Computers in

Human Behavior
Computers in Human Behavior 21 (2005) 861–872
www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

Computer literacy across the lifespan: a

review with implications for educators
Timothy A. Poynton *

Department of Developmental Studies and Counseling, Poynton, Two Sherborn Street, Boston, MA, USA
Available online 2 April 2004

Abstract

The ability of an individual to interact with a computer, referred to as computer literacy,

has been receiving increasing attention in the research literature. However, there appear to be
no reviews of the empirical research regarding computer literacy to date. The present article
summarizes past and current empirical studies regarding computer literacy that have impli-
cations for educators of students of any age, organized by the developmental domains of
childhood, young and middle adulthood, and older adulthood.
Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Computer literacy; Literature review; Computer training; Human–computer interaction

1. Introduction

As society moves into the 21st century, the technology that is available on a
widespread basis via a personal computer and the Internet is changing how people
live – from doing business to social interactions – in a very profound way. In fact, the
United States Census Bureau (2001) reports that in the year 2000, 51% of households
across the United States had a personal computer; of those, 41% were connected to
the Internet. When the 2000 census figures are compared to the 1997 census figures,
the percentage of households with a personal computer increased by 14%, and the
percentage of personal computers with Internet access increased by 24%. The

*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tpoynton@bu.edu (T.A. Poynton).

0747-5632/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.chb.2004.03.004
862 T.A. Poynton / Computers in Human Behavior 21 (2005) 861–872

computer today is doing to information what the printing press did many years ago –
increasing the ease with which information can be reproduced and disseminated. Just
as one needs to have reading literacy to benefit from the information made available
by the printing press, one must have computer literacy to benefit from the infor-
mation made available by the personal computer.
According to a dictionary printed nearly two decades ago (Webster’s New World
Dictionary, 1984), literacy is solely defined as ‘‘the ability to read and write.’’ A more
recent dictionary (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,
2000) additionally defines literacy as ‘‘The condition or quality of being knowl-
edgeable in a particular subject or field.’’ This change in the very definition of the
word is an indicator of the increasing diversity of concepts the term ‘‘literacy’’ has
come to represent. In fact, the impact of changing technologies on literacy devel-
opment in language arts education has led Bruce and Levin to assert that a re-
conception of language arts may be called for to ‘‘. . .envision the emergence of a set
of flexible media. . .’’ (Bruce & Levin, 2000, p. 650), and propose a four-part tax-
onomy to promote the inclusion of computers and technology in the language arts
curriculum. Kinzer and Leander (2000) also advocate for expanding traditional
definitions of literacy, citing ‘‘societal demands and perceptions of workforce
needs. . .’’ as the primary reasons for the inclusion of technology in literacy devel-
opment curricula, and that ‘‘definitions of literacy must move beyond being located
only in paper-printed media’’ (p. 548).
The topic of computer literacy – defined by Tsai (2002) as ‘‘the basic knowledge,
skills, and attitudes needed by all citizens to be able to deal with computer tech-
nology in their daily life’’ (p. 69) – is receiving increased attention, most clearly
evidenced by the empirical and applied research on the topic. To summarize the
effects of computer literacy across the lifespan, a developmental perspective will be
employed to describe the academic, social, and psychological benefits associated with
being computer literate. Paralleling the human development literature in general, the
research regarding computer literacy in childhood is more voluminous than research
on adult computer literacy.

2. Childhood (Kindergarten through 12th grade)

The incorporation of computer literacy development, implicitly and explicitly,

into the school curricula is evidence of the need for children to develop computer
skills and a general familiarity with technology (International Technology Education
Association, 1996). The term ‘‘cyberkid’’ has arisen as a description of the school-age
child in the 21st century – however, there is also concern that children who do not
have access to computers either in the home or at school will develop ‘‘information
poverty’’ (Facer & Furlong, 2001). Children in environments that do not promote
the use of computers can promote inequalities with cumulative effects over time,
further marginalizing the same children who are also often disadvantaged by so-
cioeconomic status and other risk factors related to reading and writing literacy. For
example, there is evidence to suggest that ‘‘computer phobia’’ and generalized
 T.A. Poynton / Computers in Human Behavior 21 (2005) 861–872 863

