=+586.775x1000/(1000x700)=+0.84N/mm2
Moment about centroid due to restrained curvature M=
-((142800x303.3)+(117600x280)+(73500x151.6 )-(14100x303.3)-
(85400x280)-(53375x151.6)) =20.77KNm
Stress due to moment=+-M/z=207.77x106/2.8583x1010=+-0.25N/mm2
Bridge Columns and Piers

Ÿ Intermediate supports for bridges may be grouped into either columns or
leaf piers.
Ÿ A Leaf pier is a reinforced concrete wall with largest lateral dimension
more than four times the least lateral dimension. Individual columns may be
used with separate bases and in direct contact with bridge deck or capping
beam.
Ÿ Alternatively columns may be grouped together to form transverse portal
frames with capping beam and a common footing.
Leaf Pier
Ÿ Leaf pier is used in modern bridge construction.
Ÿ It is usually designed as a solid reinforced concrete wall.
Ÿ The overall length of the pier is equal to the transverse width of the
bridge.
Ÿ A typical leaf pier supporting a single carriageway of a bridge can be 4 to
10m in length and the least lateral dimension may be 0.5 to 1.0m in width.
Ÿ Common practice is to taper the pier dimension from base up to the deck.
Ÿ The greatest transverse dimension is required at the top to provide
sufficient support for the superstructure.
Ÿ Vertical and horizontal loads transmitted from the superstructure
disperse rapidly from the top of the pier.
Ÿ The overall design of the leaf is normally conducted on a metre strip basis
assuming a uniform distribution of axial and bending effects.
Columns
Ÿ Individual concrete columns are often used to support footbridges and
bridge decks with high skew or greater height than minimum headroom
clearance
Ÿ Columns may be vertical, inclined or even curved in shape to produce a
greater aesthetic appeal.
Ÿ Column sections are usually required to resist biaxial bending and significant 23
axial loading.
Project Job No
Ÿ Therefore column sections are usually circular, square . Octagonal

sections are also common.
Ÿ Typical dimension of a column is 0.4m x 0.4m to 0.8 x 0.8m depending on
the loading and height of the column.
Ÿ The section dimension is usually selected to avoid the need to consider
axial stability. A typical bridge column of 6 to 8m is normally designed as a
short column and this can be achieved by proper choice of cross-section
and articulation (type of end support type) condition to control the
effective length and eliminate slenderness effects.
Ÿ Assessment of the effective length of the column or pier is fundamental
to the design of the section.
Ÿ Individual columns located adjacent ton a road or railway passing are
extremely vulnerable to collision impact from vehicles. As such, they
require some form of protection or strengthening to resist potential
impact loading.
Ÿ
Portal Frames
Ÿ Concrete columns are often grouped together into pairs or sets of three
and placed on a common foundation capped with a cill beam.
Ÿ The cill beam provides a continuous intermediate support for the
superstructure similar ton the leaf pier.
Ÿ The transverse frame action developed by the interconnected capping
beam, the columns and foundation slab provides a much stiffer transverse
flexural rigidity than a group of individual columns but has no appreciable
effect upon the longitudinal rigidity.
Ÿ Wind load and vehicle impact forces can be more effectively resisted by
the portal frame action.
Ÿ Protection to the individual columns is most usually needed where they are
adjacent to the highway carriageway or railway passing as they could be
subjected to vehicle collision load.
Other Pier Arrangements
Ÿ Other arrangements of pier can be used to enhance the aesthetics of the
bridge or improve the structural behaviour of the bridge supports.
Ÿ The modern design of concrete column is based upon ultimate strength
considerations with checks for crack width and other stresses under
service conditions.
Ÿ The calculation of the effective length of the column is crucial to the
calculation of the design moment of the column at the ultimate limit state.
Ÿ Specific consideration is given in the code for determining the effective
length of the column for various bearing types and support conditions.
Ÿ Buckling is dealt with by additional moment concept for slender columns 24
and the basic principle is to estimate the deflection of the column and the
additional moment generated therewith.
Project Job No
Applied Loadings on Columns (BD 60/04)

The effect of longitudinal and transverse forces due to wind, braking,
shrinkage and thermal forces should be considered. Biaxial bending will be
produced and design should take this into consideration.
Skew bridges are usually provided with circular or hexagonal columns to allow
the biaxial bending effects to be simple treated.
Impact Load on Pier

BD 60/04 DMRB recommends that bridge supports should be made
sufficiently strong or be adequately protected to resist collision forces
without allowing the collapse of the supported structure. The nominal loads
acting horizontally on the bridge supports together with their height of
applications are given in Table 2/1.
Hydraulic Forces on Piers

Water flowing past a bridge pier exerts a force on the pier.
The hydrodynamic forces are calculated in similar manner to those of wind
load.
Thus q=ρvc2/2
where vc is the velocity of flood in m/s taking the density of
water=1000N/m3.
Water pressure q=500vc2/103 (KN/m2) and the force p=qACd(KN) similar
to wind where A is the exposed surface area of the pier.
Values of Cd for various shapes of pier are given in BD 37/01, guidance is
also given in BA 59/94 (Highway Agency 1994) for the UK while in the USA
is AASHTO LRFD (3d Edition).
Example - Bridge pier rectangular column design with sidesway, and with no
sidesway
Consider a pier column shown with loads indicated at ULS. Design the
reinforcement for the column having the characteristic strengths of
reinforcement and concrete as 410N/mm2 and 40N/mm2 respectively. Assume
that the articulation of the deck is such that a) sidesway is prevented and b)
sidesway can occur.
3000KN
Y
280KN Bearing which 600mm
permits
rotation only 1500m
X X
9.0m
A A
Y
25
Bridge Col section A-A
Project Job No
A/Sidesway prevented
I. Hand calculation
N=3000KN
fcu=40
fy=410
With sidesway prevented, the column can be considered to be braced.
From the given Table in the Code
Take effective length le=lo=9m
Slenderness ratio le/b=9.0x103/600=15>12 therefore slender col
Min eccentricity =0.05h=0.05x600=30mm>20mm (min allowed)
Initial moments:
At top of colM1=0
At bot of col M2=280x9+3000x0.03=2610KNm
Col is braced Mi=0.40M1+0.60M2
= 0+0.6x2610=1566KNm
Additional moment Madd=Nau
where au is the deflection of the col.
The deflection of a rectangular or circular column au=BetaaKh
and Betaa=(1/2000)(le/b’)2
where b’ =smaller dimension of the column except for biaxial bending where le
and b’ are always in the plane considered.
2
Betaa=(1/2000)(9.0/0.6) =0.1125
Take K=1 initially
au=0.1125x1x0.6=0.0675
Madd=3000x0.0675=202.5KNm Y
Total Moment Mt=Mi+Madd=1566+202.5=1768.5KNm<M2
600mm
Therefore Design moment M=2610KNm
M/(bh2fcu)=2610x106/(1500x6002x40)=0.1208 9T40
3
N/(bhfcu)=3000x10 /(1500x600x40)=0.0833
Assume 40mm dia main bars 1500mm
Take 40mm cover to main bars
X X
d=600-40-20=540mm
d/h=540/600=0.90
From Chart 151 RCDH by Reynolds & Steedman 9T40

