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1.1 Introduction :
A method for the description of gas states [1]was found by Maxwell and
Boltzmann more than one hundred years ago , which was thus when the foundation
of the Boltzmann equation was made . The importance of solving the Boltzmann
equation [2, 9]has slowly became evident to investigators owing to both the complexity
of this equation and the fact that fields for its possible applications were unknown . In
nineteenth century the entropy principle has been proved on the basis of the Boltzmann
equation , and , in fact , the first and the second postulates of thermodynamics were
combined to a single theoretical scheme ( taking into account the statistical character
of the theory ) . The further development of solving the Boltzmann equation has been
means of the equation for continuum media . The well-known approach of Hilbert
equation for a general nonlinear case was a very heavy problem .The situation changed
only in the 50s and 60s of the 20th century when computers and numerical methods
1
advanced sufficiently to consider interesting problems . These attempts , of course
technology influenced the scientists mind concerning the importance of new methods
in kinetic theory.
The Chapman -Enskog method proved the validity of the Navier-Stokes equation
The necessity of studying the Boltzmann equation itself ( or the other kinetic equations
) was obvious .
It is well known that the Boltzmann equation was the starting point for
such equations can easily be found : electron transfer in plasma , transport neutrons
order of the relaxation scales of time and space have been realized in particular , in
formulation of the relaxation equation of electron transfer in solids . On the other hand
, physicists very often emphasize the restricted role of classical Boltzmann equation
of the kinetic equations only in the gaseous media , etc. . However , the nonlinear
character of the Boltzmann equation possesses the important essence of the original
2
and physically realistic equation , so it is not only to consider the flows for simple
media but to formulate new problems due to the ability of these equation to describe
nonequilibrium states . One can expect that the relationships in simple solution of
the Boltzmann equation will also be valid for more complex physical situations we
will introduce different mathematical and physical models of Boltzmann equation and
transfer equation and then we will introduce some of important methods for solving
the Boltzmann equation . Also we will introduce complete survey for recent papers
The principal parameter of the rarefied gas dynamics is the Knudsen number [15],
Kn, which characterizes the gas rarefaction . The Knudsen number is defined as the
ratio :
λ
Kn = (1.1)
a
where λ is the molecular mean free path , i.e. , the average distance traveled by a
molecule between collisions , and a is the characteristic scale of the containing vessel
where the gas flow . For the problems in question a is the radius of the outer cylinder
Regarding the value of the Knudsen number , we may distinguish the regimes of
the gas flow . If the Knudsen number is very small (Knhh1) , the mean free path is so
small that the gas can be considered as a continuous medium and the hydrodynamic
3
equation can be applied to the gas flow that is why the regime is called hydrodynamic
regime .
If the Knudsen number is very large (Knii1), the mean free path is so large
that the collision of molecules with the confining walls occur much more frequently
than the collision between molecules . Under this condition we may discount the
When the Knudsen number has some intermediate value we cannot consider the
gas as a continuous medium . At the same time we cannot discount the intermolecular
This division of the regimes of the flow is very important because the methods
used for calculation of the gas flows essentially depend on the regime . More accurate
classification of gaseous flow is : the continuum flow regime ;Kn < 0.01 .The slip
flow regime ;0.01 < Kn < 0.1 .The transition flow regime ; 0.1 < Kn < 10 . The
Usually another quantity characterizing the gas rarefaction is used instead of the
To calculate the Knudsen ( Kn) number or the rarefaction parameter δ one needs
to know the microparameter , such as the mean free path λ , which cannot be measured
4
. If one tries to calculate λ directly , one finds that it depends on the molecular velocity
and the molecular size . So, to obtain the mean free path one needs the knowledge of
other nonmeasurable quantities . Another manner to obtain the mean free path is to use
its relations with the transport coefficients provided by the kinetic theory of gases . It
has become customary to calculate λ via the viscosity coefficient µ as [17]-[22] : via
by the relation .
√ µ ¶1
πµ 2KB T 2
λ= (1.3)
2P m
This definition has the advantage that it contains the easily measurable quantities (P, T
) and (µ, m) .