anxiety about using computers have their roots in early childhood experiences
(Gardner, Dukes, & Discenza, 1993), and that the additive effects of home and
school computer use produce high levels of computer self-confidence (Levine &
Donitsa-Schmidt, 1997). Schools are in a position to provide corrective experiences
for students to increase equity and self-confidence, and reduce anxiety via access and
exposure to computers.
Formal and informal opportunities to interact with computers are as critical to
the early development of computer literacy as they are to reading and writing lit-
eracy. Similar to familiarizing young children with the skills to navigate a book, a
developmentally appropriate method for teaching children how to navigate a key-
board can be helpful in making the use of a computer more comfortable. In a novel
approach to introduce bilingual education kindergartners to the keyboard, Kajs,
Alaniz, Willman, and Sifuentes (1998) describe one teacher’s color-coding scheme to
facilitate the use of non-numbered and lettered keys (for example, the shift key had a
red dot, and the return key had a blue dot) on the keyboard. This color-coding
scheme provides a computer keyboard that is more developmentally appropriate by
linking familiar colors with the unfamiliar computer keyboard. This allowed the
students to spend less time working on the mechanics of operating the computer and
more time engaged in learning activities and writing.
In addition to structuring the environment in a developmentally appropriate way,
Ruckman, Burts, and Pierce (1999) highlight the need for the content of computer-
based literacy programs – which influence both reading and computer literacy – to be
developmentally appropriate for children. In a study of 50 first-grade children par-
ticipating in a computer-based reading literacy program, Ruckman et al. (1999)
observed that children exhibited more stress when engaged in reading activities be-
low their developmental level than those who were engaged in more developmentally
appropriate activities. Similarly, in a comparison of electronic and regular book
formats, Dutch kindergartners with more reading skills spent more time reading the
actual text of an electronic book than children with lower reading skills (de Jong &
Bus, 2002). Overall, children who read regular books paid much more attention to
the text than children who read electronic formats, where more of the children’s
attention was focused on illustrations and animations. These findings indicate that
electronic books can be supplemental to regular books, but are not currently an
adequate replacement for them.
Computer-assisted instruction is becoming an increasingly popular vehicle for
providing young children with emergent literacy skills for reading. In a study inves-
tigating the critical emergent literacy skills (phonemic awareness, letter knowledge,
vocabulary knowledge, and invented spelling) of disadvantaged kindergartners,
Hecht and Close (2002) found that children who spent more time with a computer
program designed to increase emergent literacy skills increased those skills. Specifi-
cally, the amount of time children spent using the computer program was positively
and significantly related to most of the measures of emergent literacy skills. While the
authors did not discuss computer literacy specifically in their study, the present re-
search on the deleterious effects of poor computer literacy skills in young children –
particularly the socioeconomically disadvantaged – may explain why children who
864 T.A. Poynton / Computers in Human Behavior 21 (2005) 861–872

