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REFERENCES
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Journal of Interdisciplinary History
Richard Grassby
I Theodore K. Rabb and Jonathan Brown "Introduction," in Rabb and Robert I. Rotberg
(eds.), Art and History: Images and Their Meaning (New York, 1988), 5; Ernest Gellner,
"Knowledge of Nature," in Mihulas Teich, Roy Porter, and Bo Gustafsson (eds.), Nature and
Society in Historical Context (Cambridge, I997), I6.
2 Christopher Y. Tilley, Metaphor and Material Culture (Oxford, 1999), 7; Deirdre N.
McCloskey, The Rhetoric of Economics (Madison, 1998; orig. pub. 1985), 19; Jacques Le Goff,
(trans. Steven Rendall and Elizabeth Claman), History and Memory (New York, 1992), 121;
Roger Chartier (trans. Lydia G. Cochrane), Cultural History: Between Practices and Representa-
tions, (Ithaca, 1988), 96.
12 Tilley, "On Modernity and Archaeological Discourse," in Ian Bapty and Tim Yates
(eds.), Archaeology after Structuralism: Post-Structuralism and the Practice of Archaeology (London,
1990), 15I; Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York, 1973), 44. One attempt
to reconstruct the performances of a culture is Donna Merwick, Possessing Albany, 163o-1710o:
The Dutch and English Experiences (Cambridge, 1990), 3. Ian Hodder, Reading the Past: Current
Approaches to Interpretation in Archaeology (New York, I99I; orig. pub. I986), 3, 6.
13 Peter Stallybrass, "Worn Worlds," in Margreta de Grazia, Maureen Quilligan, and idem
(eds.), Subject and Object in Renaissance Culture (New York, 1996), 3; Colin Campbell, "The
Meaning of Objects," Journal of Material Culture, I (1996), 94-97; Mark Csikszentmihalyi,
"Why We Need Things," in Lubar and Kingery (eds.), History from Things, 28.
modern England was not just the voluntary pursuit of objects but a
compulsory social activity, vulnerable to changes in perception
and fashion, in which the manner was as vital as the fact of posses-
sion. The display of possessions has always demonstrated new
status, protected the existing hierarchy within and between
groups, and announced social standing and allegiance. Group
identity involves consumption and display. Elites strive to corner
the market in certain cultural products. Possessions may belong
initially to individuals, but in the long run, they can be accumu-
lated only by families or institutions.14
To economic determinists, material culture is created and
defined by the market. As Sahlins argued, the "differentiation of
symbolic value is mystified as the appropriation of exchange-
value." To traditional Marxists and to critical theorists, capitalism's
pecuniary culture and bourgeois society were based on the ex-
change of commodities for profit, more like fetishes than genuine
human needs. Some argue that in early modern England, capital-
ism incorporated culture into economics as a formal rationality;
culture became a commodity produced, distributed, and con-
sumed like other goods. Once individuals were no longer eco-
nomically self-sufficient, they measured their worth by what they
possessed. English paintings and printed works have been inter-
preted as metaphorical as well as literal representations of the
market. Indeed, the market in academic discourse has become
a metaphor of practices that cannot be felt or located with pre-
cision."5
Cultural historians have a reverse perspective; lifestyles and
14 Pierre Bourdieu (trans. Richard Nice), Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of
Taste (Cambridge, Mass. 1984), xiii, 96, 229, 483; Mary Douglas and Baron Isherwood, The
World of Goods: Towards an Anthropology of Consumption (New York, 1996; orig. pub. 1979), 4-
5, 73.
15 Marshall D. Sahlins, Culture and Practical Reason (Chicago, 1976), 213; Nigel Thrift,
"Owner's Time and Our Time," in Allan Pred (ed.), Space and Time in Geography: Essays
Dedicated to Torsten Hiigerstrand (Lund, 1981), 56; John Brewer and Anne Bermingham, "In-
troduction," in idem (eds.), The Consumption of Culture 16oo-18oo: Image, Object, Text (New
York, 1995), 14; Ben Fine and Ellen Leopold, The World of Consumption (London, 1993), 68;
Elizabeth A. Honig, Painting and The Market in Early Modern Antwerp (New Haven, 1999), I8;
Chartier (trans. Cochrane), "Introduction," in idem, The Culture of Print: Power and the Uses of
Print in Early Modern Europe (Princeton, 1989), 9; Theodore B. Leinwand, Theater, Finance and
Society in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1999), 5; Igor Kopytoff, "The Cultural Biogra-
phy of Things," in Arjun Appadurai (ed.), The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural
Perspective (Cambridge, 1986), 72-73.
16 Stephen Mennell, All Manner of Food: Eating and Taste in England (Urb
Kevin Walsh, "The Post-Modern Threat to the Past," in Bapty and Yates (eds.),
after Structuralism, 285. Marcia R. Pointon, Strategies for Showing: Women, Posses
sentation in English Visual Culture, 1665-18oo (Oxford, 1997), 53; Chandra
Graven Images: Patterns of Modern Materialism (New York, I983), 13; Edmund
ture and Communication: The Logic by Which Symbols Are Connected: An Introduct
Structuralist Analysis in Social Anthropology (New York, 1976), 55. Eric K. Silverm
Geertz," in Tilley (ed.), Reading Material Culture: Structuralism, Hermeneu
Structuralism (London, 1990), 126.
17 Svetlana Alpers, The Art of Describing: Dutch Art in the Seventeenth Century (Chicago,
1983), 233; Christopher Dyer, Standards of Living in the Later Middle Ages: Social Change in Eng-
land, c. 1200-1520 (Cambridge, 1989), 207; Krzystof Pomian, Collectionneurs, amateurs et
curieux. Paris, Venise XVIe-XVIIIe siecle (Paris, 1987), 16; Donald Preziosi, "The Question of
Art History," in James Chandler, Arnold I. Davidson, and Harry Harootunian (eds.), Ques-
tions of Evidence: Proof, Practice, and Persuasion across the Disciplines (Chicago, 1994), 221; Ivor
Noel Hume, "Material Culture with the Dirt on It," in Ian M. Quimby (ed.), Material Culture
and the Study of American Life (New York, 1978), 38-39.
18 The best guide to the strengths and weaknesses of English inventories is Vaisey, "Intro-
duction," in idem (ed.), Probate Inventories of Litchfield and District 1568-168o (Stafford, 1969).
See also Lorna Weatherill, "Probate Inventories and Consumer Behaviour in England, 1660-
1740," in Geoffrey H. Martin and Peter Spufford (eds.), The Records of the Nation (London,
1990), 268; Nancy C. Cox, "Objects of Worth," Material History Review, XXXIX (1994), 33.
21 Ludmilla J. Jordanova, "The Representation of the Family," in Joan H. Pittoch and An-
drew Wear (eds.), Interpretation and Cultural History (New York, 1991), 115; Wayne Craven,
Colonial American Portraiture: The Economic, Religious, Social, Cultural, Philosophical, Scientific,
and Aesthetic Foundations (New York, 1986), 43. Lillian B. Miller, "The Puritan Portrait, Its
Function in Old and New England," in David D. Hall and David G. Allen (eds.), Seventeenth
Century New England (Boston, 1984), 171; Susan E. Strickler, "Recent Findings on the Freake
Portraits," Journal of the Worcester Art Museum, V (1981), 49-55.
22 Ann S. Martin and J. Ritchie Garnison, "Introduction," in idem (eds.), American Material
Culture: The Shape of the Field (Knoxville, 1997); Eric J. Hobsbawm, On History (London,
1997), 11o; McCloskey, "Economics as a Historical Science," in William N. Parker (ed.), Eco-
nomic History and the Modern Economist (Oxford, 1986), 66; Frances Borzello and A. L. Rees
(eds.), The New Art History (London, 1986), 35. The extract is from James R. Siemon, "Land-
lord Not King: Agrarian Change and Interarticulation," in Richard Burt and John M. Archer
(eds.), Enclosure Acts, Sexuality, Property and Culture in Early Modern England (London, 1994),
29. Edward E. Evans-Pritchard, Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande (Oxford, 1937),
169.
23 Thomas, "Ways of Doing Cultural History," in Rik Sanders et al. (eds.), Balans en
Perspectief van de Nederlandse cultuurgeschiedenis (Amsterdam, 1991), 77; Richard Pares (ed.
Robert A. and Elizabeth Humphreys), The Historian's Business and Other Essays (Oxford,
1961), 23; Burke, "Fable of the Bees," in Teich, Porter, and Gustafsson (eds.), Nature and Soci-
ety, 114.
24 Donny L. Hamilton, "Simon Benning," in Little (ed.), Text-Aided Archaeology, 39-53;
Paul A. Shackel, "Probate Inventories," ibid., 207; Peter J. Davey, "The Post-Medieval
Period," in John Schofield and Roger Leech (eds.), Urban Archaeology in Britain (London,
1987), 78.