Moreover the definition (1.3) allows one an easier comparison between results
referring to different molecular models .Actually , there are more ways to determine λ
using the relation between the viscosity coefficient µ and the thermal conductivity k
as follows.
The explicit expression of the transport coefficients µ and k can be obtained if the
intermolecular interaction law is given . For the hard sphere molecules the coefficients
5
see[52] expression (1.4) turns into
5π 1
µ = hvimnλ ' hvimnλ ,
32 2
75πKB 15KB
k = hvinλ ' hvinλ, (1.6)
128 8
then
8
λ= k (1.7)
15KB hvin
where hvi is the mean thermal velocity
µ ¶ 12
8KB T
hvi = (1.8)
πm
Namely the expression (1.6) for µ has been used in (1.5) to relate the mean free path
with the macroparameters . it is easy to obtain the relation between the viscosity
dimension can lead to high Kn , for example the gas flow in space , where the rarefied
gas dynamics applies. On the other hand, tiny characteristic dimension and normal
pressure also can lead to the same result , such as the gaseous flow in microchannels,
6
1.3 Boltzmann equation
f (r, c, t)drdc is the number of particles in the phase volume drdc near the point (r, c)
at the time t .The distribution function f (r, c, t) obeys the Boltzmann equation which
equation [2]-[9]reads :
∂f ∂f F ∂f
+ c. + . = J( f, f ∗ ) (1.12)
∂t ∂r m ∂c
where,f = f (r, c, t) is the velocity distribution function,m , r and c are, respectively,
the molecular mass , the coordinates and speeds vectors of a molecule (constituting,
integral that describes the net effect of populating and depopulating collisions on the
7
where the superscript * indicates post-collision values, f and f1 represent two
different molecules,Cr is the relative speed between two molecules, σ is the molecular
temperature, etc., can be computed from the appropriate weighted integral of the
Number density :
Z
n(r, t) = f (r, c, t)dc (1.16)
Temperature :
Z
m
T (r, t) = c2 f (r, c, t)dc (1.20)
3nkB
8
Heat flow vector :
Z
m
q(r, t) = (c − u) c2 f (r, c, t)dc (1.21)
3
Energy density :
Z
c2
E(r, t) = f (r, c, t)dc (1.22)
2
If the Boltzmann equation is nondimensionalized with a characteristic length L
r
2KB T
and characteristic speed [ ] the inverse Knudsen number Kn appears explicitly
m
in the right-hand side of the equation as follows :
∂ fˆ ∂ fˆ F̂j ∂ fˆ 1 ˆ ˆ ˆ∗
+ ĉj . + . = J( f , f ) , j = 1, 2, 3 (1.23)
∂ t̂ ∂ r̂j m ∂ĉj Kn
where the superscript ˆ represents a dimensionless variable, and fˆ is nondimensional-
The five conservation equations for the transport of mass, momentum, and energy
can be derived by multiplying the Boltzmann equation above by, respectively, the
molecular mass, momentum and energy, then integrating over all possible molecular
velocities. Subject to the restrictions of dilute gas and molecular chaos stated earlier,
the Boltzmann equation is valid for all ranges of Knudsen number from 0 to ∞[80, 95]
. Analytical solutions to this equation for arbitrary geometries are difficult mostly
because of the nonlinearity of the collision integral. Simple models of this integral
.forKn  10, where the only important collision is that between a gas molecule and
the solid surface of an obstacle or a conduit. Analytical solutions are then possible
9
for simple geometries, and numerical simulations for complicated geometries are
tendency for thermodynamic systems to revert to equilibrium state, smoothing out any
in the limit Kn −→ 0 is so large that the flow approaches the equilibrium state in a
time short compared to the macroscopic time-scale. For example, for air at standard
10 collisions per nanosecond and travels 1 micron in the same time period. Such a
molecule has already forgotten its previous state after 1ns. In a particular flow field, if
the macroscopic quantities vary little over a distance of 1mm or over a time interval of
moves through the flow field. From the continuum viewpoint, the flow is isentropic
and heat conduction and viscous diffusion and dissipation vanish from the continuum
conservation relations.