did not show substantial gains in emergent literacy skills, labeled ‘‘treatment resis-
tors’’ by the authors, spent less time using the computer-assisted instruction.
As children progress through early childhood into middle childhood and late
adolescence, the effects of socialization become observable and measurable as gender
differences across several domains. Regarding computer literacy in particular, gender
differences have been attributed to a wide variety of factors, such as differential
access to computers (Campbell, 1989; Levin & Gordon, 1989; Ogletree & Williams,
1990), a limited number of gender-sensitive computer games (Miller, Chiaka, &
Groppe, 1996), few role models, underlying differences in the way children learn to
use and interact with computers, and general social expectations (Miller, Schwe-
ingruber, & Brandenburg, 2001).
The perception that boys and girls are different with regard to computer use has
been perpetuated by several factors. In an experiment to determine if computer
programmers would develop different computer software based on the gender of the
intended target audience, Huff and Cooper (1987) asked several software designers to
create educational software for either seventh-grade boys, seventh-grade girls, or
seventh-grade students. The researchers found that the software the programmers
developed differed in both form and function by the gender of the intended target
audience, with game-like programs for the ‘‘boy’’ and ‘‘student’’ groups, and pro-
grams that were more like learning tools for the ‘‘girl’’ group. However, the differ-
ences in the software developed by these computer programmers may not simply
reflect the bias of the programmers. In one study, fourth-grade students were asked
to develop computer programs to teach third-grade students fractions (Kafai, 1995).
The results indicated that boys preferred to develop games that provided dramatic
feedback (for example, starting the game over for a wrong answer), and to play
games that were action-oriented, while the girls preferred to develop games that
provided less dramatic feedback (for example, not receiving a reward for a wrong
answer).
Individual differences in how people interact with computers and technology are
an important aspect to consider when examining human–computer interactions
(Turkle, 1984). Viewing gender as an individual difference variable proposes that
children differ qualitatively by gender in their interactions with computers, a view
supported by the work of Brunner and her colleagues (Brunner, 1997; Brunner &
Bennett, 1997, 1998) which asserts that gender plays a critical role in how the use-
fulness of the computer is perceived. Specifically, they found that females tend to
view the computer as a tool to achieve social ends, while males tend to view the
computer as the end itself. Similarly, a study of Taiwanese eighth-graders enrolled in
a computer literacy course found that males and females significantly differed in
terms of achievement based on their preference for the learning context. Specifically,
boys performed better in a cooperative learning context where group work was
highly encouraged, and girls performed better in a strategic learning context where
metacognitive skills were embedded in the traditional curriculum (Tsai, 2002).
With the relatively recent growth in the widespread use of the computer as a social
tool for people of all ages (email and chat programs), earlier research that portrayed
significant gender gaps may not hold true today. The combination of increased
 T.A. Poynton / Computers in Human Behavior 21 (2005) 861–872 865

access to computers and the sheer presence of computers in children’s everyday lives
may be changing the cultural view of technology, and closing the gender gap in
computer literacy. In a study comparing incoming college freshman in 1989/1990,
and 1997, Schumacher and Morahan-Martin (2001) report that gender differences in
general computer use had significantly diminished over the eight-year period, but
gender differences in discomfort and competence remained.
Additional evidence that the gender gap in computer literacy is closing is provided
by Miller et al. (2001), who found no significant gender differences in their survey of
middle-school students computer skills, computer skill acquisition, Internet use, use
of the computer to play games, and access to computers in school and at home.
Where the researchers did find gender differences supports the idea that the tech-
nology is evolving to be more closely aligned with stereotypically feminine qualities.
For example, gender differences were found for the type of computer use, with girls
using computers more than boys for homework assignments and email, and boys
using computers more than girls for simulation experiences. When choosing web
sites to visit, girls followed the recommendations of teachers more often than boys
did. Girls also rated their ‘‘Internet expertise’’ significantly higher than boys, which
was also significantly correlated with liking to use the computer. Another finding of
this study, while not its focus, was that economically advantaged and disadvantaged
schools were very similar in terms of self-reported basic computer use (97% and
100%, respectively).
In a study to test the plausibility of a causal model underlying computer literacy,
Levine and Donitsa-Schmidt (1997) propose that computer experience is linked to
computer-related attitudes, computer-related confidence, and computer-related
knowledge, based on Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) theory of reasoned action. The
theory of reasoned action, a well-studied area in the field of social psychology, as-
serts that beliefs influence attitudes, which in turn influence behavioral intentions
and result in actual behaviors. After a behavior is executed, a feedback loop is ini-
tiated, and the process begins again with the behavior modifying beliefs. Applied to
computer literacy, the authors provide evidence for a four-factor causal model, with
computer use predicting both computer confidence and computer attitudes, which in
turn simultaneously influence each other, and are predictive of computer knowledge.
The study, which contained more than 300 students in grades seven through twelve
and structural equation modeling statistical analysis techniques, provides a theo-
retical framework for understanding the development of computer literacy at the
individual level.
While children’s exposure to computers is important to the development of
computer literacy, limits need to be set on the amount of time children spend with
computers. A review of the literature by Subrahmanyam, Kraut, Greenfield, and
Gross (2000) highlights the positive and negative effects of computer use on chil-
dren’s activities, and their physical, cognitive, and social development. The negative
effects associated with computer use tend to be from overuse – for example, hand
injuries, a risk for obesity, a risk of social isolation and depression – and from ex-
posure to inappropriate/violent content, similar to the effects of television. The po-
sitive effects of computer use are most clearly evidenced in the cognitive domain.
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Subrahmanyam et al. (2000) summarize the results of several studies that reported
improvements in spatial skills, image representation skills, and visual attention skills.
The authors also present evidence that home computer use, after controlling for
socioeconomic status and parental education level, is positively associated with
academic performance.

