Humans’ capability to communicate using the inscribed words and use of sounds make us top of the

hierarchy of all living creatures.

Communication is derived from a Latin word “communis” which means common. Communicating
becomes essential in the human civilization on exchanging of information, sharing thoughts, and
expressing oneself. Also, it becomes the catalyst for the people in the society to unite in decision
making, and fostering good relationships and profound respect to one another. Meanwhile, it is already
known that the vital role of communication is the transmission of message to other person, but how
does communication take place?

The process of communications happens between a sender and the receiver. The message is encoded by
the sender and decoded by the receiver channeling through various medium. Most commonly,
communication takes in face-to-face interaction, however, as the world becomes more advanced, our
means of communications changes. Whilst the traditional modes of communication remain the same,
various communication modes arose and became not just the trend but become essential in exchanging
information. Communication mode refers to the channel through which one expresses his/her
communicative intent; it is the medium through which one conveys his/her thoughts. Moreover, views
or feeling can be communicated through face-to-face interaction, video or audio. Thus, the development
of various channel for communication using the Ethernet and Information and Communication
Technology allow us transfer the message faster and convenient. Needless to say, the transmission of
the information is also interrupted by many barriers of communication thus, affecting and hindering the
understanding of both parties due to noise and other subconscious nonverbal cues. More often or not,
nonverbal signals trigger the process of communication.

Additionally, written communication has become important on the academic arena. Through written
text information, it allows us to discover, explore, travel the world, and seemingly defy time and space.
Analyzing the deeper context of diverse cultures in our community serves a key point of human intellect
on unveiling the significant details of the evolution of human, diversities, cultures, politics, and society.
Thus, becomes a primary tool on the academic research and the like.

Essentially, this module does not only contain the types, basic elements, process, modes, and forms of
communication as it also includes the different purposes of communication in the daily course of human
person and how one’s good communication skills effect on the society. The underlying purpose of
communication also is to cross the culture of other people in a holistic level of perception and
determining the differences through understanding multicultural communication and globalization
trend.

Therefore, adept communication skills and embodying the ethical principles of communication help us
to converse and transmit the message effectively to our target audience. Furthermore, it hones our
moral and intellectual capacity making as not just a good communicator but a listener as well, thus
avoiding and mitigating misunderstanding and further implications of both parties in the actual scenario
of communication.
COMMUNICATION is a human act of sending (verbal or nonverbal; online or offline) and receiving of
messages where interpretations are normally constructed in the process. It is a natural activity of
people. We are always engaged in almost all sorts of communication. As Walzlawick (1976 in Øyvind, et
al., 2011), a communication expert, aptly wrote, “One cannot communicate.” Apparently, all human
beings are wired for communication activities in one’s lifetime.

Studying communication therefore enables us to have a good grasp of this unavoidable human activity
and hopefully makes us good and responsible participants. By being good participants means that as
senders and receivers of messages, a common understanding is achieved, resulting in a successful
communication.

WHAT THEN IS PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION?

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION is an intentional communication that happens within the bounds of

specific contexts.

CONTEXT. Communication happens in specific contexts. Context includes settings or environment

(family, school, workplace, religious communities); social relations (friends, husband and wife, parent
and child, colleagues/boss-subordinate in the office; scenes which include place, time and occasion
(business meeting, job interview, social gathering – parties, weddings, etc.) and culture (history,
tradition, beliefs, norms, values).

Contexts are vital considerations in our communication acts since they affect the process of sending and
receiving of messages; semantics or meanings; choice of channels, words and methods of delivery.
Communication therefore must be suitable to the specific context hence should be intentional or
purposive.

It is therefore logical to explain purposive communication as a communication applied in a specific

setting, environment, scene, socials relations and culture.

In your oral communication course in senior high school, you were introduced to the different elements
(sender, receiver, message, barriers/noise, channels, and feedback) models (linear, interactional and
transactional) and functions (social interaction, information, emotional expression, motivation &
regulation) of communication. It is advisable to do a review of these communication principles so that in
this course, we can already focus on expanding our knowledge of the field and immerse ourselves in
various contexts wherein these communication events occur.

COMMUNICATION AS A PROCESS

COMMUNICATION is a process whereby people create and transmit meaning through the exchange of
verbal and nonverbal messages in a particular context (Oetzel, 2009:11).

Since communication is a process, it is something continuous (e.g., an argument that is extended for
several months, an exchange of messages between office mates, etc.) there are times however that we
terminate our communication with someone or a group when we already lose the purpose or goal in
communicating with the participant/s. Nevertheless, even if one does not anymore consciously make an
effort to converse or interact with the other person, this is still an act of communication as this sends
messages such as “I don’t want to associate with you anymore…” or simply “there is no more reason
that we should be talking.”

HENCE, COMMUNICATION MAY NOT HAVE A DEFINITE END.

SENDER

The SENDER of the message is a highly important element being the source of the idea. As the sender, it
is expected that one possesses the skills required in transmitting messages. These skills could include the
ability to use the language that the receiver understands. For instance, it will be inept to use the English
language if your audience is keener on using their local language in a Philippine or Asian setting. Along
with using the appropriate language is the application of linguistic features such as correct grammar,
phonetics (for spoken messages); choice of words or jargons for an appropriate audience; sentence
construction; and discourse competence. The sender’s credibility is of great importance as well. People
will more likely reject a message if the sender is proven to be unreliable. The message will only be as
good and valid as its source.

DELIVERY

This is an equally important skill that a sender should be able to exhibit properly. In oral communication,
this could include good voice projection, use of appropriate eye contact, proper articulation of words,
and emphasis on important words. Delivery could also include using the appropriate intonation in order
to avoid misunderstanding on the part of the listener/receiver or conflict between the interlocutors. For
instance, a high pitch intonation or an overly emphatic tone might be offensive to a listener; hence, the
speaker should be mindful of the manner of delivery.

RECEIVER

Receiver of messages must have good listening and comprehension skills. Good listening requires one to
focus on what is conveyed and as much as possible eliminate all possible distractions or noises (physical,
environmental, psychological, emotional) that would hinder one from understanding the message. On
the other hand, good comprehension skills necessitate sharpness of cognition, which can be achieved
through continuous studies and acquisition of information and knowledge.

Also, the receiver’s prejudice could possibly affect one’s receptiveness towards the message. For
example, if a receiver dislikes the sender, the former is more likely to be skeptical towards whatever
message the latter relays. It is therefore advisable to listen/read objectively and set aside biases to avoid
erroneous interpretations.

MESSAGE

For messages to be accurately understood and positively received, the C’s in communication may be
followed:
· COURTESY.Another word for courtesy is politeness. Usage of polite words and tone means one
respects the receiver of the message. Tact and diplomacy in communication is always appreciated and
this approach will normally beget a positive reply. Developing the “we” attitude, using positive words
instead of negative, being considerate of the feelings of the receiver, selecting gender-free terms and
responding promptly to important messages are ways to demonstrate courtesy.

· CLARITY.This may involve correct word usage, grammar, pronunciation, sentence construction and
delivery. Messages which are unclear oftentimes do not achieve their desired effect.

· CONCISENESS.Lengthy messages can result in information overload and overwhelm listeners/readers

of messages. Conciseness is “saying what needs to be said in as few words as possible.” To display
conciseness, flowery languages, which normally include unnecessary words must be avoided.
Remember, our goal is to communicate and not to impress our listeners/readers with our lengthy
discourse.

· CONCRETENESS.This refers to being specific. To demonstrate concreteness, providing examples

whenever necessary makes a message more comprehensible.

· COMPLETENESS.To avoid ambiguity, messages should not leave out important details that a receiver
expects to know such as answers to the WHAT, WHO, WHEN, WHERE, WHY, and HOW questions.

THE IMPORTANCE OF FEEDBACK

Messages in communication will always have an effect on the receiver. There are messages that trigger
positive reactions and at times negative depending on the kind of message relayed, how it is
communicated and how it is interpreted. It is therefore important to know the feedback of our
audience/s (listener/reader) in order to make the necessary clarifications and revisions of our messages.

CHANNELS

The 21st century has introduced communication technologies (smart phones, tables, computers) as
popular channels in addition to the older forms such as traditional telephone, radio, television and
printed texts (books, newspapers, magazines, journals, posters, etc.).

The choice of a channel may depend on the availability, practicality, and its impact on the receiver. For
instance, in communicating with our loved ones abroad, using our smart phones, tablets or computers
are deemed practical and convenient. For those living in areas where internet connection is unavailable,
traditional telephones are still very useful. In the acquisition of information on the other hand, many
rely on printed texts. Television has also been a popular channel for information and entertainment
while radio remains popular especially in certain areas of the provinces.

BARRIERS AND NOISE

In your previous studies in communication, experts assert that noise or barriers in communication
maybe due to environmental, physical, psychological and emotional conditions. Other than these
aspects, differences in language, gender and culture can also be a barrier in communication.

For communication to be effective, these barriers/noise should be mitigated or if possible eliminated.

Gender and culture differences as communication barriers however can be more challenging to control
and could not be eliminated. What one can at least do is to acknowledge these gender differences in
communication, compromise in certain areas, meet halfway and maintain respect to each other’s points
of view.

Various information and meaning are conveyed when people communicate with each other. People may
use language, which is a system of symbols in communicating. These symbols can either be written or
spoken.

Communication is considered as one of the basic activities of human beings, which may be used for
varied purposes. Communication can be informative, affective, imaginative, persuasive and ritualistic.

Informative communication pertains to the presentation of messages that are objective, truthful and
unbiased.

Affective communication takes place when people express their positive and negative feelings about
people, circumstances, or events.

Imaginative communication takes place when people express their appreciation on fictional messages
from books, films and conversation.

Persuasive communication, on the other hand, takes place when people attempt to influence the beliefs
or actions of others.

Ritualistic communication is done when people are able to meet social expectations.

WHY DO PEOPLE COMMUNICATE?

Communication is a part of everyone’s life; people from every walks of life communicate. They do so to
express their feelings, opinion, aspirations, dreams, fears, apprehensions or regrets in life. Humans are
creative beings, and they know how to communicate in various and creative ways through verbal,
nonverbal, linguistic or non-linguistic cues.

Specifically, people communicate in order to INFORM, EVOKE, ENTERTAIN, ARGUE and PERSUADE.

TO INFORM IS TO IMPART KNOWLEDGE, TO CLARIFY INFORMATION, AND TO SECURE UNDERSTANDING.

TO EVOKE MEANS TO RELY ON PASSION AND CONTROVERSY TO MAKE A POINT. EVOCATIVE

COMMUNICATION CENTERS ON CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS THAT TYPICALLY USE EMOTION TO MAKE A
POINT. IT MUST SHOW A LOT OF ENTHUSIASM AND CONCERN FOR THE TOPIC AND MUST USE
PERSONAL EXPERIENCE TO DRAW THE AUDIENCE. USING GOVERNMENT RESEARCHES, STATISTICS AND
DATA CAN ALL HELP MAKE THEIR TOPICS MORE BELIEVABLE AND MORE ENGAGING.

TO ENTERTAIN IS TO TRANSMIT A FEELING OF PLEASURE AND GOODWILL TO THE AUDIENCE. THE

COMMUNICATOR IS CONSIDERED GRACIOUS, GENIAL, GOOD-NATURED, RELAXED AND DEMONSTRATES
TO HIS OR HER LISTENERS THE PLEASANT JOB OF SPEAKING TO THEM.

TO ARGUE IS TO PERSUADE, TO ASSENT TO THE PLAUSIBILITY OF THE COMMUNICATOR’S SIDE OF A

DEBATABLE QUESTION. THE SPEAKER’S PURPOSE IS TO APPEAL TO THE INTELLECT OF HIS OR HER
LISTENERS SO THAT THEY WILL BE CONVINCED.

TO PERSUADE IS TO MOVE THE LISTENERS TO ACTION. THE COMMUNICATOR SHOULD DEMOLISH THE
LISTENER’S OBJECTION AND PROVE THE ACCEPTABILITY OF HIS OR HER ARGUMENT OR POSITION.

KINDS OF SPEECH ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

INFORMATIVE SPEECH

According to Osborn & Osborn (1988), an informative speech gives rather than asks or takes. The
demands on the audience are low, as the listeners are asked to attend, to comprehend, to understand,
to assimilate, but not to change their beliefs and behaviors.

PERSUASIVE SPEECH

Gronbeck (1994) explains that persuasive speaking is the process of producing oral messages that
increase personal commitment, modify beliefs, attitudes or values.

ARGUMENTATIVE SPEECH

This is a speech that aims to persuade the audience to assent to the plausibility of the speaker’s side of a
debatable question.

KINDS OF SPEECH ACCORDING TO DELIVERY

READ SPEECH

Reading from a manuscript is a manner of speaking where a written speech is read and delivered word
for word.

MEMORIZED SPEECH

This is a written speech which is mastered and delivered entirely from memory. This kind of speech
requires the speaker a considerate memory skill in order not to forget his or her presentation.

IMPROMPTU SPEECH

This is a speech where the speaker develops his or her ideas, thoughts and language at the moment of
delivery.
EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEECH

This is a speech where the topics or ideas are prepared beforehand; however, the speaker will compose
his or her views and language only at the moment of delivery.

A message may be imparted through these types; verbal-non-verbal and visual. While communication is
often thought of as verbal, the non-verbal mode is equally essential as it enhances one‘s message.

ACCORDING TO MODE:

VERBAL-NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Effective communication calls for the blending of these two types. One cannot be separated from the
other. For example, door-to-door sales persons who demonstrate product knowledge can only be
effective if they know how to properly punctuate what they say with proper gestures and facial
expressions. Their communication with the customer begins upon greeting him/her with a welcoming
smile then assessing customer needs and answering customer queries enhanced by gestures and a
friendly, happy and pleasant disposition. It is through this mode that sales pole with excellent
communication skills are able to provide the best information needed, by that means convincing the
client to patronize their products.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Communication includes gestures, facial expressions and even silence. Silence could have variety of
meanings depending on the racial culture. For instance, according to study, Japanese doctors during
conversations with their patients use silence and pauses (30% of the conversation) to express respect
and as a way of showing that they are contemplating on what has been shared by their patients. On the
other hand, silence may only comprise 8% of the conversation time between American doctors and their
patients. While some cultures view silence as a sign of respect to the conversation partners, others see
silence as a lack of interest or a sign of disagreement.

VISUAL COMMUNICATION

Visual communication, on the other hand, is the type of communication that uses visuals to convey
information and/or messages. Some examples are signs, symbol, imagery, maps, graphs, charts,
diagrams, pictograms, photos, drawings or illustrations, and even various forms of electronic
communication. Visual communication now occupies an important place in any work environment. For
instance, during presentations, instructors, managers, doctors, lawyers, legislators and the like use
visuals to transfer data into digestible information. Very likely, they have greater success in catching the
attention of the audience making the latter easily recall the information.

What makes visual communication even more advantages is that it makes use of communication even
more advantages is that it makes use of technology that provides apps( applications), videos and images
that rely less on the printed word making presentations more interesting. This leaves a powerful effect
on the audience and prospective clients. Speakers/presenters should be mindful of the content of their
presentation since wrong and irrelevant information may lead to miscommunication. Likewise, they
should pay attention to graphic elements, such as position, color, size, shape and orientation as all these
play an important role in the presentation of slides. Audience size should be considered as well when
preparing slide presentations or other forms of visuals.

ACCORDING TO CONTEXT

In this sub-section, context in communication is referred to as composite of people interacting with each
other. Communication may also be classified according to context: (1) intrapersonal; (2) interpersonal.

**INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION: The Latin prefixes intra-means within or inside. Intrapersonal

communication then means talking to oneself. Some label it as self or inner talk, inner dialogue.
Psychologists call it with other names such as self-verbalization or self-statement. Intrapersonal
communication can be defined also as communication **with one‘s self, and that may include self-talk,
acts of imagination and visualization, and even recall and memory (McLean, 2005). You read on your
phone that your friends are going to have dinner at your favorite restaurant. What comes to mind?
Sights, sounds, and scents? Something special that happened the last time you were there? Do you
contemplate joining them? Do you start to work out a plan of getting from your present location to the
restaurant? Do you send your friends a text asking if they want company? Until the moment when you
hit the ―send‖ button, you are communicating with yourself.

Communications expert Leonard Shedletsky examined intrapersonal communication through the eight
basic components of the communication process (i.e., source, receiver, message, channel, feedback,
environment, context, and interference) as transactional, but all the interaction occurs within the
individual (Shedletsky, 1989). From planning to problem solving, internal conflict resolution, and
evaluations and judgments of self and others, we communicate with ourselves through intrapersonal
communication. All this interaction takes place in the mind without externalization, and all of it relies on
previous interaction with the external world.

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION: Interpersonal communication can be defined as communication

between two people, but the definition fails to capture the essence of a relationship. This broad
definition is useful when we compare it to intrapersonal communication, or communication with
ourselves, as opposed to mass communication, or communication with a large audience, but it requires
clarification.

The developmental view of interpersonal communication places emphasis on the relationship rather
than the size of the audience, and draws a distinction between impersonal and personal interactions.
Family for many is the first experience in interpersonal relationships, but as we develop professionally,
our relationships at work may take on many of the attributes we associate with family communication.
We look to each other with similar sibling rivalries, competition for attention and resources, and
support. The workplace and our peers can become as close, or closer, than our birth families, with
similar challenges and rewards. To summarize, interpersonal relationships are an important part of the
work environment.
Communication models are systematic representations of the process which helps in understanding how
communication works can be done. Models show the process metaphorically and in symbols. They form
general perspectives on communication by breaking communication from complex to simple and keeps
the components in order. Communication models can sometimes encourage traditional thinking and
stereotyping but can also omit some major aspects of human communication.

Methods and channels of communication to be used and the purpose of communication, must be
considered before choosing a specific communication model. Models are used by business companies
and other firms to foster their communication, explore their options and to evaluate their own
situations. It is also used to understand how the receivers will interpret the message.

Types of Communication Model

There are three general types of communication models in which all other communication models are
mostly categorized.

Linear Model of Communication

Linear model of communication is a simple one way communication model. The message flows in a
straight line from sender to the receiver. There is no concept of feedback. The only task that a receiver
does here is to receive the message. Different models that follow linear model of communication are:

Lasswell’s Model

Aristotle’s Model

Shannon Weaver Model

Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model

Transactional Model of Communication

In transactional model, senders and receivers both are known as communicators and both play equally
important role in communication. Transactional model relates communication with social reality,
cultural up-bringing and relational context (relationships). Non-verbal feedback like gestures, body
language, is also considered as feedback in this model. Different models that follow transactional model
of communication are:

Barnlund’s Transactional Model

Helical Model

Becker’s Mosaic Model

Interactive Model of Communication

Interactive model or convergence model is similar to transactional model as they are both two way
communication model. But, interactive model is mostly used for new media like internet. Here, people
can respond to any mass communications like videos, news, etc. People can exchange their views and
ideas. Different models that follow interactive model of communication are:

· Schramm’s Interactive Model

Since communication is a two-way process, it is significant that you know the principles to be observed
to make it effective. For both oral and written communication, one should be able to apply the following
principles:

Know your purpose in communicating. Are you communicating basically to inform, to entertain, or to
persuade? While you may have more than one purpose, there is still a more dominant objective or
reason why you communicate.

Know your audience. In both speaking and writing, you should know your audience as it will dictate the
speaking or writing style you are going to employ. Consider the age, educational background, profession,
culture, and other salient features of your listeners or readers.

Know your topic. You communicate essentially because you want to share something. In speaking
situations, speakers are invited because they have something to share. This also applies to writing. You
write because you wish that other people learn something from you. You may then utilize several or
multiple communication techniques to easily catch the attention of the audience.

Adjust your speech or writing to the context of the situation. The environment in which your speech or
writing is to be delivered determines the kind of language you will use.

Work on the feedback given to you. Once you receive comments from the listeners/readers, work on
them. Take kindly to criticisms. In the long run, constructive criticisms will prove beneficial to you as you
learn to address them.

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE ORAL COMMUNICATION

Be clear with your purpose. You should know by heart your objective in communicating.

Be complete with the message you deliver. Make sure that your claims are supported by facts and
essential information.

Be concise. You do not need to be verbose or wordy with your statements. Brevity in a speech is a must.

Be natural with your delivery. Punctuate important words with the appropriate gestures and
movements. Exude a certain degree of confidence even if you do not feel confident enough.

Be specific and timely with your feedback. Inputs are most helpful when provided on time.

There are 6 forms of communication:

1. Intrapersonal Communication- communication happens within the person. Hence, there is no
feedback and/or feedbacks are not interrupted.

Example: A person can communicate himself through praying.

2. Interpersonal Communication- communication happens between a group of persons.

Example: Ana is talking to Mrs. Maricar with regards to the school requirements.

3. Dyadic Communication- communication happens between two persons. Either way, the source
become the receiver and vice versa because of the dynamic and spontaneous flow of discourse. One of
the best examples of dyadic communication is between a patient and a doctor.

4. Small Group Communication- this communication usually happen in an organizational communication

and involves more than two individuals. The information coming from the source down to the receiver
and vice versa. There is a continuous sending and receiving of feedbacks.

5. Public Communication- this communication is a one way type model of communication as it no longer
requires the feedback of the receiver or the audience. The message of the speaker will be sent to a huge
number of audiences. For instance, public speaking like the State of the Nation Address (SONA) of the
president.

6. Mass Communication- this involves a large number of people and requires a tool to help
disseminating the information. This also no longer requires feedback from the audience to the source.
For instance, television news and advertisement. But in mass communication, there is no direct access
with the receiver. For that they need media like Newspaper, Radio, Television and Internet. The
audience feedback is very less or delayed.

When the message you convey are not communicated properly and felt guilty of not conveying the
message as it wants to be conveyed feels worse. It is because the effective communication is being
hindered by noise or in other reference, barriers. Some of the barriers that obstructs effective
communication include noise, inappropriate medium, assumptions, emotion, and use of jargons or
technical terms, and poor listening skills. These barriers are categorized into five. Physical, Psychological,
Cultural, Language Used, and Personal.

The term ethics comes from the Greek word ethos, which means custom, habit, character or outlook.
Albeit peoples from different cultures vary in their moral philosophies, people in general expect to be
treated with dignity, fairness, respect or with basic courtesy in the communication encounters.

Regardless of an individual’s moral principle (relativistic), ethics in communication can take a universal
approach, which can be displayed in several ways including but not limited to the following:

1. Adhering to the Golden Rule or the Platinum Rule.

The golden rule asserts to always treat others in the same way you want to be treated while the
platinum rule according to Bennett (1980) stresses on treating others the way they wish to be treated.
Ethical communicators address people of other cultures with the same respect that they would like to
receive themselves (Jandt, 2013:37).

2. Considering the feelings of the receiver.

Humans are not only cognitive but also emotional beings. If we are less careful with our words, tone and
nonverbal gestures, people could be negatively affected. To be ethical in communicating with others, it
will be best to maintain tact and diplomacy in our communications.

3. Acknowledging the source of idea and information.

Sources of ideas and information should be acknowledged appropriately at all times. It is unethical and
unlawful for someone to convey other people’s intellectual property without recognizing the author’s
names or organizations.

4. Speaking the truth.

This is a universal rule. Unfortunately, there are also those who (for whatever reason) seem to enjoy
propagating falsehood. Take for instance the abundance of fake news or what others call alternative
facts on the internet. Obviously, this is a violation of communication ethics and should be stopped by all
means.

COMMUNICATION has been greatly affected by globalization and globalization by communication. In

this lesson, we will discuss the meaning of globalization, what causes it, what drives it, its implications,
and how it affects communication.

WHAT IS GLOBALIZATION?

In the 21st century, we have often heard of the term globalization. Globalization is a complex concept
and a single meaning may not be able to capture its total essence. Also, its definition depends on which
lens one looks at globalization.

Mansbach and Rhodes (2013) postulate that globalization involves proliferating connections among
societies and peoples, growing porosity of national frontiers, proliferation of transnational processes,
and the growing importance of authoritative actors other than national governments, such as
transnational corporations, social networks, and international organizations.

The above definition gives us a picture of nationalities, societies, races interconnecting and making
impact on each other’s economy, politics, culture (beliefs, norms, values, language, food, clothing, etc.),
social and education system.

There are those who think that globalization means convergence of cultures hence the termination of
diversity of cultures while there are those who believe that globalization may cause changes in a nation
but does not necessarily lead to losing its identity. Globalization is perceived by the latter group as a
phenomenon that leads to “deterritorialization.”

As technology advances, the world is getting smaller. Today we are able to communicate with people
across the globe at the touch of a button. While globalization, or communication between nations
beyond their borders, is an old concept, with the onset of new technology globalization is affecting the
ways we communicate and learn in fascinating ways.

We are expanding our understanding of fellowship and as we become more connected, we are
deepening our educational experiences. The rise in the use of the internet in particular has been
incredibly instrumental in improving the ways in which we connect with one another. Because of
technologies like the internet, we have the opportunity to view diverse perspectives that overlooks
outside of our scope before. We are able to fully connect with someone who is thousands of miles away
in real time and the effects are profound.

WHAT ARE SOME OF THE DRIVERS OF GLOBALIZATION?

COLONIZATION. This marked the beginnings of globalization. In the Philippines for instance, history tells
us that the Spaniards, Americans and the other colonizers have introduced their cultures (language,
food, clothing, beliefs, values, education, etc.) to the country, and some of these ways of living have
been consciously or unconsciously adopted by the Philippine society even up to this age and age. Also,
other Asian countries such as Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Hongkong and other countries have their
share of stories on how globalization has shaped their social, economic and education systems without
necessarily being disconnected from their own countries’ local methods of civilization.

DIASPORA. Oxford dictionary suggests that diaspora is closely connected with the dispersion of the Jews
beyond Israel. In this era, this is a phenomenon that refers to people’s movement and inhabitation in
countries outside of their own. Other scholars call this MIGRATION. The United States of America,
Australia, and Canada are examples of popular lands of immigrants. People migrate outside of their own
homelands for several reasons (employment opportunities, education, intermarriage, professional
advancements, etc.). Immigration provides us a picture of fluidity among peoples from different races
from different races where new networks of economy and cultures are established.

TECHNOLOGIES. Technologies have immensely facilitated globalization. With the internet, people are no
longer strangers to events outside of their own country. Exposure to various political, economic and
social systems through global news, current events and other media publicities have considerably
educated people hence on a micro level, potentially impacting individual’s views towards one’s society,
and on a macro level, possible influencing a nation’s perspective towards its governance, economic
trading, environmental care activities, social dealings, health activities and education system. Also with
communication technologies (smart phones, tables, computers), nations have become more fluid in
their interactions (video chats, phone conversation) allowing instantaneous feedback and negotiations.

HOW DOES GLOBALIZATION AFFECT COMMUNICATION?

With globalization, a need for a common language to achieve international intelligibility is germane.

“On almost any basis, English is the nearest thing there has been to a global language. Its worldwide
reach is much greater than anything achieved historically by Latin or French, and there has never been a
language as widely spoken as English. Many would reasonably claim that in the fields of business,
academics, science, computing, education, transportation, politics and entertainment, English is already
established as the decto lingua franca.” (http:wwwthehistoryofenglish.com)

Albeit English has been acknowledged as the current global language and is learned by many due to
globalization, patterns of interactions (greetings, gestures, business dealings, etc.) may not essentially be
universalized. Nationalities, ethnic groups, religious communities, gender groups, generations and other
subcultures will still maintain their unique ways of communication expressions unless they all agree to
replace their distinctive manners of communicating with a newly acquired one from another culture.

Have you ever had to call someone from a different country and conduct a meeting in a different
language? For those of you that said, “Yes”, you understand how complicated and frightening this can
be. You can have the most specific and detailed agenda, but if you do not understand the person you are
conducting business with, the meeting becomes worthless. This is very frustrating and creates
roadblocks to success for many companies. For some organizations, global communication is part of the
day-to-day business, for others, this is uncharted territory. For those that have not conducted global
business, this can be a nerve wracking experience. It is not as simple as using a web-based language
translator to communicate effectively. Besides the language roadblock, the organization has to
understand the business culture and its associated nuances.

Because there is a lot of room for error in communication, especially in a global environment,
organizations must focus resolving the challenges of communication in a global context. Starting by
bringing attention and development as it pertains to negotiating across cultures. If the company requires
that employees negotiate with others around the world, it is the company’s responsibility to provide the
tools needed to for their employees to communicate effectively. The complexity of a dealing with
foreigners with other beliefs, can create a roadblock of misunderstanding. Generally, culture, language
and business acumen can be so different that it can impede successful negotiations. This can be true,
especially when there is trouble translating a simple and even general message. Moran, Abramson and
Moran (2014) details that, “Foreign negotiations often display many different styles of logic and
reasoning”.

(Source:https://sites.psu.edu/.../the-importance-of-effective.../)

Communicating effectively is so instrumental to success that speaking and writing well are probably the
most important skills a person can learn. Yet they are taught only piecemeal in school, when taught at
all. Instead of focusing on communicating thoughts and ideas clearly, schools break communication into
subjects like English, other languages, and public speaking. But there is so much more to effective
communication than grammar, spelling, or calming your nerves in front of an audience. Good
communication is not a hard trait to master; it is, in fact, quite simple. And best of all, with good
communication skills, you can do virtually anything. Here are some easy ways to improve your
communication starting today.

1. Keep it simple. An above ground yet grounded view of your topic is often best so that readers get your
point without getting bogged down in details. How would you describe economics, for example? Most
scholars have very complex answers riddled with technical jargon. Novices too tend to struggle with the
definition, often giving a vague and high level description

2. Eliminate technical jargon. As bad as it is to read jargon, it’s even worse in conversation or during
speeches. A live audience has no opportunity to reflect upon or look up ambiguous words. Keep your
words concrete and avoid any terms of art.

3. Be concise, but not too concise. Too many writers, coaches, and style guides have told us that we
should practice brevity in our writing and speaking. But their advice has been too brief. Our jobs are to
communicate effectively, not necessarily to communicate quickly. If a topic needs more explanation to
the reader or listener, by all means keep going. The best communicators never leave their audience
struggling to decipher words or wondering what was meant. It is in fact quicker to explain what nouveau
riche means (people who have recently come into money) than to keep an audience guessing or force a
reader to look the concept up.

4. Avoid abbreviations and acronyms. Virtually all acronyms should be avoided virtually all the time.
Unless the abbreviation has become a common word, don’t use it.

5. Reduce the use of canned phrases. Using canned phrases is passé, old hat, out of date, yesterday’s
news. Invent something new and make sure your analogy ties directly to the subject.

6. Be concrete. People despise abstraction. Either be 100% concrete or provide an example. On the
other hand, language is an abstraction, so we must work harder at it. Tell a story and people will see
your brushstrokes.

7. Be conversational. Whether you are having a casual conversation, conducting a meeting, giving a
speech or writing a memo, communicate with a specific voice and to a certain ear. Always speak to
someone specific even in a room full of people, and write to someone specific as well.

Source: https://www.weforum.org/.../7-steps-to-effective.../

Unit 4:

Definition of Culture

Multiculturalism refers to the presence of people with several cultures in a specific setting. It is the co-
existence of diverse cultures, where culture includes racial, religious, or cultural groups and is
manifested in customary behaviours, cultural assumptions and values, patterns of thinking, and
communicative styles.

The world today is characterized by ever growing compacts resulting in communication between people
with different linguistic and cultural background. One of the most common forms of global
communication is an email.

A person in one country types a message and clicks the send button. The message is then encoded into
packets which are sent across the internet to the recipient. In another country, the receiver logs in and
decodes the message by opening the email, and retrieves the message.

Global communication becomes more complicated when there are multiple recipients from different
cultures with different languages all receiving the same message, as well as when there are more layers
added to the channel. For example, if a world leader makes a speech broadcast across the globe, people
from one region may rejoice at the news, while others may find it offensive. In this case, the channel
itself can involve many different layers, as translators, news, editors and commentators each interpret
the message differently before passing it on to the intended audiences.

CULTURE

Culture is a learned system of meanings that fosters a particular sense of shared identity-hood and
community-hood among its group members. It is a complex frame of reference that consists of a pattern
of traditions, beliefs, values, norms, symbols and meanings that are shared to varying degrees by
interacting members of an identity group (Ting-Toomey & Takai, 2006, p.691 in Oetzel, 2009).

According to Oetzel (2009), we are simultaneously members of multiple cultural groups, such as a
national culture, ethnic culture, religious culture, gender culture, media culture, social class culture,
generation culture, which overlap to varying degrees.

LOCAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION

It is the way on how we communicate to other. By using our own languages and an English language, we
can make a conversation locally or globally. The main purpose of this is to have an idea on how can we
apply what we learned from them for ourselves and for our community. It can also be the way for our
country to have sufficient knowledge to make it more outstanding.

Local communicationmeans data transferred directly from the gateway to bluz DK, without going
through the Particle cloud. