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Glass is an amorphous solid material, The term glass is usually defined in a much wider sense, including every solid that posses & nonerystalline structure and that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state ‘A glass is an inorganic substance, hard, brittle, amorphous mixture of silicate of calcium, sodium or other metal. It has no definite composition. The major ingredients are silica, soda ash, limestone. The other ingredients are borax, potash, ltharge fluorspar, zine oxide, barium carbonate, The glass may be colourless, coloured, transparent or opaque. Glasses are ceramic materials that are rigid like solids but they are not crystallin, Glass may be considered as super cooled liquid of infinitely high viscosity. Glass is made by melting one or more oxides in a furnace. The liquid glass is cooled until it is thick caough to mould and than shaped and cooled futher slowly (annealing) until i sets fo 2 solid mass. Mostly glass is made from silica ‘mixed with other oxides that melt at a lower temperature, Soda lime glass is used for water glass. Lead glass is “used for decorative cut glassware, Borosilicate glass is used to make ovenware and laboratory glassware. Glass is not a single compound. It is difficult tO write any chemical formula for Generally the formula for glass may be represented as: xR,0-yMO.6Si02 where R= alli metal (Ne, K eto) M = bivalent metal (Ca, Pb ete.) x and y = number of molecules (a) Transparent (usually) amorphous solid. ‘ (b) Vitvfies easily, but devitrfies by formation of crystals under suitable conditions. On long standing or very slow cooling, During annealing some of metallic silicates cxystallise out, / LS (c) Bad conductor of heat and electricity. (@) No fixed melting point. (©) Hard and brittle. (®) Sufficiently high viscosity. (g) Can incorporate colouring material, preserving transparency (@) Not attacked by air, water, oxidising agents, acids. (b) Ordinary glass is readily attacked by alkalies. (6) Glass is resistant to acids (Hydrofluoric acid, HF is exception, which dissolves with glass) 1Na,0.Si0, + 6HF ——> 2NaF + SiF, + 3H,0 Ca0.Si0, + 6HF ——> CaF, + SiF, + 3H,0 (d) Ordinary glass is alkaline in nature. The raw material employed in the manufacture of glass are: 1. Chief Raw Materials (a) Glass Grade Sand: Quartz in the form of fine particles containing no or negligible iron oxide, is used as a source of silica (SiO,). The iron impart colour to the glass. (b) Soda ash (Na;CO;): It is used as a source of NaxO to prepare soft glass, Other sources of Na,O are salt cake and sodium nitrate, Soda ash is usefull in oxidi and it accelerates the melting of glass. 2. Speciality Materials (2) Borie oxide (B,0;) Incfeases the hardness or reftactory characters of glass and lowers expansion co-efficient (b) Zinc oxide(ZnO)- For heat and shock proof glass (c) Calcium compouinds (CaO)-Lime stone, powdered calcite (@) Red lead (Pb30,)-For funiglass (c) Potassium compounds- Potassium carbonate (K3CO) (for hard glass) 3, Fusibility Materials Cullets or broken glass pieces. ‘ PIPPPPPPRESSEIIDISILS. a: 4. Colouring Agents Following materials are added in small quantities to give a definite colour or to neutralise an undesired colour. Table 7.1 Material ES Ferric salt Yellow Ferrous and chromium salt Green Cobalt salt Blue Manganese dioxide Purple Nickle Salts or cuprous oxide _| Red Selenium cerrium oxide, Decofouring agent neadynium oxide Four stages manufacturing are: eS eo » Fo a = = me = hae = = = i 3 a we e eS we ce Cs Melting Forming and shaping ¥ “Annealing, 1. Melting The melting of raw materials is carried out either in pot furnace and tank furnace. Pot Furnace ‘Pot furnaces are employed principally in the manufacturing of optical glass, special glass, imber of different made of fine quality bf glass. The raw material (batch) is melted in pots. A nut types of glass ¢re handled and melted at one and the same type. The pots are high alumina cl Ibs 5 RE UNI ce HEN Ti (i) Regenerative Type: This type of furnace utilise the heat of waste gases for heating the incoming fuel, gas and air used for heating. Thus flame of greater intensity is created. (ii) Recuperative Type: This type of furnace has two sets of passages. In one set of passage ((ittle type) gas flows in one direction. In another set of passage air flows and is heated as it goes