3. Young and middle adulthood

The effects of low levels of computer literacy also have serious, potentially lifelong
consequences for younger adults. The widespread use of computer-based tests (CBT)
to conduct surveys, evaluate job performance and readiness, and evaluate students
often do not consider the possible effect low computer literacy can have on the va-
lidity of the test. For example, the Graduate Record Exam (GRE) has been ad-
ministered as a computer-adaptive test (CAT) since 1992 by the Educational Testing
Service (ETS), and replaced the traditional paper-and-pencil version of the test in
1999. While the ETS conducted many experiments to ensure the two versions of the
test were comparable with each other, the possible effect of computer literacy was not
considered.
Goldberg and Pedulla (2002) conducted an experiment to further investigate
differences between the paper-and-pencil and CBT versions of the GRE, which in-
cluded analyses to investigate the effect of computer familiarity. In addition to
finding that students who took the paper-and-pencil version of the test scored sig-
nificantly higher in all three subtests (analytical, quantitative, and verbal), computer
familiarity was significantly related to higher scores for both paper-and-pencil and
CBT versions of the quantitative and analytic subtests. A statistically significant
interaction between test mode and computer familiarity also emerged, indicating that
being computer literate leads to higher scores on the quantitative subtest for those
who took the CBT version of the test.
In the planning phases of implementing a computer-based version of the Test of
English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), Taylor, Kirsch, Eignor, and Jamieson
(1999) administered a computer familiarity measure to nearly 100,000 TOEFL test
takers to investigate the relationship between computer familiarity and TOEFL
scores. A group of 1200 ‘‘high-computer-familiar’’ and ‘‘low-computer-familiar’’
subjects were selected from the sample, based on their computer experience, for
participation in the study. The results of their research indicate that a positive re-
lationship exists between computer familiarity and TOEFL test scores, with low
computer familiarity associated with low TOEFL scores, and high familiarity as-
sociated with high TOEFL scores. However, the authors also present evidence that a
computer-based tutorial in how to use TOEFL CBT is effective in removing the
negative effect of computer familiarity on TOEFL scores.
The construct of computer self-efficacy, based on Bandura’s (1986) social learning
theory, is an individual’s belief in his or her own ability to use a computer (Compeau
& Higgins, 1995). Computer self-efficacy has significant implications for the devel-
opment of computer literacy in adults, and there is evidence that explicit training in
 T.A. Poynton / Computers in Human Behavior 21 (2005) 861–872 867

computer use improves both computer self-efficacy, in particular, and computer

literacy more generally (for a review of computer self-efficacy, see Marakas, Yi, &
Johnson, 1998). Furthermore, with Internet access and computer use becoming
much more common, Torkzadeh and Van Dyke (2002) suggest that the construct of
computer self-efficacy is too broad, and assert that a better understanding of com-
puter self-efficacy can be derived by using separate measures for computer self-effi-
cacy, or general computer use, and Internet self-efficacy, or the use of the computer
specifically to access the Internet.
The computer literacy of adults also appears to be related to computer anxiety,
which is characterized by an ‘‘aversion, fear or apprehension towards interacting
with computers or thinking about computers’’ that also may be accompanied by
physiological symptoms and a negative internal dialogue (Beckers & Smith, 2001, p.
35). After a review of the factor models of computer anxiety present in the literature,
Beckers and Smith (2001) utilized a sample of 184 Dutch university students to test a
six-factor model of computer anxiety based on the interactive elements of computer
literacy, computer self-efficacy, physical arousal when interacting with computers,
affective feelings towards computers, and beliefs about computers. The results of
their structural equation analyses indicate that computer literacy: (1) is related to
computer self-efficacy; (2) has a strong negative influence on an individual’s physical
arousal when confronted with computers, which in turn influences negative beliefs
about computers; and (3) has a positive influence on affective feelings towards
computers, which in turn influences positive beliefs about computers.