10
1.4 The Bilinear Collision Operator :
The bilinear collision operator J(f, f ∗ ) describes the binary collisions of the
GAIN LOSS
© + ª
= J (f, f ∗ )(v) − {L[f ](v)f (v)} (1.25)
Z Z
+ ∗
J (f, f )(v) = B(v, v∗ , ω)f (v́ ) f (v́∗ )dωdv∗ , (1.26)
Z R3 Z S 2
L[f ](v)f (v) = B(v, v∗ , ω)f (v)f (v∗ )dωdv∗ , (1.27)
R3 S2
details of the binary interaction and depend only on |v − v∗ | and the scattering angle θ
11
Collision Sphere
Examples :
In the hard sphere model[65] the particles are assumed to be ideally elastic spheres
In the case of the inverse k − th power forces between particles the kernel has the form
(1.30)
k−5
with α = . For k > 5 we have hard potentials , for k h5we have soft potentials
k−1
.
For numerical purposes, a widely used model is the Variable Hard Sphere (VHS) [49] model,
12
corresponding to take bα (cos θ) = Cα where Cα is a positive constant and hence
Remark :For the Maxwellian case the collision kernel B(v, v∗ , ω) is independent
of the relative velocity. This case has been widely studied theoretically, in particular
exact analytic solutions can be found in the space homogeneous case (f = f (v, t)).
collision angle
For this model we have only microscopic conservation of energy
³ ´
´ ´
Quantum-Boltzmann models[65] : the nonlinear interactions f f ∗ − f f ∗ is re-
13
placed by
Sign (-) indicated Pauli operator, Sign (+) indicated Bose-Einstein operator.
tor devices
Z
∗
JS (f, f ) = σ(v, v∗ ) {M (v)f (v∗ ) − M (v∗ )f (v)} dv∗
by the model.
,.....ect.
The Moment and Chapman-Enskog methods are applied near the hydrodynamic
another approach to the solution of the Boltzmann equation . The main idea of the
method suitable at any Knudsen number is to simplify the collision integral retaining
its fundamental properties such as(1.14) . Then, one may be apply some exact method
of the solution to this approximate equation . The simplified equations are called the
14
1.5.1 BGK Equation :
An early model equation was proposed by Bhatnagar , gross and Krook (BGK)
where f0 is the local Maxwellian ( 1.24).The local values of the number density n(r, t) ,
flow velocity u(r, t) and temperature T (r, t) are calculated via the distribution function
( 1.16), (1.17) and ( 1.20) , respectively . The quantity ν is the collision frequency ,
which is assumed to be independent of the molecular velocity . One can verify that the
model collision integral obeys both fundamental properties (1.14) and ( 1.15) .
expression of the viscosity µ would be the same as given in the full collision integral .
15
A third way to choose ν is to put the frequency as the ratio of the mean thermal
thermal conductivity k .
A shortcoming of this model equation is the correct expressions for the viscosity
collision frequency for physical models ( rigid spheres, finite range potentials ) shows
that ν varies with the molecular velocity . All basic properties are retained , but to
satisfy( 1.14) the moments appearing in the local Maxwellian of the modified model
are not the local density , velocity and temperature of the gas , but some other local
parameters.
16
1.5.2 S-Model :
The S-model by shakhov [98] is also a modification of the BGK model given the
correct Prandtl number .The collision integral of this model is written down as
½ µ · ¸¶ ¾
P 2m mc2 5
∗
J(f, f ) = f0 1 + q.c − − f (r, t, c) (1.38)
µ 15n(KB T )2 2KB T 2
This model has another shortcoming : the inequality ( 1.15) can be proved only for
the linearized S model . In the nonlinear form one can neither prove nor disprove the
inequality. But the conservation laws ( 1.14) are valid for the S model in any form .
Another model is the Ellipsoidal model [94] with the correct Prandtl number has
where
° °−1
° 2KB T 2(1 − Pr)P °
A = kAij k = ° °
ij
° m Pr δ −
nm Pr °
ij
where Pr is the Prandtl number . If we let Pr=1 , we recover the BGK model . It is also
made from a comparison of numerical data based on them with those obtained from
17
the exact Boltzmann equation . From this comparison the following anticipated
( i ) any isothermal gas flow can be successfully calculated with the help of the
BGK model [79] shows that the difference between the BGK model and other models
flows .