to furnace. <———— Waste Gases Regeneration —— jr and Gas Checker work ‘Valve which connects the regenerator to chimney or to the incoming Air and Gas (in turns) () () Seem Round and the tubes air \\_ nioves up and the passage Ny” of air is made zig-zag by having partitions as shown in the above figure \ (eal ‘Tubes through which cumamly Waste gases go down © Figure 7.3 (a) Recuperator, (b) Regenerator, (¢) Cross section of Recuperator b) Tank Furnace ‘They/are large rectangular tank built of refractory bricks. They ate principally employed \\ for large scale production of sheet glass, bottle glass and other common glasses. In these “furnaces, stirring is not possible and glass melt is not completely protected from combustion impurities. lt aeeeeeeenenenenemmnmesssices Process: Fee The raw materials (NajCOs, lime and sand) in proper portion with cullets own as batch) is finely powdered. The mixture is then melted in the tanks. " A high temperature, about 1800°C, the charge melts and fuses. The ordinary glass 20.Ca0.6SiO, is prepared by the following chemical reactions. 1. Sand fuses with Na;CO, to form a glossy mass NagCO; + SiO, -> Na,Si0; + CO, Sodium Silicate 2 Sand Teacts with CaCO, to give a glossy substance, calcium silicate, which is soluble in acids and insoluble in water. CaCO; + SiO, + Casio, + CO, a Calcium Silicate va CO, escapes out of Hot flame Soda ash the molten mass, at 1,800; + limestone + sand + cullets after that decoloriz- ers (MnO) are added to remove the ferrous compound and carbon. In case of coloured glass, the colouring agents are added at this 0 eS MG Refractory lining Hot F Hot stage. The heating Tank FS BasesP24 gases chee Process continues, Bed faace aa et EPRI" work of {3 bricks till the molten mass is free from glass balls and “bubbles and after that, it is cooled to around 800°C. Difference between tank furnace and pot furnace: " Pot rina ‘Common large rectangular} Many pots made of high alumina clay tank. clay, Tank furnace is heated by | Pot furnace is heated from iis producer gas. botiom directed by fir. Figure 7.4 Manufacture of glass in Tank furnace BGl prem rerimmNET Tore re ae ial glasses are described as below: 1, Lime-Soda-Silica Glass or Soft Glass It is made by fusing the sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate and SiO>. Its approximate composition is Na,0.Ca0.6Si0,. Properties (a) Low cost (b) Resistant to cement and H,0, (c) Lower melting point (@) Attacked by common reagents like acids. 3 Application () Window glasses (i) Table wares like bottles, jars ete (i Laboratory glasswares \2-Potash Lime or, Hard Glass It is made by fusing silica (sand), calcium carbonate and potassium carbonate, Its average composition is K,0.Ca0.6Si0>. Properties (@) More costly (b) High melting point © (©) Mote resistnt'to. acids’ al and other solvents . (@).Fuse with difficulty. = Application ()) Chemical apparatus (Combustion tubes <3. Lead Glass or Flint It is made by fusing K,COs, red lead and SiO,, Its approximate composition is K,0.Pb0.6Si0,. Around 80% PbO is incorporated for dense optical glasses. Properties ay (a) Bright and lustrous due to its higher refractive index © (b) Specific gravity is high (3 to 33) Application: Lead gins i is widely used for making the following : | @ Lens, prism and other optical devices High-quality glass wares and art objects (ii) Extra dense optical glasses Kees Glass or Pyrex Glass or Jena Glass - wes glass contain boron trioxide (B,0;) and is very rich in silica and little amounts of lumina and alkali metal oxide. The percentage composition of the components would be the following: Table 7.2 ‘Component | B,O, ALO, 0 NaO SiO, % B 3 3 05 805 Properties (a) Low thermal coefficient of expansion (b) High softening point (c) High chemical resistance (A) Excellent shock-resistance Application (i) Television tubes (ii) Electrical insulators (ii) Kitchenware (iv) Laboratory apparatus like flask, beakers etc. 5. Optical or Crooks Glass Optical glasses contain phosphorous and Icad silicate in which cadmium oxide is replaced by oxides of Pb, phosphorus ete. They have high refractive index. Properties (a) Low viscosity (b) Absence of impurities like iron (c) Ability to take desired polish on grinding aes Optical glasses safety Glass or Laminated Glass It is prepared by placing a thin layer of plastic (ether acetal resin or cellulose acetate) between two