4. Older adulthood

Developing the computer literacy of children ostensibly will lead to lifelong

benefits by giving children the skills to utilize current technology, and adapt to new
technologies as they emerge. Older adults, for whom computers and the Internet
were not a part of their child and early adult development, are at a disadvantage in
contemporary society in terms of access to electronic communication and online
information (Anderson, Bikson, Law, & Mitchell, 1995) and have even higher risks
of developing information poverty than children do. Children and younger adults
have implicit opportunities for computer literacy development in their schools and
places of employment, while older adults often require explicit training and in-
struction to develop their computer literacy skills.
To facilitate the acquisition of computer literacy skills in older adults, several
factors unique to older adult development need to be considered when designing
training programs and instructional materials. Echt, Morrell, and Park (1998) assert
that cognitive and perceptual-motor changes in older adulthood affect computer
literacy development in older adults. In their experiment of ‘‘young-old adults’’ (ages
60–74) and ‘‘old-old adults’’ (ages 75–89), old-old adults performed more poorly
overall than young-old adults in the acquisition of basic computer skills, but did not
differ significantly in their retention of computer skills, where both groups showed
losses over time.
868 T.A. Poynton / Computers in Human Behavior 21 (2005) 861–872

Goal setting, computer anxiety, and computer self-efficacy are also important
aspects of computer literacy training for older adults. Hollis-Sawyer and Sterns
(1999) found that older adults performed significantly better when training was
guided by self-directed, goal-specific tasks than when more general feedback was
employed. In an experiment to test another training program teaching older adults in
independent and assisted living facilities how to use the Internet and email, Cody,
Dunn, Hopin, and Wendt (1999) found that withdrawal from a four-month training
program was related to computer anxiety and computer efficacy (similar to adult
models), and attitude toward aging. For participants who remained in the training
program, feelings of increased social support and connectivity, and lower levels of
computer anxiety were reported.
Computer interest – a precursor to computer literacy – is another factor impor-
tant in the development of older adult computer literacy. Ellis and Allaire (1999)
tested the value of a model predicting computer interest from age, education,
computer knowledge, and computer anxiety in a sample of older adults, and found
that age alone significantly predicts computer interest, and that computer anxiety
mediates the effect of computer knowledge on computer interest.
The rapid rise of the personal computer and wealth of electronic information have
led to the need for people to develop a new set of skills – termed computer literacy –
to effectively participate in contemporary society. Education is the key to increasing
all kinds of literacy, and teachers of all age levels have and will continue to play a
critical role in literacy development. Computer literacy, while similar in many re-
gards to other types of literacy, is unique, and merits educators’ attention as an
important set of skills that can influence the course of their students’ lives by pro-
viding them with the ability to use current technologies and prepare them to learn
emerging technologies. Electronic information and communication are and will
continue to be critical to society as vehicles for the transmission of interpersonal and
professional communication, and cultural values. When coupled with more tradi-
tional forms of literacy, computer literacy enables individuals to actively participate
in the context in which they live, and when compared to traditional forms of literacy,
is equally important.

5. Implications for educators

This review of the literature regarding the development of computer literacy

across the lifespan provides insight into the implications of being computer literate.
For each domain of development, unique contributions to the teaching, learning,
and overall development of computer literacy skills can be drawn from the literature,
and applied to educational settings. However, computer anxiety, which appears as a
central factor in the reviewed models of computer literacy across all domains of
development, deserves special attention.
To address the effect of computer anxiety on computer literacy development,
educators need to include assessments of their audience’s affective reactions to
computers, and develop instructional methods and materials that can decrease
 T.A. Poynton / Computers in Human Behavior 21 (2005) 861–872 869

computer anxiety and other emotional responses to computer use, thereby increasing
each individual’s capacity for participation in the instruction. If an individual’s
computer anxiety is severe, psychological counseling may be necessary, and attempts
to expose them to computers without first addressing the underlying fears may in-
crease their computer anxiety, and reduce their chances of participating in computer
literacy development programs in the future.

6. PreK-12 education

Computer literacy for young children can usefully be viewed in the same light as
reading and writing literacy, and should be granted the same importance. Schooling
in early childhood often serves to ‘‘level the playing field’’ for differences in children’s
cognitive, social, and academic development. Additional contact time with com-
puters and formal instruction need to be provided for children with low computer
literacy levels. In addition to adapting computer software to children’s develop-
mental levels, the hardware and user interface of the computer should be modified
and made appropriate to the individual child’s developmental level, with gradual,
successive approximations made to the ‘‘normal’’ computer over time.
Children’s emergent literacy skills can be positively influenced by computer-
assisted instruction if the child’s level of development and affective reactions are
closely monitored. The goal of computer use in developing emergent literacy skills is
not to replace books and traditional printed materials, but to supplement other
modes of instruction and text presentation. Instruction provided via computers as
part of the regular curriculum can effectively increase emergent literacy skills, but
needs to be closely monitored to ensure that learning objectives are not hindered by
low levels of computer literacy.
Educators of children are also in a position to provide timely and useful in-
formation to parents regarding children’s interactions with computers, and com-
puter literacy development. In addition to warning parents about the negative
effects of computer overuse, educators can provide them with computer literacy
skills and information regarding particular software purchases for their children.
The Entertainment Software Review Board (ESRB) currently provides ratings for
software and video games to guide parental selections. While the ESRB’s ratings
are useful for determining the general appropriateness of software titles, the vari-
ability of software within categories can be quite high, and the categories are de-
termined by the potential level of harm, instead of the potential benefits of the
software. By talking with parents about children’s software, educators can provide
information regarding developmental appropriateness and alignment with the
curriculum. Furthermore, educators can pool the information they gather from
parents about good software titles and websites, and disseminate the information
school-wide. School counselors and psychologists, who have received graduate
training in children’s social, emotional, and cognitive development, can also criti-
cally review and evaluate software to ensure appropriateness while assessing po-
tential psychological costs and benefits.
870 T.A. Poynton / Computers in Human Behavior 21 (2005) 861–872

7. Higher education

Colleges and universities are charged with preparing students for professional
positions across all disciplines, and have a responsibility to develop computer lit-
eracy in their students to provide the skills necessary for employability and lifelong
learning. Many schools offer basic computer courses to build computer literacy
skills, but the implicit opportunities available through widespread computer and
Internet access, and courses across disciplines which include the use of computers,
also develop computer literacy skills in college students in perhaps more meaningful
ways. Higher education administrators can ensure computer literacy skills are being
developed by requiring courses in basic computing, and ensuring that computer use
is embedded in the curriculum. Professors have many opportunities to integrate
computer literacy development into their courses. For example, guided exploration
of the Internet, requiring that assignments be turned in electronically, requiring that
presentations be provided via an electronic slideshow, and providing elements of
instruction through a web-based format all promote the development of computer
literacy skills without regard to the academic discipline being formally taught.

8. Older adult educators

The provision of computer literacy skills to older adults presents a challenge to

educators of older adults because the opportunities for the integration of computer
use into daily life are much more difficult than they are for children, college students,
and working adults. However, formal and informal opportunities do exist for
computer literacy development. The use of the computer as a communication tool
provides an opportunity for older adults to correspond with relatives who are near
or far in an increasingly popular medium. In addition, opportunities for intergen-
erational learning exist, with children and grandchildren teaching older adults how
to use computers. Older adult educators also need to be cognizant of the effects of
aging on older adults, and should educate themselves on the adaptive equipment that
is available for people with disabilities to provide each individual with the necessary
adaptations to effectively participate in instruction, and interact with computers.

Acknowledgements

My thanks are due to Professor Roselmina Indrisano for her guidance in devel-
oping the topic and sharing her expertise in the field of literacy development, and to
Professor Carolyn Brennan Haines for her feedback, support, and guidance.

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