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IJLM
32,3 Leveraging big data analytics
capabilities in making reverse
logistics decisions and improving
742 remanufacturing performance
Received 9 June 2020 Surajit Bag
Revised 8 September 2020
24 January 2021 Department of Transport and Supply Chain Management,
16 March 2021 School of Management, College of Business and Economics,
Accepted 6 April 2021
University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa and
Department of Marketing and International Business,
School of Business and Economics, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Sunil Luthra
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Ch Ranbir Singh State Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jhajjar, India
Sachin Kumar Mangla
Jindal Global Business School, O.P. Jindal Global University, Haryana, India and
Plymouth Business School, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, United Kingdom, and
Yigit Kazancoglu
Department of International Logistics Management, Yasar University, Izmir, Turkey

Abstract
Purpose – The study investigated the effect of big data analytics capabilities (BDACs) on reverse logistics
(strategic and tactical) decisions and finally on remanufacturing performance.
Design/methodology/approach – The primary data were collected using a structured questionnaire and an
online survey sent to South African manufacturing companies. The data were analysed using partial least
squares based structural equation modelling (PLS–SEM) based WarpPLS 6.0 software.
Findings – The results indicate that data generation capabilities (DGCs) have a strong association with
strategic reverse logistics decisions (SRLDs). Data integration and management capabilities (DIMCs) show a
positive relationship with tactical reverse logistics decisions (TRLDs). Advanced analytics capabilities (AACs),
data visualisation capabilities (DVCs) and data-driven culture (DDC) show a positive association with both
SRLDs and TRLDs. SRLDs and TRLDs were found to have a positive link with remanufacturing performance.
Practical implications – The theoretical guided results can help managers to understand the value of big
data analytics (BDA) in making better quality judgement of reverse logistics and enhance remanufacturing
processes for achieving sustainability.
Originality/value – This research explored the relationship between BDA, reverse logistics decisions and
remanufacturing performance. The study was practice oriented, and according to the authors’ knowledge, it is
the first study to be conducted in the South African context.
Keywords Africa, Information technology, Structural equation modelling, Reverse logistics, Logistics
competences
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
In this era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, big data analytics (BDA) is leveraged by
The International Journal of
Logistics Management
various firms to enhance business performance (Arunachalam et al., 2018). BDA can be a
Vol. 32 No. 3, 2021
pp. 742-765
© Emerald Publishing Limited The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers and the Editor for their insightful comments
0957-4093
DOI 10.1108/IJLM-06-2020-0237 and suggestions.
valuable asset for managers when making quality decisions (Schoenherr and Speier-Pero, The effect of
2015; Brinch et al., 2018). BDA benefits motivate organisations to build capabilities and BDACs on
extract value from big data. With the aid of BDA tools, both structured and unstructured data
generated in real time can be examined (Arunachalam et al., 2018). However, BDA application
reverse
has not been fully explored by past researchers and the understanding of BDA seems logistics
rather subtle (Brinch et al., 2018). Moreover, managers lack the understanding of requisite
capabilities for converting big data into important pieces of information (Arunachalam et al.,
2018). From the literature, the indication is that studies related to BDA applications on reverse 743
logistics and closed-loop chains are limited (Nguyen et al., 2018). The main reason behind the
scarcity of research in this direction is due to the difficulty in gathering data related to old/
used items that act as a barrier in applying BDA in reverse logistics (Nguyen et al., 2018).
However, this can be overcome in this Industry 4.0 era through the application of the Internet
of things (IoTs), sensors and wireless technologies for collecting data (Telukdarie et al., 2018;
Bag et al., 2020). Supply chain managers face various challenges in managing reverse
logistics and remanufacturing practices due to uncertainties in product returns and the
presence of contradictory organisational targets. In this context, BDA can prove useful in
capturing the perceptions of supply chain partners, developing proper goals, scrutinising the
supply chain process and taking corresponding strategic actions (Nguyen et al., 2018). IoT in
the remanufacturing processes can identify the flaws within no time. IoT also helps in real-
time production scheduling for the remanufacturing of automobile engines by the Internet of
manufacturing things process (Zhang et al., 2018). IoT and BDA have a significant role
related to the issues concerning safety and the operations environment (Hopkins and
Hawking, 2018). The application of real time technology to assess the diverse data sets has
facilitated many opportunities that further resulted in a profit for a company. Reverse
logistics is a critical need in our society to encourage the recycling of old products (Kumar and
Putnam, 2008). However, using advanced technologies, the challenges related to coordination
and communication need to be eliminated (Govindan and Soleimani, 2017). BDA has been
found to enhance the ecological quality (Song et al., 2012, 2018; Chuai and Feng, 2019; Rumson
and Hallett, 2019). BDA used in making management decisions can impact an organisation’s
power relative to its customers and suppliers (Waller and Fawcett, 2013).
From the literature, the indication is that big data has gained importance to create superior
business value relative to an information and communication technology point of view
(Raguseo et al., 2020). Although studies are available that have investigated the effect of BDA
capabilities, both on an organisation’s performance (Akter et al., 2016) and supply chain
agility (Dubey et al., 2019b) but the effect of BDA on reverse logistics decision-making is
under researched. Therefore, we aim to answer the question below:
RQ1. What is the impact of BDA capabilities on reverse logistics decisions?
The world is moving towards a stage where there will be no more landfills for disposing of
waste material generated from industry sources. Plastics waste, rubber waste, end-of-life
electronic parts and end-of-life vehicles result in the quick degradation of the environment
(Mohajerani et al., 2020; Ullah and Sarkar, 2020; Saidani et al., 2020). Various researchers have
proposed frameworks for the environmental management of end-of-life items (Rizzi et al.,
2013; Saidani et al., 2020). Of all the available options, remanufacturing has emerged as the
most popular option (Kumar et al., 2017), due to its ability to increase the life of resources by
restoring its properties for the resale of the same item to the market (Abbey et al., 2015). Ferrer
and Swaminathan (2006) argued that remanufacturing is very profitable as organisations can
improve savings and lower production costs. However, various reverse logistics challenges
are associated with remanufacturing, which minimises its original appeal (Sundin and
Dunb€ack, 2013). The process involved in the acquisition of core is a challenge for the
automotive sector. Additionally, information that is available for reverse engineering is a big
IJLM challenge for small and medium organisations. Handling, shipping and the storage of
32,3 returned products are other major concerns for remanufacturing organisations (Sundin and
Dunb€ack, 2013). The changes in the demand-pattern of consumers have significantly
impacted the life cycle of products. Furthermore, the technological changes are making
items obsolete at a quicker pace; while the disposal of end-of-life products are not organised
leading to a stochastic return pattern (Seitz and Peattie, 2004; Zhou and Disney, 2006;
Sundin and Dunb€ack, 2013). The quantity, quality and timing of returned products depend
744 on the reverse logistics network. Every decision associated with these steps can decide the
profit or loss of the remanufacturing business and therefore, the importance of reverse
logistics in the context of the circular economy is increasing (Zhou et al., 2017; Julianelli
et al., 2020). Reverse logistics is evolving at a fast pace due to the emergence of advanced
Industry 4.0 technologies (Witkowski, 2017); and therefore, worth investigation in the
context of the present situation. Therefore, we aim to answer the second research question
as below:
RQ2. What is the effect of reverse logistics decisions on remanufacturing performance?
The theoretical model explains the proposed relationships by drawing on the dynamic
capability view (DCV) theory. DCV is an extension of the resource-based view (RBV) theory.
Barney and Arikan (2001) explained why some firms constantly outperform others using the
popular RBV theory. DCV explains how a firm develops the ability to integrate, build and
reconfigure internal and external competencies to cope in dynamic business situations (Teece
et al., 1997).
The research team argued that firms possessing BDA capabilities can efficiently build reverse
logistics strategies for developing competence in remanufacturing operations. BDA comprises
many resources, such as the capabilities of data creation, data integration and management,
advanced analytics, data visualisation and a data-driven culture (DDC) (Arunachalam et al., 2018).
The literature has shown the lack of research focus on BDA managed returns (Barbosa et al.,
2018). Thus, it would be interesting to examine the role of big data analytics capabilities (BDACs)
in the improvement of reverse logistics decisions. BDACs are a source of competitive edge in this
cut-throat competition (Wang et al., 2016; Gupta et al., 2020).
This study extends the knowledge base of the application of BDA in the logistics
management area. Since big data management causes fear among logistics and supply chain
management (LSCM) practitioners, mainly due to both the lack of awareness and of updated
skills, this study intended to connect the big data capabilities with reverse logistics decisions
and remanufacturing operations to shed light on this important area, which will help LSCM
practitioners to gain rich insights.
The next section deals with the review of BDA applications in the field of LSCM; section
three outlines the research hypotheses; section four consists of the methodology; section five
presents the findings of the data analysis and the final section present the conclusions drawn
from the study.

2. Literature review
This section reviews key literature on the application of BDA on LSCM.

2.1 Big data in LSCM

The concept of big data is not something recent; it has emerged over time to address the
dynamic information processing challenges. Between the 1950s and 1970s, organisations
used statistical techniques; the development of data mining techniques was seen between the
1970 and 1980s; the development of business intelligence is noted between 1980 and 1990s;
and the growing needs of business intelligence 1.0 was upgraded to Business Analytics 2.0 The effect of
during the period 1990 to 2000. With the changing information, the needs of the Business BDACs on
Analytics 3.0 evolution occurred between 2000 and 2010 (Picciano, 2012; Lee, 2017).
The literature on big data indicates that further research is needed to address big data
reverse
problems using organisational theories. de Camargo Fiorini et al. (2018) indicated there are logistics
key links between organisational theories and the influence of big data on a firm’s
performance.
In this digital era of Industry 4.0 (RFID), sensor and wireless technologies, IoT can be used 745
to capture data from various stages of the supply chain process as well as further analysis
using BDA to anticipate events and correspondingly plan and schedule logistical activities
(Arunachalam et al., 2018).
In a smart factory environment, IoT devices are used to connect smart products
(Winkelhaus and Grosse, 2020). With every second, an enormous volume of data is generated
from various sources, such as computers, laptops, video cameras, production machines,
forklift trucks and transportation vehicles. The data are produced in different formats and
furthermore, it can be stored in the cloud for developing big data solutions (Liu et al., 2020).
Systems like Informatica big data management can be used to perform data cleaning, data
matching, data integration, data viewing and also be a source to target mapping. The data is
next sent to the hive, i.e. the big data warehouse, for the storage of data. Furthermore, big data
tools can be used to perform data visualisation (Bag et al., 2020).
The integration of the physical and digital world is essential to capture big data and
further exploit the benefits of the development of big data capabilities in the firm’s supply
chain network (Wamba et al., 2015; Telukadrie et al., 2018). The logistics departments can
track the physical objects on a real-time basis and inform their customers of realistic delivery
times (Manavalan and Jayakrishna, 2019).
The literature indicated the successful application of BDA in an operations management
area (Lee et al., 2013; Zhong et al., 2017; Queiroz and Telles, 2018). Previously, big data
attributes were limited to the four Vs, i.e. volume, variety, velocity and veracity. However,
the advancement of big data applications in operations management is found to add huge
value; thus, big data is now extended to five Vs after including “value” (Addo-Tenkorang
and Helo, 2016). BDA is found to be useful in demand forecasting (Hofmann and
Rutschmann, 2018). Studies are available on exploring opportunities to apply BDA in
LSCM (Govindan et al., 2018). Human knowledge, innovation culture and supply chain
partnerships are important to initiate any big data projects in the area of LSCM (Queiroz
and Telles, 2018).
Gravili et al. (2018) scrutinised the effect of the digital divide and digital alphabetisation on
creating big data steps, to understand the use of big data in decision-making tools in LSCM.
The skills of domain knowledge and analytical modelling are required for a BDA expert
when managing LSCM. These skills are important for creating future leaders in the area of
LSCM (Waller and Fawcett, 2013). In-depth knowledge of LSCM and information technology is
required to develop a big data scientist. The literature supports that supply chain connectivity
and information sharing is important for the adoption of BDA (Gunasekaran et al., 2017). The
most influential drivers of BDA implementation are senior management, fund availability,
technical skills and the management of changes in the company (Gunasekaran et al., 2018;
Lamba and Singh, 2018). The moderators, in the relationship between big data drivers and the
intention to adopt big data, are the policy of state/ central government and supply chain
connectivity (Lai et al., 2018). The key to success in developing BDA capabilities are generation
of data, data integration and management, advanced analytics, data visualisation and a DDC
(Arunachalam et al., 2018).
The bullwhip effect is one of the major challenges that supply chains face in
remanufacturing operations, which result in operational inefficiency (Hofmann and
IJLM Rutschmann, 2018). The development of organisational capabilities in terms of information
32,3 technology can reduce information asymmetries and further improve reverse logistics
decisions and better demand forecasting for remanufacturing operations (Zhou et al., 2016).
BDA is a higher order capability and has the ability to improve a firm’s performance
(Wamba et al., 2017; Gupta et al., 2018). Our argument has been strengthened as a result of
the study of Gupta et al. (2019a). They suggested that BDA can be useful for informed and
data-driven decision-making for closing supply chain loops and to support the circular
746 economy.

2.2 Theoretical framework

The study intended to address two gaps found in the literature. Firstly, to establish that
BDACs have a positive relationship with strategic and tactical reverse logistics decisions
(TRLDs). Secondly, to establish that strategic reverse and tactical logistics decisions have a
positive relationship with remanufacturing performance.
The DCV theory is used as a theoretical lens to assess the relationships in our model. Dynamic
capabilities are the capacity of the organisation to gather assets and reconfigure inside and
outside competencies to sustain volatile situations (Teece et al., 1997). Organisations need to focus
on the key resources that are diverse in nature and difficult to imitate by competitors.
Dynamic capabilities are required to survive in an unstable environment when the
normal competencies lose the ability to fight back and thus, create the necessity to develop
new competencies. Dynamic capabilities are very powerful and have the ability to alter
ordinary capabilities (Castiaux, 2012). BDA is a dynamic capability, which can leverage
the organisational resources and develop new competencies to make quality reverse
logistics decisions (Barbosa et al., 2018). Additionally, various reverse logistics challenges
(enthusiasm of the consumer; location of the collection centre) are associated with
remanufacturing operations, which weakens its original appeal (Sundin and Dunb€ack,
2013). Reverse logistics comprise a set of steps, including the collection of returnable
(defective/end-of-life) items from various locations to the point of origin. The reverse
involves proper planning of a reverse material flow network and controlling the costs.
Many key decisions are part of the reverse logistics process like facility location, capacity,
planning of manufacturing and vehicle routing. Three types of decisions are: strategic,
tactical and operational, depending on the time/planning sphere. Strategic decisions are
long term – generally in the time horizon of two to five years. Strategic decisions are made at
top management level as they are very important and involve capital expenditure. It
involves the building of facilities, investment in fleets, increasing the remanufacturing
capacity and supply chain network design. Whereas, tactical decisions pertain to medium-
term objectives ranging between one to two years. Tactical decisions in reverse logistics
involve remanufacturing planning, management of inventories, procurement decisions and
handling the returns of defective/end-of-life products/components. Finally, operational
decisions in reverse logistics involve daily decisions which is the outcome of strategic and
tactical decision-making (Misni and Lee, 2017). The research team argued that firms
possessing BDA capabilities can efficiently build reverse logistics strategies for developing
competence in remanufacturing operations.
A number of resources, such as data creation capabilities, data integration
and management capabilities (DIMCs), advanced analytics capabilities (AACs), data
visualisation capabilities (DVCs) and a DDC, bundle together to form BDACs to further
develop competencies in making better reverse logistics decisions and finally, to develop a
competitive edge in remanufacturing operations.
The previous discussion serves as a foundation to build the theoretical framework (refer to
Figure 1).
 Data The effect of
generation
capabilities
BDACs on
H1 reverse
Data H6 Strategic logistics
integration H2 Reverse
Logistics H11
and
management Decisions
capabilities
H3 747
H7
Remanufacturing
Adavanced Performance
analytics H4
capabilities
H8
H5 Tactical
Data H12
Reverse
visualization
H9 Logistics
capabilities
Decisions

Data driven
culture H10

Figure 1.
Theoretical framework
Source(s): Author own compilation

3. Hypothesis development
The research hypotheses of this study are as follows:

3.1 Big data analytics capabilities and reverse logistics decisions

A competitive advantage determines the ability of a firm to change operations in the shifting
nature of the business environment and outperform their competitors; a few strategic
decisions are also essential when it is time to market products and services; the momentum of
innovation is important (Teece and Pisano, 2003). To achieve a competitive advantage, firms
need to exploit both internal and external firm-specific capabilities and additionally build new
ones, if required (Teece and Pisano, 2003). BDA was indicated as a dynamic capability in
previous research studies (Wamba et al., 2017; Gupta et al., 2019b) and considered as a source
of a competitive advantage (Gupta et al., 2019c).
Data generation capabilities (DGCs) are one of the lower order capabilities that are
essential to develop BDAC, which is a higher order capability. DGCs include infrastructure
readiness for data generation; storehouse for open data; the ability to gather real time data
from surrounding devices and the ability to collect data (Arunachalam et al., 2018).
On the other hand, strategic reverse logistics decisions (SRLDs) involve decision-making
related to flexible systems; customer perceptions of service levels; delivery performance; lead
times and budgeting (Lambert et al., 2011).
The literature indicates that the support of information can positively influence both
economic and service quality linked performances (Daugherty et al., 2005). The ability of a
manufacturing firm to leverage DGCs can improve strategic reverse logistics decision-
making (Govindan et al., 2018).
Therefore, we hypothesise
H1. Data generation capabilities have a positive influence on strategic reverse logistics
decisions.
IJLM Data are the main essence for making key management decisions. However, poor quality
32,3 data can impact the quality of decisions (Raguseo et al., 2020). It is important that every
company focuses on the privacy and security aspects of information technology and
communication networks (Jing et al., 2014). These areas can be significantly improved with
DIMCs, which include, data integration from various sources; data warehousing
capability; resources availability for data management; data governance; unstructured
data management; maintaining the quality of data and metadata storehouse
748 (Arunachalam et al., 2018). DIMCs ensure that the quality of data is good and can be
used for high quality strategic reverse logistics decision-making (Hazen et al., 2016;
Govindan et al., 2018).
Therefore, we hypothesise
H2. Data integration and management capabilities have a positive influence on strategic
reverse logistics decisions.
Advanced analytics can be used in planning and the control of reverse logistics operations.
Use of supply chain analytics; predictive analytics real-time analytics; in-memory analytics;
data mining tools; web mining and text mining; online analytical processing; and data
analysis (Arunachalam et al., 2018) can enhance reverse logistics strategic decision-making
(Lambert et al., 2011; Govindan et al., 2018). Many companies are using a Hadoop-based big
data platform for running applications. Software, such as SAS, can add value to Hadoop by
transforming data into intelligence (SAS report). Advance analytics techniques are special
skills which can be developed through continuous education and training programmes.
Waller and Fawcett (2013) suggested that domain knowledge is essential for the application
of data analytics. Logistics practitioners, with many years of experience, will be able to apply
data analytics in a better manner for quality decision-making. Advanced analytics
techniques can be applied to identify the bottlenecks in the logistics network and propose
alternate service level solutions for improving the profitability of the company
(Ghasemaghaei et al., 2018). The information extracted, using advanced data analytics, can
be used to develop flexibility to a greater extent. Poor SRLDs can result in customer
dissatisfaction and huge business losses. Advanced big data analytical skills can be used in
assessing the risks that can prove immensely valuable in this volatile business environment
(Wang et al., 2016; Shang et al., 2017).
Therefore, we hypothesise
H3. Advanced analytics capabilities have a positive influence on strategic reverse
logistics decisions.
DVCs, include interactive visualisation, dashboards and key performance indicators;
information monitoring in real time; the generation of strategic reports based on historical
and streaming data (Arunachalam et al., 2018), can enhance reverse logistics strategic
decision-making capabilities (Lambert et al., 2011; Huscroft et al., 2013; Govindan et al.,
2018). Strategic reverse logistics calls for timely and quality decision-making to avoid
business losses. DVCs provide companies with information to make quick and timely
decisions. BDA software can be useful to gain insights in large data sets that are gathered
from big data clusters Various data visualisation tools are available that help to convert the
data into useful information and furthermore, display them as clear data visualisations in
the form of graphs and charts. Query language is required to extract the data from the file
system. It is important that companies have DVCs to extract information from big data
clusters arising from logistical movements and portrayed in the form of comprehensible
visualisations for both technical and non-technical employees. DVCs can provide key
information in a clear manner for making SRLDs that can improve the profitability of the
company (Morgan et al., 2016).
 Therefore, we hypothesise The effect of
H4. Data visualisation capabilities have a positive influence on strategic reverse logistics BDACs on
decisions. reverse
DDC includes managing cultural and political problems in the organisation; managing people logistics
with various skills, different cultures and belonging to various organisational hierarchies;
and organisation cultures for embracing data analytics as an essential resource for making
decisions (Arunachalam et al., 2018). Culture in any organisation influences the behaviour of 749
employees towards big data technologies, diffusion of big data knowledge and collaboration
with stakeholders for the execution of big data projects.
Culture in an organisation comprises many philosophies and values that guide employees
to follow certain practices. Dubey et al. (2019a) opined that big data culture is one of the
influential drivers behind the success of big data applications in LSCM. A DDC can enhance
strategic reverse logistics decision-making (Lambert et al., 2011; Huscroft et al., 2013;
Govindan et al., 2018). DDC drives companies to focus on data-driven strategic decision-
making related to reverse logistics (Olorunniwo and Li, 2010; Morgan et al., 2016).
Therefore, we hypothesise
H5. Data-driven cultures have a positive influence on strategic reverse logistics decisions.
DGCs include infrastructure readiness for data generation; storehouse for open data; real time
data collection from surrounding devices and the ability to collect data (Arunachalam et al.,
2018). TRLDs include conforming to environmental regulations and managing reverse
logistics accordingly; the cost of product returns; the efficiency of manufacturing schedules;
timely delivery and accurate forecasting (Lambert et al., 2011). The literature indicates that
DGCs can enhance tactical reverse logistics decision-making (Jayaraman et al., 2008).
Therefore, we hypothesise
H6. Data generation capabilities have a positive influence on tactical reverse logistics
decisions.
IoT and BDA have significant impact on the issues of performance concerning safety and
the environment. The application of real time technology to assess the diverse data sets has
facilitated many opportunities that further resulted in benefits to the company. Data
generated from real telematics used in transport vehicles, have resulted as an essential
element for training programmes, with the scope to improve the drivers’ behaviour with
minimised greenhouse gas emissions (Hopkins and Hawking, 2018). Furthermore,
Dalenogare et al. (2018) indicated that additive manufacturing and cloud services of
products contribute to product performance. CAD/CAM, digital automation with sensors
and big data technologies enhances operational performance. However, more suitable
analytical tools can be developed for better analysis with shorter times and costs, while the
work profiles of entrepreneurs and managers must be considered as a priority (Tvrdıkova,
2016). DIMCs are important in making robust TRLDs.
Therefore, we hypothesise
H7. Data integration and management capabilities have a positive influence on tactical
reverse logistics decisions.
AACs can help in advanced planning and scheduling to efficiently redirect the deliveries.
Reverse logistics service providers can leverage advanced analytics by collaborating with
data scientists, data technologists and make TRLDs (Jayaraman et al., 2008). Descriptive
analytics, predictive analytics and prescriptive analytics are valuable BDA assets. These
tools can provide management with rich information related to past happenings, predict
future events and suggest necessary actions in the reverse logistics area. These can help
IJLM managers to gear up and set goals for one financial year. It is essential to follow the best
32,3 tactics and eliminate risks in the reverse logistics network (Lambert et al., 2011).
Therefore, we hypothesise
H8. Advanced analytics capabilities have a positive influence on tactical reverse logistics
decisions.
DVCs can be helpful in making tactical reverse logistics involving medium- to short-term
750 decisions. Reverse logistics data in real time can be made available in the form of KPI
dashboards, while continuous monitoring and tracking of every return shipment using RFID
and GPS, can bring positive returns to the organisation (Jayaram and Tan, 2010). Dashboards
displaying near and real time information in the form of graphical- and chart- based content is
possible using the development of DVCs. Managers can make quick tactical reverse logistics
changes as per available information to avoid delays and financial losses (Morgan et al., 2016).
The data visualisation system can provide key information, such as plan vs actual
achievement, cost of fuel, total costs, vehicle use, vehicle availability, vehicle arrivals and
departures and goods movement (Lambert et al., 2011; Witkowski, 2017).
Therefore, we hypothesise
H9. Data visualisation capabilities have a positive influence on tactical reverse logistics
decisions.
Data-driven organisations can make effective TRLDs. DDC promotes information
transparency and information sharing among supply chain partners. Data analysis can
provide key information for making decisions, such as the consideration of environmental
regulations and managing reverse logistics accordingly; cost control of product returns;
effectiveness of a master production schedule; improving delivery reliability; accuracy of
forecasting techniques and the lowering of activities cycle time (Lambert et al., 2011; Hazen
et al., 2016). In any organisation, a DDC is a driving factor for using big data in tactical reverse
logistics decision-making (Dubey et al., 2019a). A DDC aids in the creation of certain beliefs
and values in the organisation towards big data practices for making TRLDs. This is due to
reverse logistics tactical decision-making being complex, while at every moment, there are
some external changes happening which can result in negative outcomes of any decisions
made without proper data support. Managers can derive significant benefits by relying on the
potential of BDA; gradually this belief can diffuse throughout the entire organisation among
other employees, who also start believing in the potential benefits of BDA in the area of
LSCM. This can help to gradually penetrate BDA culture among suppliers and other service
providers involved in making short and medium-term decisions (Dubey et al., 2019a).
Therefore, we hypothesise
H10. Data-driven culture has a positive influence on tactical reverse logistics decisions.

3.2 Reverse logistics decisions and remanufacturing operations performance

Remanufacturing is a process of transformation of old/used products from the initial product
specification and the resale, along with providing a warranty to the customers.
Remanufacturing reduces the environmental impact significantly (Chiodo and Ijomah,
2014). Remanufacturing strategies are adopted by firms aiming to develop a closed-loop
supply chain. It is important to reduce remanufacturing lead times and develop information
transparency to enhance closed-loop supply chain dynamics (Cannella et al., 2016).
Remanufacturing operations however, suffer from various challenges and uncertainties
(Bag et al., 2019). Reverse logistics design is an important function in remanufacturing
operations and involves defining the context; defining reverse logistics parameters such as
defining the gate keeping activity, defining the collection activity, describing the revival and
processing methods, identifying potential partners; proposing various reverse network The effect of
options; assessment of the different reverse logistics scenarios; examination of the evaluation BDACs on
report and selection of the best reverse logistics set-up (Daaboul et al., 2014). There are
decisions involved in every step, which can impact the remanufacturing performance. Firms
reverse
having a robust reverse logistics network can successfully run remanufacturing operations logistics
(Daugherty et al., 2001). Reverse logistics decisions can be categorised under strategic;
tactical and operational level decisions (Lambert et al., 2011).
SRLDs involve flexibility of adjusting capacity, financial decisions, net profits, return on 751
investments and customer satisfaction levels (Lambert et al., 2011). SRLDs are important for
the selection of the right facilities and reduce carbon emissions (Gaigne et al., 2019).
Therefore, we hypothesise
H11. Strategic reverse logistics decisions have a positive influence on remanufacturing
performance.
Firms operating in the remanufacturing market, face various strategic problems in terms of
market entry, positioning of products, competing with rivals in terms of delivery and
competing in terms of pricing (Bag et al., 2019). Nonetheless, tactical (short/medium term)
reverse logistics play an instrumental role in the remanufacturing operations (Pazoki and
Samarghandi, 2020). Therefore, it is vital to understand the strategic dimensions of the firm, its
current status and strategic alternatives available to it (Teece and Pisano, 2003). TRLDs
encompassing the process/activities can be considered as a competency in the supply chain that
is difficult to be replicated by competitors. TRLDs include conforming to environmental
regulations, managing and planning disposal costs, warranty costs, costs of returned products
and forecasting and scheduling of shop floor tasks (Lambert et al., 2011; Romero-Silva and
Hernandez-Lopez, 2019). These decisions influence remanufacturing performance, such as
financial, customer and quality, processes and employee and environment aspects (Graham
et al., 2015). Every single reverse logistics decision can influence these remanufacturing
performance parameters. A correct decision can enhance the remanufacturing performance,
whereas a wrong decision can lead to environmental damage and business losses (Pazoki and
Samarghandi, 2020). Hence,
H12. Tactical reverse logistics decisions have a positive influence on remanufacturing
performance.

4. Research design
This section provides details of the research design, including the questionnaire design and
survey.

4.1 Operationalization of constructs

The operationalisation of constructs was done and the scales were adapted from published
papers (refer Table 1).
BDACs, comprising DGCs (five survey questions); DIMCs (seven survey questions); AACs
(ten survey questions); DVCs (four survey questions); DDC (six survey questions); aimed to
understand the developed BDA capabilities in the manufacturing firms.
Reverse logistics decisions comprising SRLDs (five survey questions) and TRLDs (six
survey questions) aimed to understand the current decision-making involved in the
manufacturing firms.
Remanufacturing performance (ten survey questions) aimed at measuring the
remanufacturing performance of manufacturing firms.
IJLM Construct Items Measures Source
32,3
Data generation capabilities DGC1 Data generation infrastructures Arunachalam et al. (2018)
(DGC) DGC2 Data sources
DGC3 Repository for open data
DGC4 Strategies to collect data from
sensors and other devices in real-
time
752 DGC5 Data gathering capability
Data integration and DIMC1 Data integration from Arunachalam et al. (2018)
management capabilities heterogeneous sources
(DIMC) DIMC2 Data warehouse capability
DIMC3 Data management resources
DIMC4 Data governance
DIMC5 Unstructured data management
DIMC6 Data quality
DIMC7 Metadata repository
Advanced analytics AAC1 Analytics in the plan, source, make Arunachalam et al. (2018)
capabilities (AAC) and deliver
AAC2 Supply chain analytics
AAC3 Predictive analytics
AAC4 Real-time analytics
AAC5 In-memory analytics
AAC6 Data mining
AAC7 Web mining and text mining
AAC8 Online analytical processing
AAC9 Trend analysis and “What-if”
scenario analysis
AAC10 Data analysis and data decision
capability
Data visualisation capabilities DVC1 Interactive visualisation Arunachalam et al. (2018)
(DVC) DVC2 Dashboards and key performance
indicators
DVC3 Real-time information monitoring
DVC4 Strategic and operational reporting
using historical and streaming data
Data-driven culture (DDC) DDC1 Cultural and political issues Arunachalam et al. (2018)
DDC2 Culture and execution
DDC3 People (skill, culture and
organisation structure)
DDC4 Culture capability
DDC5 Cultural competence in the context
of supply chain
DDC6 Data and analytics as a valuable
asset for decision-making
Strategic reverse logistics SRLD1 Ease of adjusting capacity Lambert et al. (2011)
decisions (SRLDs) (flexibility)
SRLD2 Customer perceived level of service
SRLD3 Delivery performance
SRLD4 Delivery lead time
SRLD5 Variations with respect to the
budget
Tactical reverse logistics TRLD1 Respect of environmental Lambert et al. (2011)
decisions (TRLDs) regulations
TRLD2 Costs of authorising a product
return
TRLD3 Effectiveness of master production
schedule
TRLD4 Delivery reliability
TRLD5 Accuracy of forecasting techniques
Table 1. TRLD6 Activities cycle time
Construct
operationalisation (continued )
Construct Items Measures Source
The effect of
BDACs on
Remanufacturing performance REMP1 New component cost Graham et al. (2015), Low and Ng
(REMP) REMP2 Core/product value ratio (2018), Jiang et al. (2019), Wen et al.
reverse
REMP3 Quotation accuracy (2019) logistics
REMP4 Lead time
REMP5 Number of concessions
REMP6 Salvage rate by product
REMP7 Salvage rate by component 753
REMP8 Core/Product ratio
REMP9 Core class assessment
REMP10 Core disposal rate Table 1.

Using a five-point Likert scale, the primary data was gathered during the survey. “Sample
characteristics” (four survey questions) were to identify the demographic and environmental
characteristics of the company, such as sector, years of activity and size.

4.2 Sampling strategy and survey

We conducted a pilot survey considering 45 business executives. The data was gathered and
the model was checked before going ahead with the final survey. We adopted a simple
random sampling technique for the selection of manufacturing firms from the Ezee-Dex
database in South Africa.
The online survey questionnaire (Google form) link was initially emailed to 314
prospective respondents. After two rounds of following up telephonically, we received 232
completed questionnaires. The demographic details are presented in Table 2.

Respondents Respondents
Particulars Respondents (in number) (in percentage)

Designation General Manager 25 0.10

Senior Manager 133 0.57
Manager 29 0.12
Junior Manager 45 0.19
Experience (Years) Above 20 151 0.65
10 to 20 77 0.33
Below 10 4 0.02
Nature of business activities Automotive manufacturers 56 0.24
Mines and quarries 27 0.11
Mineral processing 22 0.09
Electronics 120 0.52
Heavy engineering 7 0.03
Age of the firm (Years) >20 85 0.36
15 to 20 88 0.37
10 to 14 54 0.23
5 to 9 5 0.02
Below 5 0 0.00
Annual turnover (South African Rands) < R10 million 0 0.00 Table 2.
<R50 million 82 0.35 Demographic details of
>R50 million 150 0.65 respondents
IJLM 4.3 Non-response bias
32,3 Furthermore, the non-response bias was tested using the guidelines of Armstrong and
Overton (1977). Both the early and late wave was compared using a Levene test. The p value
obtained was higher than 0.05 and therefore, statistically not significant. The research team
concluded that there is no significant difference between both waves.

754 5. Data analysis

5.1 PLS–SEM
Multivariate data analysis is beneficial as it allows the evaluation of relationships among
numeric variables controlling for the effects of several variables simultaneously (Hair et al.,
1987). Regression path analysis and structural equation modelling (SEM) are the commonly
applied multivariate analysis methods used in management science (Kock, 2010). Covariance-
based and variance-based SEM is the two main types. Covariance-based SEM is also called
the partial least squares (PLS)-based approach to SEM (Kock, 2010). The advantages of PLS–
SEM compared to covariance-based SEM are: firstly, PLS–SEM provides solutions even in
complex models; secondly, there is no need for variables to conform parametric analysis
criteria (multivariate normality and a large sample size); and thirdly, it allows for the
evaluation of parameters in models with formative latent variables and moderating effects
(Kock, 2010). The research team chose a PLS–SEM-based approach to perform hypothesis
testing. WarpPLS 6.0 software package was used for statistical testing.

5.2 Common method bias assessment

Some elementary safety measures were taken to evade common method bias (CMB) issues
before attempting to gather data. A clear note at the beginning of the questionnaire stated
that the questionnaire was intended to capture responses for an academic survey and
confidentiality of the data would be maintained.
Secondly, senior managers/executives were targeted as they would be knowledgeable to
answer all the questions. Lastly, we applied Harman’s single factor test after all 232 responses
were received. The results indicated that the first factor is associated with a 44% covariance,
which is below 50% as recommended by Podsakoff et al. (2003). We also performed full
collinearity tests as per the guidelines of Kock and Lynn (2012) to check the presence of CMB.
We checked all variance inflation factor (VIF) results for all latent variables in our model and
found that all values were below 3.3. Therefore, we concluded that the model is not
contaminated with CMB (Kock, 2015b).

5.3 Measurement model

The decision rules for determining whether a construct is formative or reflective is referred
from the work of Jarvis et al. (2003, p. 203) and Coltman et al. (2008, p. 1252).
Jarvis et al. (2003) suggested researchers referring to four questions related to direction of
causality, interchangeability of the items/indicators, covariation among the indicators,
nomological net of the construct indicators; whereas Coltman et al. (2008) suggested three
theoretical considerations (nature of construct, direction of causality between items and
latent construct, characteristics of items used to measure the construct) and three empirical
considerations (item intercorrelation, item relationships with construct antecedents and
consequences, measurement error and collinearity).
The latent constructs such as DGCs, DIMCs, AACs, data visualisation capabilities, DDC
and remanufacturing performance used in this study are formative constructs since all the
measured variables cause the construct, and the error is an inability of measured variable to
fully explain the construct.
 For formative measurement models, the direction of causality flows from the measures to The effect of
the construct, and in this study, five items measure the DGCs, seven items measure the BDACs on
DIMCs, ten items measure the AACs, four items measure the data visualisation capabilities,
six items measure the DDC and ten items measure the remanufacturing performance.
reverse
Therefore, these latent constructs (DGCs, DIMCs, AACs, data visualisation capabilities, DDC logistics
and remanufacturing performance) are a combination of its indicators. Secondly, variation in
the item measures will cause variation in the construct. Thirdly, the items define the
construct. 755
Constructs such as SRLDs and TRLDs are reflective constructs since the latent constructs
cause the measurement variables and the error is an inability to fully explain these measured
variables.
The direction of causality flows from the construct to the measures for reflective
measurement models. SRLDs cause the five measured variables and TRLDs cause the six
measured variables. Both the Strategic reverse logistics and TRLDs latent constructs exists
independent of the measures used. Second, variation in the constructs will cause variation in
the item measures. Thirdly, the items are manifested by the construct.
In this paper, PLS–SEM was used to test the proposed hypotheses. For this purpose,
initially the measurement model was established using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)
and checked for all the model fit and quality indices.
The model fit and quality indices were calculated to establish the model fit, scale validity
and reliability; the values are presented here. The average path coefficient (0.659), average R-
squared (0.973) and average adjusted R-squared (0.973) are significant (p values lower than
0.05). The average block VIF (2.70) indicates our study does not suffer from multi-collinearity
problems. The Tenenhaus GoF value also shows a large fit (0.353). The Sympson’s paradox
ratio (1.000) is acceptable.
The loadings are presented in Table A1. Latent variable coefficients for our study are
within an acceptable range (refer Table A1). All of the factor loadings are significant at
p < 0.001, which is acceptable.
We followed the steps as per the guidelines of Hair et al. (2019) in performing the PLS–
SEM analysis and the further interpretation of the results. The indicator loadings are
checked and all values are found above 0.70, which means that the construct elucidate over
fifty% of the indicator variance. Therefore, we can accept the reliability of the items
considered in this study.
In the next step, we assessed the internal consistency reliability and checked the values of
composite reliability. Composite reliability values from 0.70 to 0.90 basically fall in the range
between satisfactory and good. The composite reliability values in our study range between
0.80 and 0.90, which indicates a good internal consistency reliability. Cronbach’s alpha values
are also above 0.70, which indicates a good internal consistency reliability. Convergent
validity of every construct measured is assessed in the third step. The average variance
extracted (AVE) is the metric considered for checking convergent validity. All AVE values in
our study are above 0.50 (except AAC: 0.41) and indicate that each construct explains fifty
percent or higher, variance of the items that form part of each construct. In the next step we
assessed the discriminant validity using Heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT) values and
found these to be above 0.90 for theoretically dissimilar constructs, which indicates that there
is an absence of discriminant validity. The Q-squared coefficients was used to check
predictive validity linked with every latent variable block in the model, through the
endogenous latent variable: SRLD (0.729), TRLD (0.700), REMP (0.052). The values are
acceptable as they are above zero (Kock, 2015a).
We found that all f-square values (effect sizes) are above 0.02 and hence acceptable. The
VIF is checked to assess collinearity of indicators. The VIF values are found to be below 3.3,
which indicate the absence of collinearity problems. We also checked the statistical
IJLM significance and size of the indicator weights. We found that the indicator weights are
32,3 significant and all weights are þ1. After we found that the outcome of the measurement
model evaluation is acceptable; we further proceeded to evaluate the structural model. Here
we checked the R-square value, statistical significance and value of path coefficients.
R-square values are found to range from 0.490 to 0.560, which indicates a moderate fit.

756 5.4 Structural model analysis

The hypothesis testing was performed using WarpPLS software version 7.0. The cut-off level
of significance for accepting research hypotheses was considered at 5%. The details of tested
model along with path coefficients and p value are presented in Figure 2.

6. Discussion of findings
The study intended to address two gaps in the literature. Firstly, to establish that BDACs can
aid in strategic and tactical reverse logistics decision-making. Secondly, to establish that
strategic and tactical reverse logistics decision-making can improve the remanufacturing
performance.
To address the first research gap, the research team examined H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, H7,
H8, H9 and H10. The outcome of the examination of the hypotheses indicates that two
hypotheses (H2 and H6) are not supported. DGCs show a strong link with SRLDs and
supports H1; whereas it does not show any positive link with TRLDs (H2). The underlying
reason for DGCs not supporting the TRLDs could be due to unique BDA capability
requirement such as DGCs in SRLDs compared to TRLDs.
DIMCs do not show any link with SRLDs (does not support H2); whereas it shows a
positive link with TRLDs (supported H7). The underlying reason could be due to unique BDA
capability requirement such as DIMCs in TRLDs in an emerging economy like South Africa.

Data
generation
capabilities
β = 0.29*

Data β = –0.08 n.s Strategic

integration β = –0.01 n.s Reverse
Logistics β = 0.22*
and
management Decisions
capabilities β = 0.18*
R2 = 0.53
β = 0.35* Remanufacturing
Adavanced Performance
analytics
capabilities β = 0.26* R2 = 0.49

β = 0.72*
Tactical β = 0.23*
Data
β = 0.53* Reverse
visualization
Logistics
capabilities
β = 0.93* Decisions

β = 0.86*
Data driven R2 = 0.56
culture

Figure 2. Note(s): Significance at the 5% level

Tested model
Source(s): WarpPLS output
 AACs show a positive link with both SRLDs and TRLDs. Thus, it supported both H3 and The effect of
H8. However, the impact of AACs is found to be stronger on SRLDs (β 5 0.35) than its effect BDACs on
on TRLDs (β 5 0.26).
DVCs show a positive link with both SRLDs and TRLDs. Thus, it supported both H4 and
reverse
H9. However, the impact of DVCs is found to be higher on SRLDs (β 5 0.72) than its impact on logistics
TRLDs (β 5 0.53).
DDC shows a positive link with both SRLDs and TRLDs. Thus, it supported both H5 and
H10. However, the impact of DDC is found to be higher on SRLDs (β 5 0.93) than its effect on 757
TRLDs (β 5 0.86).
To address the second research gap, the research team examined H11 and H12. The
results indicate that both the SRLDs and TRLDs have a positive link with
remanufacturing operations performance. However, the path of TRLDs indicates a
stronger impact on remanufacturing performance (β 5 0.23) than SRLDs (β 5 0.22). This is
another very interesting finding because tactical reverse logistics involving medium- to
short-term decisions can enhance remanufacturing performance significantly and require
more focus.
The findings corroborate with the study of Wamba et al. (2017), based on the suggestion
that BDA capabilities can enhance the firm’s financial and market performance, and with
Zhang et al. (2017), where they indicated that BDA can be used for developing cleaner
production systems.
We considered the age and the size of the firm as the control variables, and the findings
show no significant influence on the remanufacturing operations outcome.

6.1 Theoretical implications

In line with DCV theory, the findings suggest that BDA is a higher order dynamic
capability essential to change the firm’s resource base involved in reverse logistics by
integrating, building and reconfiguring competencies. The current study intends to test
the DCV theory and the findings obtained extended the theoretical debate in the area of
reverse logistics and remanufacturing. Reverse logistics decisions are very complex as lot
of factors are involved while making such decisions. The findings indicated that some
BDA capabilities (i.e. DGCs), are essential in strategic reverse logistics context which are
not essential for making TRLDs. Again, some capabilities (i.e. DIMCs) are essential in
tactical reverse logistics context which are not essential for making SRLDs. While some
capabilities (AACs, data visualisation capabilities and DDC) are essential for bot, i.e.
strategic and tactical reverse logistics decision-making. Hence, this study further extends
the knowledge base.