( iii ) the ellipsoidal model is not recommended for the practical calculations .
Free-molecular flow is [67]defined as the flow obtained in the limit when the
Knudsen number Kn −→ ∞ . In that case , the Boltzmann equation takes the form :
df ∂f ∂f F ∂f
= + c. + . =0 (1.40)
dt ∂t ∂r m ∂c
In such flows , the interaction of the molecules with the wall plays a major role , while
the collision of the molecules among themselves may be neglected . A gas in which
the molecules do not collide is called a Knudsen gas may be represented as a gas in
which n −→ 0, i.e. either the density or the diameter of the molecules tends to zero .
18
1.8 Boltzmann Equation and Plasma :
As the temperature of a material is raised, its state changes from solid to liquid
and then to gas. If the temperature is elevated further, an appreciable number of the gas
atoms are ionized and become the high temperature gaseous state in which the charge
numbers of ions and electrons are almost the same and charge neutrality is satisfied
in a macroscopic scale [11]. When the ions and electrons move collectively, these
charged particles interact with coulomb force which is long range force and decays
only in inverse square to the distance r between the charged particles. The resultant
current flows due to the motion of the charged particles and Lorentz interaction takes
place. Therefore many charged particles interact with each other by long range forces
and various collective movements occur in the gaseous state. The typical cases have
many kinds of instabilities and wave phenomena. The word ”plasma” is used in
physics to designate the high temperature ionized gaseous state with charge neutrality
The temperature corresponding to the thermal energy of one electron volt 1eV
atom is 13.6eV . Even if the thermal energy (average energy) of hydrogen gas is
1eV , that is T ∼ 104 K̊, small amount of electrons with energy higher than13.6eV
exist and ionize the gas to a hydrogen plasma. Plasmas are found in nature in
various forms ,see fig.(3). There exits the ionosphere in the heights of 70 ∼ 500km
(density n ∼ 1012 m−3 , kT ∼ 0.2eV ). Solar wind is the plasma flow originated
from the sun with n ∼ 106∼7 m−3 , kT ∼ 10eV. Corona extends around the sun
19
and the density is ∼ 1014 m−3 and the electron temperature is ∼ 100eV although
these values depend on the different positions. White dwarf, the final state of stellar
evolution, has the electron density of 1035∼36 m−3 . Various plasma domains in the
diagram of electron density n(m−3 ) and electron temperature kT (eV ) are shown
in fig.(1.3) Active researches in plasma physics have been motivated by the aim to
create and confine hot plasmas in fusion researches. Plasmas play important roles in
the studies of pulsars radiating microwave or solar X ray sources observed in space
physics and astrophysics. The other application of plasma physics is the study of
the earth’s environment in space. Practical applications of plasma physics are MHD
engines for space crafts, and plasma processing which attracts much attention recently.
20
1.8.1 Maxwell’s Equations :
For plasma composed of electrons and one species of ions , it can constitute
the well-known two fluid model . This description is completed by the Maxwell’s
equations , which relate the electric and magnetic fields to the charge and current
∇.B = 0, (1.42)
1 ∂B
∇×E = − , (1.43)
C0 ∂t
1 ∂E 4π
∇×B = + J, (1.44)
C0 ∂t C0
where E, B, C0 , ρ, J are, respectively , the electric and magnetic fields,speed of
light,electric charge and current densities . The electric charge ρ and current J
densities are expressed by the distribution functions for the electron and the ion :
Z
ρ = q f(r, c, t)dc (1.45)
Z
J = q c f(r, c, t)dc (1.46)
" r #
4πne e2
Owing to that the electron plasma frequency ω pe = is obviously greater
me
" r # · ¸
4πni e2 mp
than the ion plasma frequency ω pi = since = 1.8362 × 10 [81]
3
mi me
, i.e. the higher frequency charge density fluctuations are associated with the motion
of the electrons , we can treat the massive ions as an immobile , uniform , neutralizing
background with density ni0 . Then Boltzmann equation for electron gas has the form
∂f ∂f q ∂f
+ c. + (E + c × B). = J( f, f ∗ ) (1.47)
∂t ∂r me ∂c
21
where q = −e and c are , respectively ,the charge and the speed of the electrons , F in
However, the interactions of the charged particles are still included through the internal
electric and magnetic field which are calculated from the charge and current densities
and flow profile of the gas as a function of position within the device . The speed of
rotation is very high and gives rise to a very strong centrifugal force . Due to this force
the gas is distributed in a very non- uniform manner between the outer wall and the
central axis . Indeed , calculations indicate that whilst the high density region near
the outer wall can be treated by continuum hydrodynamics , the region near the axis
behaves like a rarefied gas , Such behavior calls for special methods of analysis based
upon a kinetic theory description of the gas . The Boltzmann equation for gases is
[17] and it should therefore , in principle tend to a precise assessment of the behavior
22
of a gas in the centrifuge . Practical centrifuges are of complex internal shape although
methods have been suggested for gaining initial insight into this problem .