plates/sheets of ordinary glass. This is then heated under light pressure till the glass layers and plastic layers are bond into one another, idee eS Properties 4 (a) Shatter Proof (Pieces do not fly off, when suddenly broken) ithout @ (b) Shock Proof (can withstand and sudden change of temperature and pressure, without breaking) 4 Application a () Wind shields in automobile and aeroplane i) Bullet proof glass ii) Laminated glass (X/ 7: Toughed Glass The desired shape glass article are dipped in oil bath, so that some chilling take place. ¢ Thus the outer layer of articles acquire a state of compression because of shrinkage, while inner layers are in state of tension. nm hh na Properties n (a) Glass is more elastic (©) Can withstand in thermal and mechanical shocks (c) Broken pieces do not fly away. Application () Window shields of vehicles e.g., cars, trucks (ii) Window shields of furnaces (ii) Show cases “1. Wired Glass The wire mesh is embedded at the centre, during casting of glass sheet. Properties (Fire resistant (ii) Shatter Proof Application: Fire resisting doors, roofs, windows ete. ps Wool Fibrous wool like material composed of intermingled fine filaments of glass. Glass used for this purpose is completely alkali free, Glass filaments are obtained by forcing moltened | ‘mass of glass through small holes continuously, Se em a 4 Properties: , oe (a) Resistant to fire, heat and chemicals | (@) Low thermal and electric! conductivity (©) Low density Application: Used for soun used in heat insulation in do id and electrical insulation used for manufacturing fibre mmestic and industrial appliances like ovens, furnaces he! optical fibre) is # flexible, transparent fiber made of high quality er than a human hair, It can function as a or plastic, slightly thc! se ransmit light between the two ends of the fiber The fie ‘An optical fiber (or extruded glass (silica) vaveguide, or "light pipe”, " orp concerned with the design and application of opie of applied science and engineerin fibers is known’ as fiber optics. Optical fibers are widely used infer cptic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communication. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss and are also immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for illumination. Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with a lower index of refraction. Figure 7.7 Optical fiber Light is kept in the eore by foal internal reflection, This, causes the fiber (0 act ® wnavepuide, Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called ve thmode fibers (MMF), while those that only support a single mode are called single- node fibers (SME), Multimode fibers generally have a wider core diameter, and are used fo shortstance communication links and for applications where high power must EER VATE are used for most communication links longer than. ee ee ery ae in bundles so that they may bé used to carry viewing in confined spaces, , ‘These fibers i het Sete Se 2 provide higher transmission in the visible region of the ies to short distance eer from general industrial light designed to bear loads, ion. The fiber is tough and flexible, but is not | There are two basic types of fiber: multimode fiber optic cable and single-mode fiber optic cable. Multimode fiber is best designed for short transmission distances, and is suited for use in LAN systems and video surveillance, Single-mode fiber is best designed for longer transmission distances, making it suitable for long-distance telephony and ‘multichannel television broadcast systems. Multimode fiber, the first to be manufactured and commercialized, simply refers to the fact that numerous modes or light rays are catried simultaneously through the waveguide. Modes oer Carbon atom ina Each carbon atom bonded network of hexagons meal 3 covalent bonds Plates of layers capable of sliding parallel to each other Figure 8.6 Multiple layered Structured of graphite Molybdenum Disulphide: It tas a Sandwich like structure in ‘molybdenum atom lies between two layers of sulphur, ; ICs stable upto 400°% and possess very low of frictc Ht? oS Layer of Mo atoms ea eee Figure 8.7 Sandwich-ike structure of molybdenum disulphide On the basis of lubricant characteristics, lubrication are of following types: 1. Hydrodynamic or Fluid film lubrication 2. Thin film or Boundary lubrication oe 5°) Extreme pressure lubrication ¥. Hydrodynamic or Fluid Film Lubrication ‘A thick film or fluid(~ 1000 A® thick) separates the two sliding metal surfaces. The film of lubricant is adsorbed on the metal surface and held by van der waals forces. The bulk lubricant film prevents direct surface to surface contact so that the small peaks and valleys do not interlock. This results in reduction of friction and prevents wear and tear. Lubricant film also acquires the motion of machine, When the load comes to bearings, an equivalent pressure is developed in the fluid film which takes the load in turn, ‘As the moving surfaces are over the thick film of lubricants, the friction depends upon the dimension,of film and viscosity of lubricant, sh (HAGA armen ccscamennee rea vii mecca The hydrodynamic film is actually generated between a bearing and a rotating journal. (a) Journal at rest (b) Journal in motion Journal resting on the bottom The oil film which separates of the bearing before motion the surfaces when the journal rotates. Figure 8.8 Formation of oil wedge in bearing In rest position, the shaft rests on the bottom of bearing and thus the lubricant is squeezed out, which results in contact between shaft and bearing surface. When a torque is applied to the shafi, it begins to rotate and shaft has the tendency to roll up the bearing surface in opposite direction to the rotation. The layer of lubricant stick to the surface of the shaft and bearing. A hydrodynamic wedge is developed as a result. At start up, the coefficient of friction is high in the presence of boundary lubrication. After start up, however, the coefficient falls rapidly. This is due to the fact that metal surfaces do not come into direct contact with each other. Oil, i Bearing lining No = C3 Rotating shaft in J) foating tubricant Thick film of lubricant (a) Atrest (b)Startup —_-(c) At speed Figure 8.9 Fluid Film Lubrication in a Journal bearing “ » RB ¢ . he TIENT LEE Load UE ee Thick layer of Figure 8.10 Fluid-film lubrication th Boundary Lubrication or Thin Film Lubrication This lubrication is suitable, when a continuous film of lubricant cannot persist and direct metal to metal contact is possible because of various reasons. For example, when a shaft starts moving frotn rest or speed is\very low or load is very high or viscosity of ol is extremely low. A thin layer of lubricant is adsorbed (ie., surface attached) on the metallic surface which avoids direct metal to metal contact. The load is carried by the layer of adsorbed lubricant on both the metal surfaces. Wie Load TI, co Figure 8.11 Boundary Lubrication-Performance essentially dependent on boundary film The coefficient of friction in such is usually 0.05 to 0.15, the oil keeps the meeting surfaces apart. Adsorbed thin layers of lubricant (vegetable and animal oil) lubricant For boundary lubrication, the lubricant. molecules should incorporate: ‘1. Resistance to heat and oxidation 2. High viscosity index 3, Lateral attraction between chains ‘nll arerenens ener eamenarecrnomensmannnonennmnishdea 4. Low power and oxidation Good ojliness.” Long hydrocarbon chains - Active groups which can react chemically with the metal surface Polar groups to promote spreading and orientation over the metal surfaces at high pressure. Lubricants used for boundary lubrication are : 1, Graphite and MoS; either as solid or as stable emulsion in oil 2. Mineral oils 3. Vegetable and animal oils and their soaps. 3. Extreme Pressure Lubrication ‘When the machine runs under the conditions of high speed and high load, the temperature Tises between the moving surfaces of the metals. Thus, under such severe conditions ordinary fluid film or boundary fluid film is not effective, because it may vapourize or fail to stick’on the metal surfaces. Under such conditions, extreme pressure lubrication is used. wow pw To handle extreme pressure difficulties, certain additive are added to lubricants so that lubricant can maintain the extreme pressure and temperature and Continue t0 sustain lubricant characteristics. Examples of additives 1. Chlorinated esters 2. Sulphurized oils 3. Tricresyel phosphate These additive reacts with metalic surfaces, at prevailing high temperatures, to form metallic chlorides, sulphide or phosphides in the form of durable films. ‘The films ean withstand very high loads and high temperatures. Properties of Lubricants The properties of lubricant are : 1. Viscosity 