ρfy/fcu=0.25
ρ=0.25x40/410=0.02439 Y
100ρ=0.02439x100=2.439>0.4 (min allowed)
Asc/bh=0.02439
Asc=0.02439x1500x600=21951mm2
2
Asc/2=10975.5mm
2
Provide 9T40 (As=11300mm ) on each face 26
or Provide 18T40 (as=22600mm2) in col
Project Job No
B/ With sidesway
I. Hand calculation
With sidesway occurring, consider the col to be a cantilever with effective
height equal to twice the actual height.
le=2x9=18m
Slenderness ratio=18/0.6=30
The initial and additional moments are both maximum at the base.
Initial moment Mi=2610KNm at base
Y
From equation
Mt=Mty+Madd 600mm
Madd=Nau
12T40
au=Betaakh
Betaa=(1/2000)(18/0.6)2=0.45
Take k=1 initially
au=0.45x1x0.6=0.27
Madd=3000x0.27=810KNm X X
Mt=2610+810=3420KNm 1500mm
3
N/(bhfcu)=3000x10 /(1500x600x40)=0.0833
2 6
M/bh fcu=3420x10 /(1500x6002x40)=0.1583
From Chart 151 RCDH
ρfy/fcu=0.31818 12T40
ρ=0.31818x40/410=0.03142
100ρ=3.142>0.4 (min allowed) Y
<6.0 (max allowed)
Asc/bh=0.03142
2
Asc=0.03142x1500x600=28278mm
Asc/2=28278/2=14139mm2
2
Provide 12T40 (As=15080mm ) each face
or Provide 24T40 (As=30160mm2) in col
27
Project Job No
Example - Bridge pier circular column design with no sidesway

Consider the pier column shown with loads indicated at ULS. Design the
reinforcement for the column having the characteristic strengths of
reinforcement and concrete as 410N/mm2 and 40N/mm2 respectively. Adopt
circular section of 950mm diameter and assume that the articulation of the
deck is such that sidesway is prevented.
3000KN
280KN
Bearing which permits Y 950mm Dia
rotation only
12.0m X X
A A
N=3000KN
fcu=40
fy=410
With sidesway prevented, the column can be considered to be braced.
From the given Table in the Code
Take effective length le=lo=12m
Slenderness ratio le/b=120x103/950=1263>12 therefore slender col
Min eccentricity =0.05h=0.05x9500=47.5mm>20mm (min allowed)
Initial moments:
At top of colM1=0
At bot of col M2=280x12+3000x0.0475=3502.5KNm
Col is braced Mi=0.40M1+0.60M2
= 0+0.6x3502.5=2101.5KNm
Additional moment Madd=Nau
where au is the deflection of the col. 28
The deflection of a rectangular or circular column au=BetaaKh
and Betaa=(1/2000)(le/b’)2
Project Job No
where b’ =smaller dimension of the column except for biaxial bending where le
and b’ are always in the plane considered.
Betaa=(1/2000)(12.0/0.95)2=0.0798
Take K=1 initially
au=0.0798x1x0.95=0.0758
Madd=3000x0.07581=227.4KNm
Total Moment Mt=Mi+Madd=2101.5+227.4=2328.9KNm<M2
Therefore Design moment M=3502.5KNm
3 6 3
M/(h fcu)=3502.5x10 /(950 x40)=0.102
2 3 2
N/(h fcu)=3000x10 /(950 x40)=0.083
Assume 40mm dia main bars
Take 40mm cover to main bars
hs=950-40-20=890mm
hs/h=890/950=0.937
From Chart 90 of Manual for the Design of Reinforced Concrete Building
Structures published by the Institution of Structural Engineers.
ρfy/fcu=0.37
ρ=Asc/Ac=0.37x40/410=0.0361
100ρ=3.61>0.4 (min allowed)
100ρ<6 (maximum allowed)
Asc/Ac=0.0361
2 2
Asc=0.0361x22/7x950 /4mm =25588.5mm2
Provide 22T40 (As=27646mm2)
Y
950mm Dia
22T40
X X
29
Project Job No
Reinforced Concrete Design

Ÿ Both Serviceability and ultimate limit states are to be considered.
Ÿ Considering the serviceability limit state ensures that crack width do not
exceed values specified for different environmental conditions and also
that the reinforcement stresses are maintained within acceptable limits.
Ÿ Considering ultimate limit state ensures that the structure does not
collapse.
Serviceability Limit State

I. Crack Control
The crack in concrete can be caused by
Ÿ Corrosion of the reinforcement leading to spalling of the concrete;
Ÿ Thermal movements caused by cooling from heat of hydration referred to
as early thermal;
cracking;
Ÿ Effect of structural actions such as bending, shear and torsion;
Ÿ The cracks due to thermal movements an be controlled by provision of
minimum steel area and bar spacing to control early thermal cracking.
B28/87 is used to calculate the minimum steel area and bar spacing to
control early thermal cracking.
Ÿ The shear cracks is controlled by ultimate strength calculation.
Ÿ The crack width caused by tension due to bending needs to be calculated
(cl 5.8.8.2 BD 44/95) and should not be greater than the limit specified
for the environmental condition of the structure.
Ÿ Only combination 1 is considered and only 30 units of HB is applied.
bt
A’s(area of steel
d’
dc
d a’
h
As(area of steel in
S Φ
Ɛs
30
acr Cnom Ɛm
Section Cracked elastic
Strain
Project Job No

Ultimate Limit State
The following assumptions are made in the limit state analysis for the
determination of moment of resistance of a member to resist failure’
Ÿ The stress strain distribution across the section is linear ie plane section
remain plain before and after bending.
Ÿ The resistance of concrete in tension is ignored.
Ÿ The stress strain relationship for reinforcement is given in fig 2 of the
code with ɣm=1.15.
Ÿ The stress strain relationship of concrete is as shown in fig 1 of the code
with ɣm=1.5.
Ÿ The outermost fibre concrete strain is 0.0035
Ÿ Alternatively the stress curve at the section at failure is represented
by a uniform stress of 0.4fcu acting over the whole of the compression
zone.
The design formulae as given in cl 5.3.2.3 of the code are based on a
uniform compressive stress of 0.4fcu for concrete, 0.87fy in tension steel
and 0.72fy in compression for steel.
The steel stresses are the maximum value provided by the stress curves
and 0.72fy is a simplification of the expression for the steel stress in
compression
The design formulae are based maximum depth of 0.5d for the concrete in
compression thus ensuring a strain greater than 0.0035 in the tension
reinforcement.
For the depth of the neutral axis (x) greater than 0.5d, the use of the
design stress of 0.87fy in tension reinforcement is invalid as the design
becomes inefficient and the failure less ductile.
Consider the singly reinforced section shown below:
b
0.4fcu
(0.4fcu)bx
x>0.5d
|
d Z=(d-0.5x)
h
As(area of
steel in tension)
(0.87fy)As
Stress diagram 31
Section Singly reinforced section

Project Job No
Taking moment about the centre of compression for the tensile reinforcement
Mu=(0.87fy)Asz (1)
Taking moments about the centre of tension steel for the compressive force
Mu=(0.4fcu)bxZ=(0.4fcu)bx(d-0.5x) (2)
The maximum moment of resistance is obtained when x=0.5d and so subs tu ng for x
we obtain
2
Mu=0.15fcubd (3)
The depth to the neutral axis depends on the reinforcement provided and is obtained by
equa ng forces thus
(0.87fy)As=(0.4fcu)bx
Rearranging and dividing both sides by d
<Z/d={1-[1.1fyAS/(fcubd)]}<0.95d (4)
b
A’s(area of steel in
compression)
0.4fcu
d’ (0.72fy)A’s
x=0.5d (0.4fcu)bx
d Z=(d-d’)
h Z=0.75d
As(area of
steel in tension)
(0.87fy)As
Section Stress diagram
Taking moment of the compressive forces about the centre of tension steel
Mu=0.15fcubd2 + (0.72fy)A’s(d-d’) (5)
Equating tensile and compressive forces
2
(0.87fy)As=0.2fcubd +(0.72fy)A’s (6)
Equations (5) and (6 ) are based on value of d’/d<0.20
For values of d’/d>0.20 the use of design stress 0.72fy in compression steel is
not valid. This stress has to be determined from the design stress strain
curve of the steel in compression as the steel has not yielded.
32
Project Job No
Example -Design of slab Bridge

A simply supported reinforced concrete deck bridge is to be built a cross a
river. The deck which is to span 13.0m centre to centre of bearings is to be
700mm thick with 100mm surfacing and carriageway width of 8m, flanked by
1.5m width of walkway on both sides. The bridge is required to carry 30 units
of HB. Design the deck slab. Use C32/40 concrete to BS 8500 and grade
B500B reinforcement to BS 4449.
surfacing
100
700 RC deck slab
Deck cross-section
From BS 8500:
Exposure class is XD1 - moderate humidity
Maximum water/cement ratio=0.55
Minimum cement content=320Kg/m3
Minimum strength class for cement type group 4=C32/40
Minimum cover=30mm
Nominal cover=40mm
Loading per m width of deck (unit strip):

Nominal dead loads: deck slab =25x0.7x1.0 =17.5KN/m
surfacing =24x0.1x1.0 =2.4KN/m
No of notional lanes=Int[(b/3.65)+1]=3
Width of notional lane=8/3=2.667m
Lane factors: β1=β2=0.274x2.667=0.731 β3=0.6
HA Load:
L=13.0m
0.67
HAUDL=336(1/L) =60.3KN/m/lane
1st & 2nd lanes HAUDL=60.3x0.731/2.667=44.079/2.667= 16.5KN/m2

HAKEL=120x0.731/2.667=32.90KN/m
3rd lane HAUDL=60.3x0.60/2.667= 36.18/2.667= 13.60KN/m2
HAKEL=120x0.60/2.667=27.0KN/m3
HB Load:
30units of HB=30x10KN/axle=300/4KN per wheel=75KN/wheel 33
Project Job No
Nominal Live load: HA =16.5KN/m (HAUDL) +32.9KN (HAKEL)

HB=75KN/wheel
Load factors for Ultimate and Serviceabilility Limit States BD 37/01)

Table 1:BD 37/01) Table 1:
SLS ULS
Comb 1 Comb 3 Comb 1 Comb 3
Dead Load ɣFL concrete 1.0 1.0 1.15 1.15
Superimposed Dead Load ɣFL surfacing 1.2 1.2 1.75 1.75
Live Load ɣFL HA 1.2 1.0 1.5 1.25
ɣFL HB 1.1 1.0 1.3 1.1
Temperature Difference ɣFL - 0.8 -
Dead + Superimposed Dead Loading (per m width of deck)

SLS= Serviceability Limit State
ULS= Ultimate Limit State
Design SLS moment=∑(ɣFL x M) = [(1.0x17.5) + (1.2x2.4)]x 132/8= 430.5 KNm

Design ULS moment=ɣf3 x ∑(ɣFL x M) = 1.1 x [(1.15 x 17.5 + (1.75x2.4)] x
2
=13 /8=513.9KNm
Live Loading (per m width of deck)

2
Nominal HA mid span moment= 16.5x13 /8 +32.90x(13/4)=455.5KNm
HAKEL=32.9KN HAUDL=16.5KN/m
The maximum HB moment occurs at point marked X in the diagram below.
75KN 75KN 75KN 75KN

3.2 1.8 6.0 1.8 0.2
X 13.0
centre of gravity of loads
Centreline of span
Nominal HB moment at X=435KNm
Combination 1 Loading
Dead=369.7x1.15+1.75x50.7=513.9KNm
Design HA SLS moment=ɣFL x M=1.2 x 455.5=546.6KNm
Design HB SLS moment=ɣFL x M=1.1 x 435=478.5KNm<546.6KNm HA is critical 34
Total Design SLS Moment (Dead + Live) =430.5+ 546.6=977.1KNm
Project Job No
Design HA ULS moment=ɣFL x M=1.5 x 455.5=683.3KNm

Design HB US moment=ɣFL x M=1.3 x 435.55=565.5KNm<683.3KNm HA is
critical
Total Design ULS Moment (Dead + Live)=565.5+683.3=1103.7KNm
Combination 3 Loading
Design HA SLS moment=ɣFL x M=1.0 x 455.5=455.5KNm
Design HB SLS moment=ɣFL x M=1.0 x 375=375KNm<455.5KNm HA is critical
Total Design SLS Moment (Dead + Live) =435.5+ 455.5=886KNm
Design HA ULS moment=ɣFL x M=1.25 x 455.5=569.4KNm

Design HB ULS moment=ɣFL x M=1.1 x 435=435KNm<569.4KNm HA is critical
Total Design ULS Moment (Dead + Live)=513.9+569.4=1083.3KNm
Ultimate Capacity of Deck slab (Cl 5.3.2.2)

Ultimate Design Moment=1103.7x1.1=1214KNm/m
RC deck slab 700
Try T40 @ 125mm centres

Nominal cover to reinforcement in deck soffit=40mm
d=700-40-20/2=640mm
As =(πx402/4)x1000/125 =10057mm2/m
fy =500N/mm2
fcu =40N/mm2
Z =[1- {1.1fyAs}/{fcubd}]d
=[1-{1.1x500x10057}/{40x1000x640}]d=0.784d<0.95d
=0.784x640=501.8mm
Mu_steel =0.87xfyAsZ Equ 1
=0.87x500x10057x501.8=2195.3KNm
2
Mu_concrete =0.15fcubd Equ 2
2
=0.15x40x1000x640
=2457.6KNm>2195.3KNm
Thus Mu =2195.3KNm>1214.1KNm OK
Check Serviceability Limit State