geometry using a fictitious force term in the linear Boltzmann equation to simulate
the centrifugal effect . This equation was solved by Pomraning through the use of
the half range expansion technique using orthogonal polynomials . It was pointed
out by E.A. Johnson [17] that Pomraning’s solution contains an error which leads to
has also provided an exact solution of the problem in the Knudsen limit . A full review
of past work in the application of the kinetic theory to this problem can also be found
Generally speaking one solves the Boltzmann Equation with the suitable initial
and boundary condition one knows the distribution function then, one can calculate
all moments(1.16 -1.22). However the complexity of the Boltzmann Equation dose
not allow us to perform this task in general . Recently , using powerful computers it
becomes possible to solve the Boltzmann Equation only in some simple cases. That is
23
1.10.1 Moment Method :
molecular velocity, we can obtain infinite relations that are satisfied by the distribution
function :
Z µZ ¶ Z
∂ ∂
Qi f (r, c, t) dc + . Qi c f (r, c, t) dc = Qi J( f, f ∗ )dc
∂t ∂r
where ( i = 1, 2, ........., N, ....)
Boltzmann equation because of the completeness of the set Qi . The common idea
behind the so-called moment method is to satisfy only a finite number of moments
equations. This leaves the distribution function largely undetermined, since only the
infinite set (1.49) (with proper initial and boundary conditions) can determine f . This
means that we can choose to a certain extent, f arbitrary and then let the moment
equations determine the details which we have not specified. The different “moment
method” differs in the choice of the set (Qi ) and arbitrary input for f . Their common
−→
feature is to choose f in such a way that f is a given function of c containing
24
undetermined parameters depending upon the spatial coordinates and time. This
for the unknowns. In spite of the large amount of arbitrariness, it is hoped that any
the arbitrary choice. On practical grounds another hope is that for sufficiently small N
and a judicious choice of arbitrary elements one can obtain accurate results [2].
equation rather than to the standard integero-differential form (1.12) . this circumstance
a finite system of exact integral equations involving only a finite number of moments.
These equation can be very complicated but have the essential advantage that the
independent variables are only four (r, t) instead of seven (r, c, t) which is a very
important feature for analytical and numerical computations . These exact integral
equation can now be solved by making discrete the space and time variables ( the only
independent variables which have been left ) in one dimensional linearized problems
[2, 3] this reduces to a system of a few integral equations with one independent variable
25
; we can then achieve a practically exact result with limited amounts of computing
time .
by a small amount from the equilibrium Maxwellian form . It is assumed that the
where ε is a parameter which may be regarded as a measure of the mean collision time,
the Mach number[7] or the Knudsen number [78].The first term f (0) is the Maxwellian
f = f0 (1 + Φ1 + Φ2 + Φ3 + .............................), (1.51)
The equilibrium distribution function constitutes the know first-order solution of this
equation, and the second-order solution requires the determination of the parameter Φ1
by Chapman and Enskog , and this form the major subject matter of the classical work
by Chapman and Cowling (1952) [ they said that f (0) + εf (1) is a sufficient good
approximation to f for the most purposes ][7],[78]. For a simple gas , Φ1 depends
only on the density , stream velocity , and temperature of the gas , so that the resulting
26
The problem arises when the continuum approximation is extended to the
transition flow regime , where the Knudsen number is close to or even greater than
physical process of the micro flow tells that as Kn > 1 , there will be significant effect
from the Knudsen layer . The Knudsen layer is a very thin layer ( about one to a few
mean free paths ) next to the wall . As Kn −→ ∞ , that is , Knudsen layer covers the
channel entirely , it will become a diffusion process and the ” slip ” velocity depended
on the shear stress on the wall will be finite. There for we look for a function of Kn
number , which should satisfy two necessary conditions . Firstly , it should be at the
same order of magnitude as Kn and ε when Kn is small. But it will approach unity
of tanh(Kn)
Indeed the study of the relation between the macroscopic and microscopic
variables[46] ( and , more generally , between the solution of the equations of the
kinetic in the phase space and the macroscopic equations in the fluid continuum ) is
27
very interesting and important . The Maxwell distribution describes a uniform state in
and
h C i = U0 + εU1 + ε2 U2 + ..............................,
in the relation
ZZZ ZZZ
hCi f dC = CfdC
we get
ZZZ
2
(U0 + εU1 + ε U2 + ....) (N0 f (0) + εf (1) + ε2 f (2) + ..)dC
ZZZ
= C(N0 f (0) + εf (1) + ε2 f (2) + ..)dC
When the coefficients of ε0 , ε1 , ε2 , ε3 , ......., from both sides of this relation are
equated a series of equations are obtained . The first three of them are
µRRR ¶
Cf0 dC
U0 = RRR ,
f0 dC
µ RRR ¶ µ RRR RRR ¶
Cf0 dC ( Cf0 dC)( f1 dC)
U1 = RRR − RRR ,
N0 f0 dC N0 ( f0 dC)2
28
They give
ZZZ ZZZ ZZZ
U0 = Cf0 dC, 1 = f0 dC, N0 U1 + N1 U0 = Cf1 dC,
ZZZ
N0 U2 + N1 U1 + N2 U0 = Cf2 dC , ect.
i = 1, and there will also be no such correspondence between the same order of the
perturbation in the distribution and the electric or magnetic field .As an illustration
of this point we compare one of the Maxwell equation in the hydrodynamic model ,
namely ,
1 ∂E 4πe
∇×H = − nu,
C0 ∂t C0
with that in the vlasov model ,
ZZZ
1 ∂E 4πe
∇×H = − n c(N f0 − f )dc,
C0 ∂t C0
In them we impose the expansions
interactions ; but in the case (b) the equations don’t have any such combinations of
29
the lower order distributions f0 , f1 , f2 . Hence we conclude that it will be improper to
identify H 3 of the two cases and obtain (a) from (b) though in both of them the same
type of solution in higher order harmonies is often assumed . In fact , this qualitative
distinction between the expansions in the two cases yields , in higher order effects ,
physical media. It is known that NT, being a phenomenological theory, is only capable
coefficients in these equations. The direct calculation of the kinetic coefficients, based
on a suitable model of interactions between the particles of the medium, is the province
of KT . The role of KT, however, dose not end there . Providing the mathematical
apparatus for calculating the coefficients of transport and relaxation, the KT developed,
for example, for rarefied gases, enables one to gauge the applicability of methods of
NT for arbitrary physical media. An especially gratifying object of study in this respect
is a rarefied gas which satisfies the condition λ ¿ L (where λ is the mean free path
of the particles, and L is the characteristic scale of the problem), for which the well
30
method [7],Grad’s method [62]) have provided the basis for verification of both the
For a long time, the formal limits on the generalization of NT were those defined
in [93, 4] , which, on the one hand, proved that the phenomenological expressions
for entropy flux and entropy production only coincide with their kinetic counterparts
other hand, proved that the Burnett equations answering the next approximation are
incompatible with the conventional form of the Onsager symmetry relations. Strictly
speaking, these arguments related to the classical formulation of NT, in which the local
At the same time, even Grad on the basis of his method of moments[2] pointed out the
state of the gas(and the non-equilibrium entropy) are determined not only by the local
The same conclusion followed also from other studies, based on the solution of the
particles with respect to velocities over the set of eigne functions of the linearized
collisions operator. In the latter case it is easy to justify the unification of the Onsager-
31
1.11.1 Boltzmann ’s local entropy production inequality:
The Boltzmann’s local entropy production inequality has the form [3, 65, 57, 100]:
Z
σ(r, t) = −KB ln f J(f, f ∗ ) dc ≥ 0,
where σ(r, t) is the entropy production .for any function f , assuming integrals
expression serves for a recalculation of the energy units into the absolute temperature
units. Moreover, equality sign takes place if ln f is a linear combination of the additive
invariants of collision.
distribution functions f0 ,
µ ¶− 32 Ã ¡−
→ − →¢2 !
ρ 2πmT −m c − u
f0 = exp . (1.53)
m KB 2KB T
−→
Local Maxwellians are parametrized by values of five scalar functions ρ , u and
The function :
Z
S[f] = −KB f ln f dc, (1.54)
32
is called the entropy density. The local H-theorem for distribution functions
independent of space states that the rate of the entropy density increase is equal to the
relaxation to the unique global Maxwellian (whose parameters are fixed by initial
conditions), and the entropy density grows monotonically along the solutions.
many estimations of the entropy growth were obtained over the past two decades. In
the case of space-dependent distribution functions, the local entropy density obeys the
For suitable boundary conditions, such as, spectrally reflecting or at the infinity, the
entropy flux gives no contribution to the equation for the total entropy,
Z
Stot = S(r, t)dr (1.58)
and its rate of changes is then equal to the nonnegative total entropy production
Z
σ tot = σ(r, t)dr (1.59)
( the global H- theorem). For more general boundary conditions which maintain the
33
this question is given by Cercignani . The local Maxwellian is also specified as the
constraints (1.16,1.17,1.22). For this reason, the local Maxwellian is also termed as the
1.12 Survey On The Boltzmann Equation and Its Solution for Rar-
efied Gas and Plasma Dynamics:
The flow between two paralleled infinite walls or concentric cylinders in relative
tangential motion is called a Couette flow. Actually, one of the motives for studying
the Couette flow, is the usefulness in studying boundary layer, it is sufficiently similar
and considerably easier to solve. In the last few decades, many investigators have
been succeeded in obtaining approximate solutions for the cylindrical Couette flow
of natural and charged rarefied gases, which are suitable for any Knudsen number.
The Couette flow problem is one of the important situations in gas dynamics, which
involve the nature of a rarefied gas flow near a solid surface. From the kinetic
viewpoint the rarefied cylindrical Couette flow has been analyzed by many authors.
One of the main method of constructing the transfer theory at arbitrary Knudsen
number consists of the use of moments obtained from Boltzmann equation. The idea
behind the method of moments consists of transforming the boundary value problems
from the ”microscopic” form to the form of equations of the continuum in which
the principle variables that define the state of the system are certain moments of the
distribution function .The motion of a rarefied gas between two coaxial cylinders one
34
that is fixed and the other rotates with constant angular velocity was studied in [88]
using the moments method for obtaining a suitable solution for any Knudsen number.