2. Ash content 3. Acid value 4, Saponification 5. Carbon residue 6, Emulsification 7. Oiliness 8, Corrosion stability 9. Aniline point 10. Flash and‘Fire point 11. Cloud and pour point 12. Volatility 13. Specific gravity 14, Precipitation number 15. Steam emulsion number ae ~ Viscosity is the property of n fluid that determines its resistance to flow. It is an indicator of flowability of a lubricating oil, the lower the viscosity, greater the nt is mainly due to the forces of cohesion between the molecules of lubricating oi (A liquid is supposed to flow in series of parallel layers moving one above the otheramaA ‘Yat Top layer moves faster than the next lower layer (due to internal friction)) If two layers at a distance d, are moving with a relative Velocity difference v, then the force per unit area required to maintain the velocity difference is ; faq "4 Where = coefficient of Viscosity If v= 1 em per second d=loem F=1 dyne Then 9 = 1 (The unit of viscosity is pois) Viscosity index) The viscosity index of any oil is determined by LAU 100 Viscosity Index (VIL) = == Where V.L.= Viscosity index of the oil under test (L= Viscosity at 100° F of the low viscosity standard oil having a1 4 Gulf oil) and also having the same viscosity as the oil under testa (U= Viscosity at 100°F of the oi! under test.) (11 = Viscosity at 100° F of the bieh viscosity standard oil having at of 100> (ic, Pennsylvanian oil)}ind also having the same viscosity as the oil under test 210° F, Me iscpnidy of (Leu WAC. Sl ei)™ Oyiph Ve Soap) Uae (610 und best) tie ‘Viscosity plays significant role in the selection of proper lubricating oil. ) ( ‘Table-8.1 / ‘Used on parts moving at high speed and helps in creation of a good ‘ oil film. ‘Used’on parts moving at slow speed and heavy loads, as they resist ' b ze Out. Used for : Used for: High Speeds Slow Speeds S ) Low Temperatures High Temperatures } Low Pressures High Pressures | re, Figure 8.12 Viscosity Seo Conn Segue Ye There are various instruments for measuring viscosity and are known as viscometers. For example, 1. Kinematics and Saybolt universal viscometer (Used in United States) 2. Redwood Viscometers (Used in England) (Balbseersarorame nero viernes cian ae ME AIS Redwood Viscometer: Redwood viscometers are of two types: 1. Redwood Viscosity No. I - Universal ‘ : iy 2. Redwood Viscosity No, 2 - Admiral pt The two viscometer work on same principle and have same shape a testinj The only difference lies in the dimension of the discharge capillary (Orifice The essential difference between the two are: Table-8.2 . , Length - 10 mm Diameter-J].62 mm 3.80 mm Receiving Smaller Mouth Larger Mouths Flask’s Mouth size a =z ‘Useful for Low viscous oil is ler Viscous Bo eg, kerosene, mustard oil | e.g., fuel oil, mobil oil Construction Redwood viscometer consist of following parts: Oil Cup-Oil cup is a silver plated brass cylinder having height of 90 mm and a diameter f 46.5 mm. The bottom of the Cup is with a central hole in which an agate jet with fixed dimension of bore diameter 1.62 mm and length 10 mm is fitted. This jet can be opened cylinder. The pointer is tapered, upward Pointing wire. A thermometer is inserted in the cup through the lid of the cup. Heating Bath : A cylindrical is fitted with temperature co can be done either by ga: Spirit Level : A spirit level used for levelling the ap in the lid of the cup. The apparatus is Mounted on screws, | copper bath containing water surrounds the oil cup, which Dirolled system and string. Heating of water bath or oil bath S or electric heating. Paratus vertically is also provided three legs, provided with levelling Koblrausch Flask + A specially shaped flask known : as Kohlrausch Flask for receiv the ol fron thé outle. The capacity of ack 50ml, ee Metallic oil cup Outlet for water Kohlrausch flask Levelling screw (The apparatus is set over electric heater having temperature regulating device) Figure 8.13 Redwood viscometer No. 1 Workings The viscometer is levelled by adjusting the levelling screws. The water bath is poured in the water bath, upto the indicator mark. The oil cup is cleaned and ball of valve rod is placed on the agate jet to close it. The oil under testis filled into the oil cup upto the tip of indicator. The water in the side tube is heated slowly with constant stirring of the bath. The Koblrausch flask is kept below the jet. When oil attains