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1SACRIFICIAL SYSTEMS IN ISRAEL AND THE ANE

Introduction

Anson Rainey: "It is the ideology expressed in the ritual complex as a whole that makes the
Israelite religion unique." ZPEB
"The OT ideal saw the ritual acts as expressions of faith, and the universal human
inclination (not confined to Israel) is to substitute the outward act for the concomitant
inward attitude. (Hos 6:6)

Prescriptive Ritual - set of instructions for conducting ritual, including the delineation of implements,
materials, manner, prayers, and incantations.
Descriptive Ritual -- narrates how and when certain rituals were performed

Sacrifice is a Prayer which is acted out in symbolic action of devotion, expressing the internal
attitude of the offerer, and God accepts the offering in response. In the OT the internal responses
of the individual are largely implicit. In sacrifice ------
1) Gift is made to God - Celebration,
2) Union with God is symbolically achieved - Consecration, and
3) Relationship with God is renewed or restored, and guilt removed in Atonement.

Mesopotamian Religion

Man's created purpose: "He shall be charged with the service of the gods, that
they may be at ease."
Deities were viewed as dependent upon men for sustenance and insuring the well being of the
gods. E.g.-Picture in Gilgamesh Epic of the gods descending upon sacrificial animal in the
form of flies after ritual of Utnapishtim.
Gods were subject to the same appetites as men - often whimsical in nature.
Realm of influence often confined to vicinity of their high temple. More powerful gods had
a more extensive power sphere.

Worship of Men
- ritual obligations of sacrifice -- animal, grain, incense, libations
- accompanied by prayers of acceptability for sac. and individual needs
- for honoring gods on the calendrical holy days
- teach others reverence and obedience to the gods
- accompanied by vows, oaths, incantations
- blessings when eating, incl. communal sacrifices
Blood does not seem to have played any special significance in ritual
-- simply returned to the earth.
Special significance does seem to have derived from animal entrails which were used
to determine oracles, portend events, and expel demons, diseases, curses.
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Northern Syria and Anatolia

Peace offerings - of donkey and/or goat

Burnt offerings - sheep, goat, cattle, birds, wild animals
Incense offerings - Incense altars and censers
Note: Hittite ritual of cutting animals into two pieces and placed on both side of a city
(or make-shift) gate through which participants in a treaty/covenant passed. Cf. Gen 15 in which
Abram sleeps as God passes.

Ugarit and Phoenicia

Much parallel terminology to Hebrew sacrificial system.

dbh - general term for sacrifice; also for festival (cf. Heb. zbh)
'atm - guilt offering (cf. Heb. 'asham) -- cattle, sheep, fowl
shrp - peace offering -- incense, libations of oil, wine, honey
one texts reflects "for the forgiveness of the soul"
kll - whole burnt offering
shlm - peace offering

Worship in the Patriarchal Period

Note the "semi-nomadic" and "semi-sedentary" background of the biblical patriarchs.

Worship Locations in Israel & ANE

1. Places of Theophany -- location of the manifestation of the presence of God
(or ANE gods) resulting in these locations becoming "holy" places.
e.g. -- Abraham > at Shechem, Bethel, Mamre, etc.
Known in Mesopotamia and Canaan -- e.g.- cities like Nimrud of Sumer, and site names
such as Beth Shemesh, Bethlehem.
2. Sacred Waters -- abundant springs popular among Canaanites. e.g.- En Gedi, En Dor,
En-Shemesh, En-Rimmon, Laish-Dan, etc.
3. Sacred Trees -- expansion of "tree of life" motif known from Mesopotamia to Egypt.
Forests and/or groves of luxuriant trees were believed by many to be places of divine
manifestation in nature. e.g.- Oak of Moreh, Oak of Mamre. NOTE: Jeremiah's words:
"on every high hill / under every green tree"
4. Sacred Mountains -- the natural high places reaching toward the dwelling of God
(the gods) in the heavens. e.g.- Mt. Moriah, Ebal, Gerizim, El Elyon, cf. Aliyn Baal,
Baal-Hermon, Baal-Saphon
5. High Places -- (Heb. bamah, bamôt) - a cultic center often accompanied by carved or
inscribed matsebah - stone pillar, asherah - wooden `totem' or grove
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6. Temples -- Formal cultic buildings, each usually centered on the worship of an individual deity.
Referred to as "house of . . ." or "palace of . . ." said deity. Often accompanied or
surrounded with living quarters for priests and other cultic personnel, as well as rooms for
storage of sacrificial goods.
Included several levels or stages of rooms, with the most holy place ("holy of holies") set
aside as an inset or outset niche for priestly interaction with the deity. In Egypt these were
elaborate monumental stone structures.
7. Ziggurats -- primarily found in the region from N. Syria to Persian Gulf. A cultic center stood
atop these stepped pyramidal structures for the place of contact between the high priest
and/or priestess with the deity. The Babylon ziggurat En-temen-an-ki "Temple of the
foundation of heaven and earth" was approx. 100 yds. square at the base.

Worship Sites
1. Shechem -- Abram's first known stop in Canaan at the "Oak of Moreh" where he builds an
altar in response to the theophany and divine message of promised descendants. Important
in Jacob's return to Canaan from Laban. Center of covenant ceremonies in Joshua (chs. 8,
24). Note Mts. Ebal & Gerizim.
2. Bethel -- Abram's second altar; Jacob's vision of ladder ascending to heaven, just prior to
leaving the land of promise. Names the site Beth-El (formerly Luz) in honor of the
theophany and accompanying promise. Erects stone monument (matsebah). Renewal upon
return (cf. Gen 28 & 35; Jdg 20:18f; and 1 Sam 10:3) pilgrimage festival there. Also
Jeroboam's alternative temple to Jerusalem with alternative festival of Sukkoth.
3. Mamre -- Abram's altar nr. settlement; later burial of patriarchal family. Oaks of Mamre
seem to have been known worship center among Canaanites.
Cave of Machpelah burial for Sarah, Abraham, Isaac, Rebekah, Leah.
4. Beersheba -- Southern end of heartland of Promise. "Well of Oath". "Yahweh El-Olam"
called upon. 1 Sam 8:1-2 Samuel's sons made judges here, w/ implications of a sanctuary
existent there.
5. Salem -- Melchizedek (Gen 14:17), priest of El Elyon ("God Most High"). Worship center
of unknown origin.

Later Sanctuaries
6. Desert Sanctuary -- `Ohel Mo`ed - "Tent of Meeting"
Place where Yahweh met Moses and the people of Israel.
a) Place of Worship - sacrificial, et al.
b) Place of Theophany - manifestation of God's presence, pillar of fire/cloud >>
God's presence and leadership
c) Place of Oracle - will of God determined and law proscribed
Mobile sanctuary from Sinai Desert to Gilgal to Shiloh (dest 1050 BC)
7. Ark of the Testimony ('Aron ha-'Eduth)
Contained Aaron's rod, manna, w/ Law tablets (probably duplicates)
Wooden with gold overlay, transported by Levites.
a) Symbol of Divine Presence (went before the people >> God leads)
- symbolic "Throne of God"
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b) Law as revelation of God's nature, character, will for His people
c) Manna = God’s provision

7. Gilgal -- "Circle" of stones commemorating 12 tribes after Jordan crossing.

First Passover celebrated in the Land, manna ceased. Staging point of entry and "conquest"
of the land. Important cultic site in the ministry of Samuel and Saul.
ARCH-exact location unknown.
8. Shiloh -- Josh 18:1 `Tent of Meeting' established there, overseen by priestly families
(e.g.-Eli & sons in 1 Sam). Deterioration of worship site and its leadership reflected.
Destroyed after Philistines captured ark in war vs. Israel (1 Sam 4, cf. Jer 7), 1050 BC.
9. Mizpah -- Ceremonial confessional service following return of ark of covenant to Israelite
hands (1 Sam 7:1-14). Ceremonial point for tribes in days of the Judges (Jdg 19-21).
ARCH - Suggested location either Tel en-Nasbeh or Nebi Samwil+.
10. Gibeon -- Solomon sacrificed at the high place there (1 Kgs 3:4) where he dreamed of God
granting him gift of wisdom. Cf. 1 Chron 16:39; 21:29).
11. Dan -- Danites established worship center (w/idol) after conquering the city (Jdg 18).
Jeroboam I established Dan as alternative worship & pilgrimage site to Jerusalem after the
division of the kingdom.
12. Jerusalem -- Central location between Judah & Benjamin, conquered by David c.1000 BC.
(1 Chron 11:4-9; 2 Sam 5:6-10)
a) politically expedient - unconquered Jebusite city, neutral area between northern and
southern tribal regions >> unification
b) defensible location - Zion ridge, Mt. Olives, Kidron Valley
c) religious tradition - Salem of Abram & Melchizedek; Mt. Moriah / Isaac
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ISRAELITE SACRIFICIAL SYSTEM