Determine depth X to neutral axis of cracked section
Short term Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of concrete =Ec=31KN/mm2
35
Cl 4.3.2.1 Table 3
Project Job No
Youngs Modulus of Elasticity of steel reinforcement =Es=200KN/mm2 Cl

4.3.2.2
Case 1 - When the bridge has just opened (when only a small amount of creep
has occurred)
Modular ratio=Ec=200/31=6.45
Taking moments of area about neutral axis
1000xX2/2=6.45x10057x(640-X)
X2+129.7X-83030=0
X=229.3mm
Second Moment of Area of cracked section:
2 2 10
Ixx= 1000x229.3 /3+6.45x10057x(700-229.3) =1.439x10 mm4
Maximum compressive stress in concrete=977.1 x106x
10
229.3/1.439x10 =15.6N/mm2
Allowable compressive stress=0.5fcu=20N/mm2>15.6N/mm2 OK
Case 2 - When creep and shrinkage in the bridge are substantially complete
For long term loading Youngs Modulus of elasticity=Ec/2=15.5KN/mm2
Combination 1 SLS Design Moment=430.5DL+ 546.6LL=977.1KNm
Hence modified Ec for (430.5DL+ 546.6LL)=977.1KNm

Modular ratio=200/24.2=8.26
Taking moment of area about neutral axis at depth X:
2
1000xX /2=8.26x10057x(640-X)
X2+166.1X-106330.6=0
X=253.4mm
Second Moment of Area of cracked section:
Ixx=1000x253.42/3+8.26x10057x(640-253.4)2=1.2437x1010mm4
6
Maximum compressive stress in concrete=977.1 x10 x
253.4/1.2437x1010=19.9N/mm2
Allowable compressive stress=0.5fcu=20N/mm2>19.9N/mm2 OK
6
Tensile stress in reinforcement=8.26x 977.1 x10 x (640-
253.4)/1.2437x1010=250.9N/mm2
Allowable tensile stress=0.75fy=375N/mm2>250.9N/mm2 OK Table 2
Crack Control:
Strains in the reinforcement=ɣs=250.9/200000=0.0012545
Notional surface for crack width calculation=35mm cover to reinforcement
Table 13 125
0 16+35=51
+4
r
ac 36
Project Job No

2 2 0.5
acr=[(125/2) +(20+35) ] -20=63.3mm
Allow for the stiffening effect of concrete:
Ɛm=ɣ1-[{3.8bth(a’-dc)}/{ sAs(h-dc)}]x[(1-Mq/Mg)x10-9] Equ 25
=Ɛ1-[{3.8x1000x700(695-253.4)}/{0.0012545x10057(700-253.4)}]x[(1-
546.6/430.5)x10-9]
=Ɛ1-(-0.0000562) but not greater than Ɛ1 hence no stiffening effect.
Ɛm=Ɛ1=0.0012545x(695-253.4)/(640-253.4)=0.00143
Design crack width=3acrƐm/[1+2(acr-Cnom)/(h-dc)] Equ 24
=3x63.3x0.00143/[1+2(63.3-35)/(700-253.4)]=0.24mm
Maximum allowable crack width=0.25mm>0.24mm OK Table 1
Combination 3 SLS Design Moment=430.5DL+ 455.5LL=886KNm
Determine depth X to neutral axis of cracked section

Youngs Modulus of Elasticity for concrete for short term
loading=Ec=31KN/mm2 Cl 4.3.2.1 Table 3
Youngs Modulus of Elasticity for concrete for long term
loading=Ec/2=15.5KN/mm2 Cl 4.3.2.1 Table 3
Thus modified Ec for (430.5DL+ 455.5LL)=(430.5x15.5 +
455.5x31)/886=23.5KN/mm2
Youngs Modulus of Elasticity for steel reinforcement=200KN/mm2 Cl
4.3.2.2
Modular ratio=200/23.5=8.51
Taking moment of area about the neutral axis:
1000xX2/2=8.51x10057x(700-X)
2
X +171.2X-119819.1=0
X=271mm
Second Moment of Area of Cracked Section:

Ixx=1000x2713/3+8.51x10057x(700-271)2
10
=2.239x10 mm4
Maximum compressive stress in
6 10
concrete=886x10 x271/2.239x10 =10.72N/mm2
Maximum compressive stress due to positive temperature difference
=ɣFL x2.83=0.8x2.83=2.26N/mm2 (refer to earlier Example )
Total compressive stress in concrete=10.71+2.26=12.97N/mm2
From Table 2 allowable compressive stress in
concrete=0.5fcu=20N/mm2>12.97N/mm2 OK
37
Project Job No

Tensile stress in reinforcement=886x106x(700-
10
271)x8.51/2.239x10 =144.5N/mm2
Tensile stress due to reverse temperature difference (if applicable)
=ɣFL x 2.03=0.8x2.03=1.62N/mm2
Total tensile stress in reinforcement=144.5+1.62=146.1N/mm2
From Table 2 allowable tensile stress in
reinforcement=0.75fy=375N/mm2>146.1N/mm2
Hence T40@125 centres is adequate for the midspan
Shear Design Cl 5.4.4

Shear is designed for at the ULS.
V=shear force due to ultimate loads.
Maximum Dead Load V= f3 x 13x(1.15x17.5 + 1.75x2.4)/2
Maximum Dead Load V=1.1x158.1KN=173.9KN
Determine shear effects at distance d away from the support:
HA Loading HAKEL=32.9KN HAUDL=16.5KN/m
0.64m
13m
Nominal:
Due to HA Vx=138.5KN
Due to DL(concrete) =17.5x13/2KN=102.4KN
Due to SDL(surfacing)=2.4x13/2=14.0KN
Ultimate shear force

HA:
For combination 1 V=(1.15x102.4 +1.75x14)+1.5x138.5
=142.26 +1.5x138.5=350.0KN
For Combination 3 V=(1.15x102.4 +1.75x14)+1.25x138.5
=142.26 +1.25x138.5=315.4KN
75KN 75KN 75KN 75KN

HB Loading 0.64 6.0
1.8 1.8
X 13.0
HB:
For combination 1 V=(1.15x102.4 +1.75x14)+1.3x83.5 38

=142.26 +1.3x83.5=250.8KN
Project Job No
For Combination 3 V=(1.15x102.4 +1.75x14)+1.1x138.5

=142.26 +1.1x138.5=294.6KN
Design shear force V=1.1x350.0=385KN
3
Design shear stress=v=V/bd=385x10 /(1000x640)=0.602N/mm2
From Table 9
1/4 1/4
ξs =(500/d) =(500/640) =0.94>0.70
vc=0.27/ɣm x (100As/bd)1/3(fcu)1/3
=(0.27/1.25)x(100x10057/1000x640)1/3(40)1/3=0.858N/mm2
ξs vc=0.94x0.858=0.807N/mm2>0.602N/mm2 Ok
Hence provide T40@125 centres at midspan bottom.
Minimum area of reinforcement=0.15%bd=0.15x1000x640/100=960mm2/m

Provide T12@100 centres as distribution reinforcement. As=1130mm2
38a
Project Job No
Abutment
Abutment lies at the two extremities of the bridge. They serve to support the
superstructure, serve as retaining wall as well as transfer the vertical and
horizontal forces to the foundation. Recesses are provided at the top of the
retaining wall to support the transition slab sometimes referred to as apron or
approach slab. The function of the approach slab is to bridge the gap between
the bridge and the approach road.
Types of Abutment
The types of abutment depend on a number of factors such as the height of
the retained soil, the strength of the underlying soil strata and the slope of
the embankment across the return walls. The different types are discussed
below:
I The Cantilever Abutment - There are three forms of this namely:
a. The Wingwall Abutment- This consists of a front cantilever wall with
splayed wingwalls. The splayed wingwalls may be supported on extended
footing from the main front wall or may be cantilevered as a projection
from main stem wall. In this case no footing is required for the
wingwalls.
b. The Returnwall Abutment - This is sometimes referred to as the
U-Abutment. Here the wings become returnwalls parallel to the
longitudinal profile. It consists of a side wall and a cantilevered ear wall.
c. The Ear Abutment - This is another form of a Returnwall which
consists purely of the ear cantilevered wall.
ii. The Bank Seat Abutment - These are pseudo abutments which do not consist
of retaining wall. There are two main types:
a. The Skeleton (Spillthrough) type - This is used where the rock
bearing material is within about four metres from the existing ground
level. In this case the footing rest on rock while the skeleton columns
transfer load from the bridge to the underlying footing. The abutment is
then regarded as a buried abutment, and the forces on both sides are
taken as active. Since the columns will not be visible, pipe culvert precast
concrete rings are usually employed as permanent formwork.
b. Piled type - The bank seat may be supported on piles in poor ground.
iii. The Counterfort Abutment- This form of Abutment which is now obsolete
consists of counterfort walls placed to support the front wall at right angles.
The difficulties arising from compaction of the materials between the
counterfort walls contribute to its dislike by contractors and designers. It is
now replaced with the ReturnWalll Abutments with the side walls acting as end
counterforts. 39
Project Job No
Determination of the horizontal forces induced by the backfill soil are based
on the coefficient of active earth pressure at the serviceability limit state
while at the ultimate limit state, the determination is based on the coefficient
of earth pressure at rest.
Well graded granular soil material, Class 6N is recommended as backfill soil.
The provision of weepholes at the front wall and wingwalls of the abutment
including french drain at bottom are required to prevent accumulation of
water behind the abutment and the consequent hydraulic forces.
Bridge Foundations
The foundations for bridges may be classified into two categories- spread and
piled foundations.
I. Spread Foundations
This category covers the strip foundation, pad and combined footings. The
strip footing is mostly used for abutments while piers are normally placed by
on either pad footing or combined footing. Leaf piers rest on strip footing.
Stability checks on the abutment resting on this category of foundations is
required.
ii. Piled Foundations

Piled Foundations are usually provided where ground of poor bearing capacities
extend down to a considerable depth below the ground surface and a harder
stratum is reached at depths of 5m or more.
The type of piles generally used for bridge foundations are:

Ÿ Driven Piles; preformed piles of concrete or steel driven driven by blows of
a power hammer or jacked into the ground.
Ÿ Preformed Driven Cast I-Situ Piles; formed by driving a hollow steel tube
with closed end and filling the tube with concrete.
Ÿ Driven Cast In-Situ Piles; formed by driving a hollow steel tube with closed
end and filling the tube with concrete, simultaneously withdrawing the tube.
Ÿ Bored and Cast In-Situ Piles; formed by boring a hole and filling it with
concrete.
The first three stated types are known as displacement piles and the problem
of calculating the load carrying capacity and settlement require a different
approach to that of the bored piles. Depending on the soil strata, driven piles
can either be end bearing or friction piles, sometimes a combination of both.
Bored piles are generally end bearing and are often of large diameter, 600mm
and above. To increase the bearing capacity, the bottom can be under-reamed
to produce greater bearing area. Additional safety precautions are required 40
with larger diameter piles.
Project Job No
All foundations must satisfy two criteria, no shear failure in the soil and no
excessive settlement. There are well established method for ensuring that the
criteria of no shear failure is met. The criteria of no excessive settlement is
met using the following methods:
I. Through soil parameters ie summing the shaft friction and bearing capacity .
ii. By means of test piles.
iii. By means of dynamic formulae ie Hiley formulae which equates the energy
required to drive the pile with its ultimate bearing capacity.
iv. Piling contractors ‘Know how’.
Soil Investigation
The foundation design requires knowing the characteristics of the underlying
strata. This is obtained by use of the Penetration Tests.
The two most common penetration tests in use are the Standard Penetration
Test and the Dutch Cone Penetration Test.
I. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

The SPT is a dynamic test carried out in a borehole and consists in determining
the SPT value, N, ie the number of blows of a standard weight that are
required to drive a 35 mm interior diameter sampling tube through a depth of
300mm into the soil, having already driven through a depth of 150mm. The SPT
uses the Shell-and-Auger boring. These tool attachments are all operated from
ground level using a four-legged Derrick fitted with a winch.
ii. The Dutch Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

O
In this test, 60 cone with a cross-sectional area of 1000mm2 is forced into
the ground at a reasonable constant rate of strain, and provision is made to
measure independently the point resistance due to friction. The test was first
devised to measure the bearing capacity of piles, but is now used to predict
the settlement of structures in sand.
iii. Tests
a. Insitu tests are performed during the borehole operation. They are
i. The Vane Test
ii. The Standard Penetration Test
b. Disturbed and Undisturbed Samples are taken from the borehole at speific
locations for tests in the Laboratory.
Such tests include:
Ÿ the Triaxial Compression Test
Ÿ the Unconfined Compression Test
Ÿ the Direct Shear Test
41
Ÿ the Consolidation Tests
Project Job No

Borehole Log
After an investigation has been completed and the results of any laboratory
tests are available, the ground conditions discovered in each borehole are
summarized in the form of a borehole log. The log should enable a rapid
appraisal of the soil profile to be made. A sample borehole log is shown below.
0
Made up ground
1.0
Clayey, ɣ=18KN/m3, c=45KN/m2
5.0 WL
Sandy Clayey, ɣ=19KN/m3, c=40KN/m2

o
Ø=35
10.0
Sandy gravel, ɣ=20KN/m3
o
Ø=36
15.0
Rock
Bearing Capacity of Foundations

I. Spread Foundations:
The ability of a soil to support a load from structural foundation without
failing in shear is known as the bearing capacity, but the stability of the
foundation depends on the bearing capacity of the soil beneath the
foundation and the settlement.
The shearing resistance of the soil provides the bearing capacity while the
consolidation properties determine the settlement.
The bearing capacity is obtained using Terzaghi’s equations. The footings for
the Abutment and Piers are rectangular and Terzaghi’s equation for a
rectangular footing will be applicable.
Thus the ultimate bearing capacity
qult(net)=c’Nc + ɣz(Nq-1)+(0.50)(ɣ)(B)(Nɣ)
where
c=cohesion
B=width
L=length
ɣ=density
z=depth
Nc, Nq and Nɣ are bearing capacity factors. 42
Project Job No
Application:
a. Abutment Location:
A borehole is provided for a proposed Abutment location. At depth 2m, the
cohesion=65KN/m2 and angle of internal friction=20o. To obtain the net bering
capacity of the foundation
Terzaghi’s equation for strip footing is applied.
qult=c’Nc + ɣz(Nq-1) +(0.50)(ɣ)(B)(Nɣ)
=65x17.7 +18x2x7.4 +0.5x5x5=1606KN/m2
q(safe)=1606/2.5+18x2=678KN/m2
b. Pier Location
This location requires a rectangular footing.
qult(net)=cNc(1+0.3B/L) + ɣz(Nq-1) + (0.5)(ɣ)(B)(Nɣ)(1-0.2B/L)
The net bearing capacity is multiplied by a correction factor where the water
table is located within the vicinity of the foundation.
ii. Piled Foundations:

Cohesive soils:
The pile bearing capacity depends on two factors:
Ÿ the end bearing pressure
Ÿ the skin adhesion or friction
a. End Bearing: For deep foundation Nc=9.0. If the base area is A, then the
end bearing =9cA.
b. Skin Friction: This is the load transmitted to the soil surrounding the
shaft of the pile. If the surface adhesion=acu for a surface area As, then the
skin friction=acuAs.
The adhesion factor ‘a’ depends on the undrained shear strength but usually
taken =045 for bored piles and 0.8 for driven piles.
In general for cohesive soils, q=9cA + acAs
Cohesionless Soils:
Design parameters for soils in granular soils are usually obtained from results
of insitu penetration tests because of the difficulty involved in obtaining
undisturbed samples. In 1953 Peck et al proposed the relationship between the
uncorrected N-value from SPT and the angle of friction of the soil.
Berezantzev showed the relationship of Nq with Q.
The ultimate bearing capacity for piles considering end bearing only is the
volume of displaced soils x density of the soil x Nq
2
ie πd /4.ɣ.H.Nq
where d=diameter of piles
H=depth of penetration of piles
ɣ= density of soils 43
Nq=bearing capacity factor.
Project Job No
A factor of safety of 2.5 is applied to this to obtain the safe bearing

capacity.
The author has developed a program called PileBeaCapa which uses the
Berezantzev’s method to compute the bearing capacity of a pile embedded in
sands and other granular soils at various depths based on the correlations
between the Berezantsev’s bearing capacity factor Nq and the angle of
shearing resistance of the soil.
Meyerhof Correlations:
Here the ultimate load is given by
Qf=Abqf + AsFs
where qf=40ND/B KN/m2 <=400N KN/m2
N=No of blows from SPT
and fs=2Navg KN/m2
Navg=average number of blows for the soils.
The safe ultimate load, Qf(safe)=Qf/2 for factor of safety of 2.
The author has developed a program called PileBeaMeyerhof which utilizes the
empirical correlations between the SPT-N values to determine the shaft and
base resistance of the pile in a soil stratum.
The Dutch Cone De Beer’s Method:

The ultimate load=Abqf + nAsfs
qf should not exceed 10MN/m2
and fs=qc/200
The allowable load is subject to F of S=2.5.
The author has developed a program called BeaPen which plots the Dutch Cone
Penetrometer readings against depth in the soil and determines the bearing
capacity of piles using Meyerhof’s, De Beer’s and Tomlinson’s methods.
Piles on Rock
These piles depend on their structural strength, and are desiged as columns.
The ultimate load that can be supported by the pile is
N=0.4fcuAc + 067fyAc
where the minimum are of steel, As depends on the L/D ratio.
For L/d<=30, use 1.25% of area of pile.
30<L/D<=40, use 1.5%
L/d>=40, use 2%.

The allowable load is subject to a F of S 0f 2.5 44
Project Job No
Pile Driving Formula

All pile driving formulae are based on the assumption that the bearing capacity
of a pile under static conditions bears a simple relationship to its resistance to
driving for the last 1m or so. In 1925 Hiley developed the rational formula for
pile driving, but a popular formula for checking the final set in pile driving is
the Engineering News formula.
Here
R=166.64E/(S+2.54)
where R = allowable pile load in KN
E=the energy per blow in KNm (or KJ)
S= the average penetration in millimeters per blow for the final 150mm of
driving (note that the minimum permissible value of S=125mm)
For Delmag Hammers, the energy per blow for each model is shown below.
Model Energy (KJ)
D-5 12.34
D-12 30.51
D-22 53.83
D-36 47.2
Application Example
Determine the required set for a pile driving operation utilizing a Model D-36
Delamg Diesel Hammer for an allowable pile load of 600KN.
Using the Engineering News formula, we have
S+2.54=166.64E/R
=166.64x47.2/600
=13.1
S =10mm per blow
Hence the refusal value of 10mm per blow subject to a minimum of 1.25mm per
blow for the final 150mm of driving is adopted within the minimum length of
pile shown on the drawings, It is essential to test a few selected piles to
confirm agreement with design parameters.
Forces on Abutment
Horizontal forces:
Ÿ Earth pressures
Ÿ Live load surcharge created by either HA ornHB loading
Ÿ Braking forces
Ÿ Temperature forces acting through bearings
Vertical Forces:
Ÿ Abutment self weight
Ÿ Superstructure dead load 45
Ÿ Superimposed dead load (parapets, asphalt and walkway)
Project Job No
Ÿ HA and HB live loads

Ÿ Pedestrian load on walkways
6
9
7
5
3
1 8
Abutment Typical 2
4 2
Arrangement
GL
1
1 = Strip footing or pile cap
2=Abutment stem
3=Bbackwall or ballast wall
4=Side wall
5=cantilevered returnwall or EAR
6=Run on slab or Approach slab or Transition Slab
7=Superstructure
8=Plinth or Bearing Support
9=Curtain wall
Ear Abutment with Toe Emphasis
Haunched Abutment
46
Project Job No
Abutment Design
The design consists of evaluation of
I. Stability of the Abutment
Ÿ Overturning stability
Ÿ Sliding stability
ii. Bearing capacity checks
Abutment on Spread Footing

This checked for abutment stability of overturning and sliding stability
including bearing capacity checks.
Stability and bearing capacity checks come under serviceability limit state
while design of the bending reinforcement for component members of the
abutment comes under ultimate limit state.
The abutment on spread footing is normally placed on rock over a cushion of
mass concrete of the same concrete grade as the footing.
Dowel bars are grouted into the rock to prevent sliding and encourage proper
bond into the rock body.
Sliding can be prevented on rock. Overturning is checked by taking moments
of all forces about the point of rotation which is at the toe of the footing.
The bearing capacity under serviceability limit state will fall under acceptable
limit for rock support.
The author has developed a program called winAbutPiler which determines the
resultant forces and their point of application at the base of the abutment.
The program also determines the pressure distribution beneath the spread
footing of the abutment at serviceability and ultimate limit states.
Application Example
Bearing Pressure calculations for an EAR Abutment at SLS load combination 4.
The Ear is 0.4m thick.
700 300
6 DL= 1782 KN
1500 4 1000
7 LL= 1823 KN 3
8
225KN
5 2000
3850
2 2218KN
3000
9
1000 1
47
A 600
1900 1000
3500
Project Job No
Item ɣFL Force (KN) Arm at A(m) Moment

(KNm)
1. 1.0 3.5x1.0x1.0x12x24=1008 1.0 1008
2. 1.0 3.85x1.0x11x1.0x24=1016 2.925 2972
3. 1.0 0.3x1.5x11x1.0x24=119 2.75 327
4. 1.0 2x 1.0x3.0x0.4x1.0x24=58 4.4 255
5. 1.0 2x 0.5x2x3x0.4x24=58 3.9 226
6. 1.0 1782 2.25 4010
7. 1.1 1823 2.25 4512
8. 1.0 225 -4.85 -1091
9. 1.0 2218 -2.12 -4702

Total =5864KN 7517KNm
Ecce=1.75-1.28=0.47m
2756KNm
P1 P2
5864KN Pressure distribution
beneath the spread footing.
3
P1=5864/(3.5x12)+(2756x1.75)/(12x3.5 /12)
=139.6+112.5=252KN/m2
P2=27KN/m2
Compare these two figures with bearing capacity of the underlying soil strata.
Abutment on Piles
Consider the same abutment under LC4.
Assume pile capacity of 900KN
Load on an extreme pile=V/n+My/I
where V=Vertical load on pile group
y=distance from entre of pile to extreme piles
n=no of piles
2
I=Σd =sum of the square of the distance of the centre of the pile from the 48
centroidal axis.
Project Job No
N1 N2
0.75 2.0 0.75
1.20
2.40
12.00
3.50
Pile Cap
2
N1=V/n+-(M)(x1/Σd
I=Σd2=10x(1.0)2=10
N1 =5864/10+2756x1/10
=586.4+275.6=862KN
N2 =586.4-275.6=310.6KN
Checking for raking

H/V=(225+2218)/5864=0.417
tan α=0.417
o
α=22.6
According to Berezantsev
o
Ÿ no raking for α<5
o o
Ÿ raking is provided for α between 5 and 15 , and deadman piles should be
o
provided for angles greater than 15 . For α of 22.7o, deadman piles are
required and back row piles will be utilized for this purpose. 49
Project Job No
However the use of raked piles is no longer fashionable due to the difficulty
involved in achieving the angle of raking at the site; bored cast in-situ piles
are currently in use.
The author has developed a program called PileGroup_2Axes which provide a

rapid solution to obtain the axial forces in the piles in a pile group subjected
to vertical and horizontal forces including bending moments in two orthogonal
planes at the pile cap.
Pile Cap
Pile cap serves to transmit the total load from the pier or abutment to the
piles below. The pile cap can be designed when the total number of piles
required at serviceability limit state and their arrangement below the pile cap
have been determined.
Ultimate Limit State Considerations:

The bending reinforcement in a pile cap may be designed either by the column
analogy method or using the bending theory at the ultimate limit state. The
pile cap is considered to act as a wide beam in each direction when applying
the bending theory. The total reinforcement calculated is evenly spread
across the section. Most pile caps are acted upon by high shear forces. The
critical section for shear is located at 20% of the pile diameter inside the
pile. Clarke suggests that punching shear force be checked at this critical
section if the pile spacing exceeds four times the pile diameter. BD 44/95
indicates that the punching shear stress be checked at the pier col or
abutment perimeter on the pile cap and the value should neither exceed
0.92(fcu/ɣmc)1/2 nor 7/(ɣmc)1/2 otherwise the thickness of the pile cap should be
increased.
Serviceability Limit State Considerations:

Check on the crack width is not required provided the pile cap is adequately
designed and detailed at the ultimate limit state.
The piles should extend at least 75mm into the pile cap for adequate fixity
while the reinforcement from the piles should extend at least an anchorage
length into the pile cap.
50
Project Job No
Pier col
150mm minimum Pile cap
150mm Pile
minimum
A A
Pile cap Pier col Pile
Plan of Pile Cap Section A-A
Abutment stem
150mm minimum Pile cap
150mm Pile
minimum
A A
Abutment stem
Pile cap Pile
Plan of Pile Cap Section A-A
51
Project Job No
Structural Design
a. Abutment with Ear
This is treated as cantilever wall subjected to earth pressure, self weight
forces and forces from the superstructure. Moments can be taken about the
centre of gravity of the stem wall to obtain the resultant moment and
forces acting and thereby obviate the difficulty of lengthy calculations.
10
6
7 3 4
8
5
The design of the structural elements is based on ultimate limit state and
coefficient of earth pressure at rest is used to calculate the horizontal
forces due to earthfill and surcharge load. The Ear will be subjected to
vertical and horizontal forces which are statically determinate.
b. Abutment with Sidewall and Ear

In this case, the abutment stem is supported on three sides and the design is
based on tables from RCDH, 11th Edition by Charles E. Reynolds et al or
Hillerborg Strip Method. Alternatively use charts from “Analysis of thin-
walled bridge abutments” by Eibl/Ivanyi/Schambeck (1988).
Pile Design
The piles should extend at least 75mm into the pile cap for adequate fixity
while the reinforcement from the piles should extend at least an anchorage
length into the pile cap. The geotechnical design of the pile precedes the
structural design of the pile and is required at the onset of design to obtain
the allowable pile load to avoid shear failure of the embedment soil and
52
Project Job No

The pile is subjected to axial load, deflections, shear and moments which are
considered at the ultimate limit state.
The deflections, shear forces and moments generated as a result of the
horizontal force acting at the top of the pile may be determined using Brom’s
method.
An alternative method is the solution by numerical method of finite difference
commonly referred to as beam on elastic foundation (winkler foundation). The
method assumes that the embedment soil for the pile can be replaced by
series of springs represented by the coefficient (modulus) of subgrade
reaction Kh.
kh=1.3(EsB/EpIp)1/12(ES/(1-µ2) KN/m3 Vesic(1961)
Elastic modulus of soil Es=650N KN/m2
N=SPT No of blows for the soil strata considered
B=diameter of the pile in m
Elastic modulus of pile material Ep=20+0.27fcu in KN/m2
fcu =grade of concrete for the pile
Adopt poisson’s ratio for soil µ =0.4
Steps in estimation of deflection, shear force and bending moment on the

pile
Step 1: Divide the embedment pile length in soil strata into number of evenly
spaced sections(slices), 8 no slices giving 9 no nodal points is recommended
for good estimation. However 4 no slices give reasonable accurate values for
practical design problems.
Step 2: Assuming that the soil contact pressures act at the nodal points,
express the reactive forces Q in terms of the soil pressure on the area of the
slice multiplied by the area of the slice thus
Q1=q1xarea=ks1xBxa/2
Q2=q2xarea=ks2xbxa
Q3=q3xarea=ks3xbxa
..
.
Qn=qnxarea=Ksnxbxa
where
Ks1,ks2,ks3..... Ksn are the modulus of subgrade reactions at node points 1,2,3,4
...n in MN/m3
B=diameter of the pile in m
a=thickness of the slice in m
53
Project Job No
Pile Cap
F KN
b
Q1 NGL
1
Q2 a Slice No 1
2
Q3 a
3
Q4 a Node 3
4
Q5 a
5
Q6 a pile
6
a
Q7
7
Q8 a
8
a
Q9 9
B
Step 3: Write the expression for the bending moment at each nodal point in
terms of the shear force Q1,Q2,Q3.... Qn as follows
M1=Fxb
M2=(Fxb)-(Q1xa)
M3=(Fx(b+2a))-(Q2xa)-(Q1x2a)
M4=(Fx(b+3a))-(Q3xa)-(Q2x2a)-(Q1x3a)
.
.
Mn=Fx(b+(n-1))a + (Qn-1xa) + (Qn-2x(n-2)a) +...... (Q1x(n-1)a)
Step 4: From beam theory

-M=EId2y/dx2
2 2
and d y/dx =(y1-2y2+y3)/a2
Thus
M1=F1xa
-M2=(EI/a2)(y1-2y2+y3)
2
-M3=(EI/a )(y2-2y3+y4)
-M4=(EI/a2)(y3-2y4+y5)
where
54
E=modulus of elasticity of the pile material
I=2nd moment of area of the pile cross-section
Project Job No

Step 5: The bending moments expressions in step 3 are equated to the
corresponding bending moment expressions in step 4. The resulting linear
equations are solved simultaneous to obtain the deflections y1,y2,y3,y4........yn at
each of the corrfesponding nodal points.
Back substitution of y1,y2,y3,y4........yn in the corresponding expressions for
Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4.... Qn in step 2 gives the required forces acting at the nodal
points.
Similarly back substitution of Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4.... Qn in the corresponding
expressions for M1,M2,M3,M4.... Mn in step 3 or 4 gives the required bending
moment acting at the nodal points.
Points to Note
Programmable calculators or Excel Spreadsheet program can be used to solve
the simultaneous equations obtained in step 5 when the unknowns
y1,y2,y3,y4........yn in the simultaneous equations are somewhat not more than 9.
For large number of unknowns say 15 occasioned by large number of slices say
14, it becomes imperative to get a special program to solve the simultaneous
equations.
The author has developed a program called SimultaneousEquationsSolver to

handle the solution of such equations for up to 32 slices corresponding to 32
unknowns in the simultaneous equations.
Boundary conditions
The following boundary conditions are important in the solution of the
simultaneous equations
a. Base of the Pile: the bottom of the pile can be displaced and suffer a
rotation but for all practical purposes it can be assumed that the moment at
that point is zero.
b. The boundary condition at the top of the pile depends on the form of fixity
of into the structure it is supporting. If there is a large pile cap at the top, it
can be assumed that there is no rotation and moment will develop.
For a pile whose top is only lightly held, it can be assumed that there will be
rotation and therefore no moment is developed.
It is generally simplest to ignore the boundary condition at the top of the pile.
Reinforcement Design
Having determined the pile length and diameter and obtained the axial forces,
bending moments and shear forces acting on the pile, the pile is designed as
column.
It is to be noted that the pile is supported at the top and bottom. It is in a
55
very severe environment and minimum concrete strength applicable is
Project Job No

40N/mm2 with recommended nominal cover of 50mm.
Spiral reinforcement is required to serve as link for pile.
A comprehensive design example for pile can be seen in the Bridge Design
Example Project included with this write up.
56

Introduction to Bridge Design Fundamentals

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Introduction to Bridge Design Fundamentals

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Topic: Introduction to Bridge Design (revised)

By : Engr A.O.Idolor FNIStructE

2. Design of Piled Foundations 2nd edition by Thomas Whitaker

3. Elements of Foundation Design by G.N. Smith and E.I.Pole

4. Reinforced Concrete Design Fourth Edition by W.H.Mosley and J.H Bungey.

BS 5400 Part 4: 1978 Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges

BD 37/01 Loads for Highway Bridges

BD 44/95 The Assessment of Concrete Highway Bridges and Structures.

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Steel Trussed Decks 3

Table 13 BD 37/01- Type HA Uniformly

Table 14 HA Lane Factors 9

Arrangement of HA and HB on Deck

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Case 2. HB vehicle straddles

Case 2. HB vehicle straddles

Bridge Columns and Piers 23

Applied Loadings on Column 25

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

ii. Piled Foundations 43

Cohesionless Soils 43-44

Typical Abutment Conﬁgurations 46

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Locating Abutments and Deck Positions

Types of Bridge Decks:

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Reinforced Concrete Deck/Girder Bridge:

Beam and Slab

Voided Slab Box Girder

Prestressed Concrete Bridge Decks:

T-Beam M-Beam Y-Beam

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

The following are three advantages derived from use of composite

Reinforced Concrete Deck and Steel

Prestressed Beam and Slab Composite

Generally it is more economical to use post-tensioned construction for

Steel Trussed Decks:

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Cable Stayed Decks:

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Steel beams with insitu slab.

30m to 300m Box girders bridges- as the span increases the

150m to 1000m Cable stayed bridges.

350m to ? Suspension bridges.

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Carriageway width m Number of notional Lanes

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

0 50 Loaded length L (m) 1600

HA Load Intensity (not to scale)

Table 13 (BD 37/01) Type HA uniformly distributed load:

m KN/m m KN/m m KN/m

2 211.2 55 24.1 370 19.9

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Table 14 HA Lane Factors

0 < L ≤ 20 α1 α1 0.6 0.6α1

20 < L ≤ 40 α2 α2 0.6 0.6α2

40 < L ≤ 50 1.0 1.0 0.6 0.6

50 < L ≤ 112 1.0 7.0 0.6 0.6

50 < L ≤ 112 1.0 1.0 0.6 0.6

L > 112 1.0 0.67 0.6 0.6