6.2 Practical implications

The key take away for managers is firstly, they need to focus on developing BDA
capabilities; secondly, increased focus is required on quality decision-making in reverse
logistics and finally, focus is required on measuring remanufacturing performance.
Capabilities are a function of resources and signify an “organisationally embedded, non-
transferable firm-specific resource with a purpose to improve the productivity of the other
resources possessed by the firm” (Makadok, 1999). Managers must enhance management,
talent and technological abilities in the firm to develop the BDA capability (Akter et al.,
2016). It is very important to make quality decisions in reverse logistics as it can influence
the profit margins and remanufacturing business. Any wrong decisions can impact the
delivery lead times, financial costs and customer satisfaction levels. Lastly, managers must
set the remanufacturing KPIs and monitor performance on a regular basis. The KPIs will
IJLM vary from industry to industry; however, firms must align the KPIs’ with reverse logistics
32,3 design and the big data environment.
Managers need to learn to develop and deploy the right set of capabilities (DGCs; DIMCs;
AACs; DVCs and data driver culture) while making strategic and TRLDs.
The findings indicate that BDA can enhance the reverse logistics and remanufacturing
performance in a supply chain. This will benefit the society and environment significantly by
increasing the life of resources and reducing the carbon footprint.
758 Globally, the number of automobiles in use is increasing and the concomitant use of parts
is also increasing for the repair and maintenance of vehicles. Moreover, with the poor road
conditions and poor vehicle route planning, the wear and tear of vehicle parts is faster and
much earlier therefore, needing replacement. If the automotive components continue to be
disposed of at the current rate and sold as a scrap without following the concept of
remanufacturing; it would definitely impact the environment adversely. However, if these
components are returned to the OEM using proper reverse logistics channels; these can be
remanufactured and restored back to new conditions with a proper warranty. Although the
remanufacturing process is complex, it can reduce the carbon footprint to a great extent.
Managers must understand the theoretically guided results that emerge from this study
and take the necessary steps to develop BDA capabilities.

7. Conclusion
Big data is gaining recognition among supply chain practitioners. However, the quick
evolution of big data technologies has not provided companies with enough time to make the
necessary preparation. Big data is generated from various sources and can be in the form of
structured, semi-structured and unstructured data, which are available in different forms
such as audio, images, video and text. Big data cannot create any value in a vacuum unless
the value of big data is unlocked to allow for management to make decisions. Big data
management involves a complex process such as the acquisition, recording, extracting,
cleaning, automation, integration, aggregation, representation, BDA-based modelling,
analysis and interpretation in the final stage. The application of big data in the domain of
operations management is gaining popularity after both the research community and
operations managers realised the massive benefits of BDA. BDA capabilities can be
categorised as DGC, DIMCs, AACs, DVCs and DDC. BDA capabilities in logistics
management are a relatively new research area, with a lack of studies on the application
of BDACs on reverse logistics management. Reverse logistics decisions are complex in nature
and are a critical function of remanufacturing operations. The study explored a unique area in
the domain of operations management, i.e. the effect of BDACs on the reverse logistics
decisions and remanufacturing performance. In that process we have addressed the call of
previous researchers. It is very important for firms to focus on resources and capabilities in
this dynamic environment for timely reconfiguration of resources and to remain sustainable.
Our study shows that BDA can enhance strategic and tactical reverse logistics decision-
making and further improve remanufacturing performance in the manufacturing firm.
Therefore, it can be concluded that firms possessing BDA capabilities would enable them to
effectively create strategic and tactical reverse logistics strategies for supporting
remanufacturing planning and operations, and this BDA resource difference will last for a
long time. Nonetheless, focus is required on developing and deploying the right set of BDA
capabilities while making strategic/ TRLDs.
This research work suffered from a few limitations and we caution readers to interpret the
results of this study accordingly. Firstly, the study was conducted in the emerging economy of
South Africa, where the resources and capabilities requirement are different than in any other
country due to different rules and regulations. Secondly, the sample size was small and thirdly,
the study was based on cross-sectional data. Lastly, we did not study the impact of BDA on
operational reverse logistics decisions. We suggest future researchers to design the study in The effect of
such a way that these limitations can be eliminated. Future studies can also consider the BDACs on
mediating effects of process oriented dynamic capabilities on the relationship between BDA
capabilities and remanufacturing performance. Remanufacturing can be developed through
reverse
the higher levels of top management commitment as indicated in previous studies. The beliefs logistics
of top management and their participation play a big role in the adoption of remanufacturing
projects. Also, organisation culture plays an instrumental role in the success of
remanufacturing operations (Dubey et al., 2017). Future studies can analyse the role of 759
these two moderating variables (top management commitment and organisation culture) on
the relationship between BDA and remanufacturing performance. Future research can also
examine the dark side of BDA and its implications on remanufacturing performance.

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Corresponding author
Sunil Luthra can be contacted at: sunilluthra1977@gmail.com
Appendix The effect of
BDACs on
Construct Items Loadings AVE CR CA
reverse
logistics
Data generation capabilities (DGCs) (Adapted from DGC1 0.743 0.669 0.909 0.874
Arunachalam et al., 2018) DGC2 0.912
DGC3 0.878 765
DGC4 0.71
DGC5 0.828
Data integration and management capabilities (DIMC) DIMC1 0.589 0.535 0.888 0.852
(Adapted from Arunachalam et al., 2018) DIMC2 0.754
DIMC3 0.854
DIMC4 0.823
DIMC5 0.69
DIMC6 0.735
DIMC7 0.64
Advanced analytics capabilities (AACs) (Adapted from AAC1 0.82 0.413 0.872 0.835
Arunachalam et al., 2018) AAC2 0.663
AAC3 0.816
AAC4 0.624
AAC5 0.62
AAC6 0.613
AAC7 0.35
AAC8 0.592
AAC9 0.62
AAC10 0.592
Data visualisation capabilities (DVCs) (Adapted from DVC1 0.061 0.72 0.889 0.793
Arunachalam et al., 2018) DVC2 0.976
DVC3 0.982
DVC4 0.978
Data-driven culture (DDC) (Adapted from Arunachalam DDC1 0.706 0.584 0.893 0.857
et al., 2018) DDC2 0.719
DDC3 0.813
DDC4 0.804
DDC5 0.776
DDC6 0.76
Strategic reverse logistics decisions (SRLDs) (Adapted from SRLD1 0.722 0.662 0.907 0.87
Lambert et al., 2011) SRLD2 0.745
SRLD3 0.825
SRLD4 0.862
SRLD5 0.901
Tactical reverse logistics decisions (TRLDs) (Adapted from TRLD1 0.772 0.618 0.907 0.876
Lambert et al., 2011) TRLD2 0.791
TRLD3 0.784
TRLD4 0.773
TRLD5 0.785
TRLD6 0.811
Remanufacturing performance (REMP) (Adapted from REMP1 0.992 0.953 0.995 0.994
Graham et al., 2015; Low and Ng, 2018; Jiang et al., 2019; Wen REMP2 0.985
et al., 2019) REMP3 0.985
REMP4 0.983
REMP5 0.988
REMP6 0.926
REMP7 0.989
REMP8 0.975 Table A1.
REMP9 0.966 Loadings, AVE, CR
REMP10 0.972 and CA