the required temperature, heating is stopped, the ball valve is lifted and suspended from thermometre bracket, and stop watch is started. The time taken for 50 ml of the oil, to be collected in the Kohlrausch flask is recorded in seconds and the ball valve is again placed in the original position. The result is expressed in “Redwood No. 1 seconds” at the particular temperature. Higher the time of flow, lesser is the viscosity of oil (‘he flash point of an oil is the lowest temperature at which it gives off vapours that will ignite for a moment when a tiny test flame ig brought a}. fm fire PONE OF an Ol Is tho Howont ‘eneralure at Which the vapours of the olf burn SSattNOUNTY: AOE Atleast Seconda When A Hine tent fame tn brought near At tightly higher temperature that tho flash Holnt, 10. at fire point the heat from the Mash becomes suuioient to evapoeate more Wid 4nd minintan combustion, The fire point SS wally Sto 40% higher than the flath poli, Significance They are significant for the following point of vow: 1. A Rubricant selected for a specific job, should hve flash point, which is reasonably above its. Working temperature, > The flash and fire point of the oil, helps in Providing safeguards against fire hazards during storage, handling, transportation and the while using it, Liquids having flash pointless than 140°P are called flammable liquids. Liquids having Mash point above 140°F are called combustible liquids, “Flash and fire point can also be used for the detection of solvent contimenation, S Low flash point raises the possibility of formation of Bas-locks in fuel pipes, Measurement of Flash and Fire Points of A Lubricating Oil The measurement of flash and fire points can be done by the following apparatus: The Pensky-Marten closed cup method Cleveland open cup method Abel’s closed cup apparatus Peaky Marten Flash and Fire Point Apparatus Construction 1. Oi Cup fa cup made of brass, which is about 5.5 cm deep and 5 cm in diameter. up 4s provided with four openings of standard sizes. Through one opening, placed while a stirrer passes through the other, carrying two brass opening is for introducing a test flame and the fourth one is for amrodacing the air. 2. Shutter H ae #2 t0p of the cup, a shutter is provided, by moving the shutter, opening in the lid opens. 3. Flame Exposure Device o ‘This device is for introduction of standard flame. Flame exposure device is connected to the shutter in sucl y nt fer i ing of the test flame and the shutter is h a way that when the shutter is turned, opening o! Nn « ace opened. The flame exposure device dips into the opening over the surface of oil, air . The ‘nN eeeeeeeenemnmmeneonmmmenmseedsiie 4. Air Bath The oil cup is holded by its lange, over airbath which is heated by a gas bumer or electrically, 5. Pilot Burner When the test flame is introduced in the opening, it gets extinguished, but when the test flame is returned to its original position, it is lighted by the pilot burner. Pilot burner Figure 8.15 Cutaway view of Penskey-Marten’s flash point apparatus A coc cocrromencacnesinmnnmn aan EHNSENG SUEMERY a Working ‘The oil sample filled upto the specific filling mark in the cup and then heated by heating the air bath by a burner. Stirrer rotates at a rate of about | or 2 revolutions per second. ‘Heat is applied, so as to increase the oil temperature by about 5°C per minute, At every 1°C rest of temperature, test flame is introduced for a moment, by moving the shutter. The temperature at which a distinct flash (a combination of a weak sound and light) seen inside the cup, is noted as flash point. The heating is further continued, thereafter the test flame is applied as before. When the oil ignites and continues to burn at least for S seconds the temperature is noted as the fire point of the oil. w Cloud point is the temperature at which oil becomes cloudy or hazy in appearance, when : ; ae ey ae enticed it is cooled in a standard apparatus at a standard rate, Pour point is the temperature at which oil just ceases to flow when cooled at a standard. rate in a standard apparatus. Sar Significance Cloud point and pour point determine the applicability of a lubricant in cold conditi 1 Inthe fuel suction system of diesel engine, the lubricant having high cloud points may: clog the filter screens. 2. Pour point indicates the lowest temperature at which an oil can be transferred by pouring. 3. High pour point, solidify the oil, which may cause jamming of the machine. 4, Pour point indicates the suitability of the lubricant for low temperature installations. Construction Flat Bottom Tube : The flat bottom tube has height of 12 cm and diameter of 3 cm. The thermometer is mounted on it. Air Jacket : The tube is enclosed in a air jacket. Cooling Bath : The jacket is enclosed in tun by a cooling bath containing freezing mixture (Ice + NaCl). A thermometer is inserted in the cooling bath to record the temperature, Working Lubricating oil to be tested is filled inside the tube. The thermometer is placed inside oil and in cooling bath and the cork is fitted to the mouth of the tube. The tube is placed in the cooling air jacket enclosed by the cooling bath containi the cooling mixture. The temperature of oil will start reducing down. Al every 1°C fall in temperature of oil, the tube is taken out from the jacket and ‘Observed for the cloudiness, sr aan is observe iis again lage inthe jacket. The temperate at which * Many arpearance is obseved, is recorded as the clad point Fe anne Process i continued and the tbe is taken ot afer evry 3°C fall of “superstue and tte just enough to see any movement a flow of oit movement of oil is noticed, when the test jar is held in 5 seconds. This temperature is the pour point. The test is continued until no 2 horizontal position for exactly Figure 8.16 Cloud and Pour points ‘Thermometer ‘Thermometer tion for positon for | ey cloud point Figure 8.17 Apparatus for cloud and pour Points determination SVonwmacn Stuck ring Ring turning freely Solid Solid (a) High pour point oil (b) Low pour point oil Figure 8.18 Pour Point (Temperature at which the oil will cease to flow) ulsification (Emulsification can be defined as the ability of the oil to get intimately mixed with water. “It can be oil in water emulsion o water in oil emulsior (Emulsion has a tendency to collect dirt, grit particles and other foreign matters, thereby catising an abrasion and wearing out of the machinery) (A g004 lubricating oil does not form emulsion under lubricating process and even if emulsion is formed, it should break off quickl)}) This property of steam is called emulsification. This can be determined by a test called A.S.T.M. Test. In the test Steam Emulsion Number (SEN.) or Dem umber is determined by recording the time ids for @ given vc ime oe be tested to separate out in distance layer _ Suxter — from an equal volume of condensed steam/under standard condition(‘The faster the oil scparaes out from the emulsion, the loyef the seam emulsion number andthe better the oil for usage.) Oil and Conrubeification te water heprroke gud te ofr wetes® Good demulsibility Poor demulsibility Water and Oil Water and Oil do not separation quickly separate quickly Figure 8.19 Demulsibility Q3 Q4 Qs Q7 Q8 Significance « il along with the steam can clog the oil lines and pumps. Thus, when the oil is mixed with steam, the quicker the oil separates out from the emulsion formed, better is the € lubricating oil. : 4 \2.The higher the emulsification number, better is the oil for application. In cutting operation, emulsion acts as a coolant as well as a lubricant. 1 4 (a) Define lubricant? Explain extreme pressure lubrication with suitable example. ! (b) Short notes on (any two) 1 (i) Viscosity and viscosity index (ii) Thick and thin film lubrication ! (iii) Flash and fire point of lubricant ! (iv) Cloud and pour point of lubricant [RTU. Jan. 2012] — (a) Write brief note on flash and fire point. | (b) Discuss the various types of lubrication. [RTU. Feb. 2010] What do you mean by cloud and pour point. IRTU. Feb. 2010] What are lubricants? Explain properties of lubricating oil. [RTU, March. 2009] (a) Write short notes on: (i) Viscosity Index (ii) Cloud and Pour Point (ii) Emulsification factor (b) Discuss the types of mechanism of lubrication, IRTU, June 2008} (a) Discuss the signficance of viscosity in lubricating oil. How the viscosity is det by Red-wood viscometer? (b) Flash and fire point of lubricant, IRTU 2007] Discuss the significance of viscosity in lubricating oil. How the viscosity is determined by Red-wood viscometer? [Raj. Tech. Univ. 2007] Write notes on the following: (2) Flash and fire point of lubricant [Raj. Teh, Univ, 2007] () Cloud and pour point of lubricant }

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