The flow of a gas between two coaxial cylinders, the inside cylinder being at rest
with temperature Ti , while the outside cylinder rotates at a constant angular velocity
cylinder rotating in a rarefied gas and a comparison with the approximate analytical
solution is made in [79]. The problem of flow over a right circular cylinder within
the framework of the kinetic theory of gases is studied in [71]. The heat transfer of
a cylindrical Couette flow of a rarefied gas with porous surfaces was investigated in
[72] in the framework of the kinetic theory of gases. Over a wide range of Knudsen
numbers it was found that the BGK solutions show good agreement with the other
numerical solutions and with the existing experimental data of density profiles and
drag coefficients for light gases such as argon and air. The free cylindrical Couette flow
of a rarefied gas with heat transfer, porous surfaces, and arbitrary reflection coefficient
was discussed in [67], solving the moment equations with convenient boundary
conditions concerning heat transfer, porosity, and reflection at the surfaces using the
small parameters method. The behavior of the velocity, density, and temperature was
predicted by Mahmoud [73], he studied steady motion of a rarefied gas between two
coaxial cylinders one is fixed and the other is rotating with angular velocity Ω. In [69]
A problem of a steady radial gas flow between two infinitely long coaxial cylinders
formulated for a nonlinear kinetic equation with a model operator of collisions was
35
studied . This problem is solved by the finite difference method. Considerable attention
is paid to the flow from the inner evaporation cylinder to the absolutely absorbent
outer one. In [43] they study the unsteady heat transfer of a monatomic gas between
two coaxial circular cylinders using the moments and perturbation methods, and they
study the problem from the standpoint of irreversible thermodynamics to estimate the
The problem of interaction between rarefied gases and the surface of the containers
in vacuum has always received a constant interest for its relevance in practical and
academic fields. The kinetic description of plane Couette flow was studied by Liu and
Less [59] using the moments method and two sided distribution function. The heat
transfer from a rarefied electron gas between two coaxial cylinders was investigated
by Khidr and Abader [75], this study revealed that, as the distance between the two
cylinders decreases the rarefaction becomes more apparent, and at any degree of
rarefaction there exists a minimum value for the density between the two cylinders.
Abdel-Gaid and Khidr [76] studied the problem of flow over a right circular cylinders
within the framework of the kinetic theory of gases under constant electric field in the
radial direction. The moments equations were solved by the small parameter method.
The obtained solutions showed that the behavior of flow speed depends on these forces
at infinity and was ineffective near the cylinder. Plane steady flow at low Mach number
in the presence of an external field was studied by Johnson and Stopford [21]. Force
strengths may be so great that the gas was highly rarefied in one region of the flow, but
36
Liu-Lees type was found to yield simple analytic expression for flow velocity and
shear stress. M. Mahmoud [77] investigate the effect of the nature of the walls on
the flow in plane channel of a rarefied system particles, considering that one of the
walls has a reflection coefficient θ1 and the other wall with reflection coefficient θ2 .
The moments method with two sided distribution function is used to solve Boltzmann
kinetic equation . The heat transfer from a rarefied electron gas between two coaxial
circular cylinders using kinetic theory concepts was studied in [75]. It is found that,
the rarefaction of the gas decreases the density at the outer cylinder, the drop in
the density increases with the increase of the ratio of the two radii of the cylinders
and the rarefaction increases the temperature of the gas at the outer cylinder, the
excess of temperature increases with the increase of radii ratio and decreases with the
rarefaction. The rarefaction increases the heat flux at the outer cylinder, the excess of
heat flux increases with the increase of the radii ratio and decreases with the increase
limit in the light of kinetic theory. He considered the case of cylindrical Couette
flows with evaporation and condensation on the basis of kinetic theory. The limiting
between two coaxial circular cylinders made of the condensed phase of the gas was
studied in[29], where each cylinder is kept at a uniform temperature and is rotating
at a constant angular velocity around its axis. The steady behavior of the gas, with
special interest in bifurcation of a flow, is studied on the basis of kinetic theory from
the continuum to the Knudsen limit. The solution showed profound variety,especially
37
bifurcation of flow was seen even in the simple case where the state of the gas is
circumferentially and axially uniform. The time-independent behavior of the gas was
investigated analytically in [92] with special interest in bifurcation of the flow, when
the speed of rotation of the cylinders and Knudsen number were small. Bifurcation
of solution occurs when the Knudsen number Kn is of the second order or higher of
the simple case where the flow field is axially symmetric and uniform. The solution
form. When m ≥ 3, the solutions are classified into two types, according to the order
of the magnitude of the radial flow velocity compared with the speed of rotation of
the cylinders. The relation between the non-equilibrium thermodynamics and kinetic
method and Burnett approximation and the boundary conditions including the slip and
jump effects are derived for slightly rarefied gases. An application to the transport
processes in discontinuous systems and gas flows over solid bodies is also made.
38
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