General Hebrew Terms

zbh - generally for ritual slaughter of animal, or other sacrifice
`olah - act of totally burning sacrifice, whole burnt offering
qtr - to burn, especially for incense (usually pagan contexts)
srp - incineration of parts of animal sacrifice, disposed of outside the camp of the community
mtnt - gift
hqryb - presentation sacrifice ("bring near") korban
minchah - grain (cakes) sacrifice

Materials — Nature and Quality

- Had to be the property of the offerer (could be purchased) —
- One gives of that which sustains life
- Clean animals only, hence no unclean, wild, or blemished in any way;
hence only consumable animals offered
- Quality agricultural products — grain, vegetables, fruit, oil, wine, water. Wood in Post-exilic era.
- Pleasant odor >> meat + grain, incense >> to God
- Priest received certain portions, to be eaten at sacred place. Skin received from burnt offerings.
Focus – in animals, the life of the sacrifice is forfeited by the extraction of blood pouring it out
unto God upon altar. Note Lev 17:11 - “The Life of the flesh is in the blood.”
Consumption of blood & fat portions by offerer prohibited

TYPOLOGY OF SACRIFICES: THREE FORMS

Theme: All Life Belongs to God, the source of Life
Proper Sequence: Atonement (Reparation, Purification)
Consecration (Sanctification)
Communion (Celebration)

I. SACRIFICE AS ATONEMENT

- Removal of guilt and making amends on levels of God to man and man to man
- Establish good relations between God and man
- Renewal / restoration of covenant relationship w/God of individual or community
- Expression of faith and devotion

1. Sin Offering (chatta'at) - Animal prescribed for individual offering dependent upon the
ability of the offerer to bring or purchase.
High Priest => Bull
Leader of the people => male goat
Individual => female goat or sheep;
Poor => 2 doves or pigeons; Very Poor = cereal grain offering.
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Identification >> Hand of the offerer is laid upon the sacrificial victim as it is slaughtered
in symbolic representation / substitution. Offerer slays the animal on North side of the
altar. Blood collected by priest and sprinkled upon altar, horns, and before the veil.
Emphasis upon veil and mercy seat on the Yom Kippur. Cf. Lev. 4:1–35; 6:24-30
Yom Kippur - Lev 16:1–34
- One male goat offered on certain holy days >> Rosh Chodesh, Shavuoth, Rosh Hashanah,
Yom Kippur, Sukkoth, Pesach. (Num 28–29)

2. Guilt Offering ('asham) - also called "trespass" - When one party (man or God) suffers
deprivation, damage to property, wronged by an individual, denied rightful due.
Lev 5:14-26; 7:1-11
Confession, Restoration + 1/5 penalty, Guilt offering (usually a ram)

II. SACRIFICE AS CONSECRATION

Total surrender of a gift to God, usually through the burning fully or pouring out totally of the
sacrifice to God. Symbolic of the rendering of one's life to God in relationship and service.

1. Whole Burnt Offering (`olah) Animal killed in ritual slaughter, with offerer laying his hand
upon the head of the victim (identity with the sacrifice) and cutting the throat. Emphasis is
placed upon the quality of the sacrifice, along with its preparation in purity. Total burning =
total surrender "wholly pleasing to the Lord." Only the skin or hide was left for the priests.
Renders full offering from realm of visible to invisible.
- Offered twice daily > lamb in morning and evening, 2X on Sabbath. (Num 28:1–10)
- Holy Days generally had burnt and sin offerings, plus communion (Num 28–29)

2. Cereal Offering (minchah) Flour + Oil + Incense (frankincense) Formed into cakes or wafers;
sometimes accompanied Burnt Offering. Unleavened except at the Pentecost festival.
Always accompanied Peace Offering. (Lev 2:1-16; 6:14-23)

3. Drink / Libation Offerings (nesek) Normally accompanied burnt and peace offerings,
but not sin or guilt offerings. Wine was poured out totally (possible substitute for blood?).
Num 15:1-10; 28:7; Ex 29:40

III. SACRIFICE AS COMMUNION

- Expression of unity in community ("corporate solidarity") as well as unity and communion
with God -- humankind shares together with God & others
- Shared possessions, shared common life / livelihood, practice of hospitality
- Parallel to burnt offering with laying of hand upon sacrificial victim, cutting of the throat,
and ceremonial sprinkling of the blood

- Sacrificial meal - offerer partakes portion, priest receives a portion, and a portion is offered to
God (blood, fat, entrails, etc.) in community reflection (God, Priests, People). Peace and
Passover offerings particularly focus these aspects.
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- Offered when requirements of expiation and consecration met.

1. Peace Offering (shalom) Animal and/or Unleavened cake (3 types) Lev 3; 7:11-36
a. Freewill or Voluntary (nedabah) - could be consumed the following day
- could also consist of burnt offering (`olah) min. 3X yearly
- Ex 23:16; 34:20; Lev 7:16; 22:18
b. Thanksgiving/Praise (todah) - eaten on day of sacrifice
- Thanksgiving for blessings bestowed; Praise for God's presence,
protection, promise, future blessing, etc. (Lev 7:12-15; 22:29)
c. Votive (neder) - could be carried over til following day
- Ritual expression of vow; gifts promised to the Lord (Lev 7:16-17; 22:18-23)

2. Wave Offering (tenuphah) Usually bundled grain sheaves and "waved" before the Lord in
ritual fashion with accompanying prayers and recitations.

3. Ordination/ Fulfillment Offering (mel'im) Sacrifice of completion, fulfillment of vow,

or ordination to divine service (Ex 29:19-34; Lv. 8:22-32; Num 6).

Summary: A. Sacrifice as Gift

1. God's Sovereignty - acknowledgment of man's dependence upon God

- all belongs to Him - all comes from Him
2. Gift of Quality - perfect, clean, unblemished - symbolic of ethical
- deprives one of that which man needs to support himself
3. Death of Gift - renders the offering final > useless and irrevocable
- only means of rendering to God, from realm visible to invisible
4. Altar - symbols of God's presence (cf. theophany above)

B. Sacrifice as Atonement

1. Establish Relationship — Covenantal / Relational aspects

Consecration, Ordination, Vow, etc.
2. Restore Relationship — Renew or restore relationship which has been abrogated
Sin and/or guilt offerings in restoring vertical and horizontal relationships
3. Maintain Relationship — Celebration of unity and community
Peace and other communal offerings

JERUSALEM TEMPLE
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Location
2 Sam. 24:1-25 Threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite (Ornan in 2 Chron.3:1)
Context of David's census, propitiates God to remove the plague
1 Chron. 21:18-30 David's altar, cf. burnt offering altar w/tabernacle at Gibeon
2 Chron. 3:1 Mt. Moriah upon which Abraham nearly sacrificed Isaac (Gen 22)
Apparently a cave was located there where Araunah hid, also used for storage of grain after
separation from the chaff (cf. cave in Dome of the Rock)

Construction Typology -- Styled after tri-partite Phoenician / Canaanite temples

Ulam - vestibule 10 cu. Heykal - worship room 40 cu.
Debir - `Holy of holies' inner sanctuary 20 cu.
Storage rooms surrounded 3 sides of heykal and debir
Extensive us of Phoenician artisans and materials -- Name of building
supervisor "Adoram" of Phoenician origin. Parallels - Alalakh, Hazor.

Furnishings and Implements (Ex 25–40)

1. Ark of Testimony/Covenant & Mercy Seat -- (see above). Point of mediation between
God and Man. Blood sprinkled in Yom Kippur cleansing ceremony.
Cf. Rom 3:25; Heb 9-10. "Mercy Seat" is an interpretation not a translation of the terms.
Where God meets His people >> Relationship.

2. Table of Shewbread -- 12 Loaves baked daily / weekly. Called the "bread of the presence" -
symbols of God's presence and daily provision for the needs of His people. "Give us this
day our daily bread."

3. Lampstand -- Seven-tiered > center column + 3 pairs >> 7 oil lamps.

Light > Symbol of life, hope, & victory. Oil later became in OT & Judaism a symbol of
God's spirit. Cf.- Jesus: "I am the light of the world."

4. Altar -- Acacia & Bronze for burnt offerings. Horns symbolic of strength as well as for a
place of refuge. One who grasps the horns of the altar makes himself a living sacrifice,
devoted to Yahweh and under His protection.

5. Bronze Laver -- Wash basin for ceremonial cleansing -- Cleansing >> holiness
Cf. Heb 10:22.

6. Incense Altar -- Inner sanctuary (cf. Ex 30:6; 40:26) before the ark of the covenant,
thus intercessory in implication. Incense burned 2x daily.

7. Tent -- Veil separating the Holy Place. Behind the veil was a place of darkness and coolness>
"Yahweh's Shadow" > symbolic of refreshment (desert oasis), renewal,
hence `salvation' locale.
Purpose and Theology

1. Memorial Symbol of God's presence and faithful character -- Ark of Covenant,

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Cherubim, Mercy Seat ("Throne of God") Seat of God's Glory.

2. No imagery -- God was not defined by or constrained by forms of idols as other ANE deities

3. Defined nature of covenant relationship between God and His people - sign of election of Israel
as God's people - for establishing, maintaining, and renewing that saving / delivering
relationship. Loyalty of people expressed in sacrifice & worship.

4. Purity and holiness - describe essential character of God and place of worship. Necessity of
absolute purity/cleanness of sacrificial system, sacrificer, offerer, priests, sacrifices,
instruments, etc.

5. National centralization -- Focus of worship of one God in one place, due in part to the
multiplicity of idolatrous cultic sites throughout the land.

6. Unification -- Central sanctuary enabled nation of Israel to be unified, in light of history of

conflict between tribes. Pilgrimage festivals and Yom Kippur facilitated expression of
national unity -- God, Priests, People

7. Symbolic of the hearing ear of God (Stigers) -- God hears the prayers of His people,
bringing blessing, forgiveness, and hope

8. House of Peace and Prayer -- limitation of David from construction,

cf. Is. 56:7 "My house of prayer"

9. International place of worship -- former and latter prophets saw the international scope of
Israel's God and that one day all men would come to worship the one true God in
Jerusalem. (1 Kgs 8:43; Is 56)

10. Temporary Character -- God desires humble heart, justice and righteousness. Destruction
assured by Yahweh resulting from abuse and disobedience.
(Mic 6:6-8; Jer 7; Ezek 36:26f; Jn 4:20-26; Acts 7:44f)

NEW TESTAMENT TERMINOLOGY

thusia (n) general term for sacrifice-- field >> idolatry, animal sac, Christ as sacrifice,
metaphorical uses
Mt 9:13; 12:7 Jesus quotes Hos 6:6 "I desire mercy not sacrifice"
Mk 12:33 loving God and neighbor "more important than all burnt offerings and sacrifices"
Lk 2:24 sacrifices made by Joseph & Mary when Jesus presented in Temple
Acts 7:41-42 idolatrous sacrifices of Israel in wilderness experience
Rom 12:1 Christians as "living sacrifices" >> holy & acceptable, pure and undefiled =
spiritual worship
1 Cor 10:18 Paul compares Israel communal offerings to meat sacrificed to idols as
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argument against eating
Eph 5:2 Live in Love as Christ Loved us and gave Himself as sacrifice
Phil 2:17 Paul's life poured out over offerings of Philippians' faith
Phil 4:18 Philippian gifts to Paul were sacrifices pleasing to God
1 Pet 2:5 Spiritual sacrifices of lives of Christians
Hebrews 5:1;8:3 High priest offers sacrifices for sins
7:27 Christ unlike OT priests, not daily but "once for all" Himself
9:9,23,26 gifts and sacrifices cannot perfect the conscience, thus better sacrifices needed
-- Christ sacrificed self once-for-all
10:1 yearly sacrifices could not make perfect those who approached
5- quote from Ps 40:6 "sacrifices and offerings not desired"
Heb 10:11- "body" takes LXX reading over Hebrew "ears" >> Westcott suggests
LXX "body" interprets "ears" as instrument through which the body receives the
divine command. God desires the will of the offerer more than sacrifices.
Note also midrash on will
This sacrifice of the will and cleansing of the conscience/heart is
paralleled in reference to the "new covenant" of Jer 31:31-34.
13:15 Through Christ we offer sacrifice of praise - confession
-16 Sacrifice = do good and share what you have
Christ functioned in as superior priest, righteous offerer of sacrifice, an unblemished sacrificial
victim, acceptable to God, and accomplished the establishment of the New Covenant of the heart,
cleansing the conscience. (Jer 31:31-34)

Other Uses in the New Testament

thuo (v) Parallel Hebrew zebach "ritual slaughter" or "act of sacrificing"

Mt 22:4 "slaughter" with sacrifice implicit

Mk 14:12; Lk 15:23,27,30; 22:7 (Passover); et al

eidolothutos (n) sacrifice to idols

thusiasthrion (n) altar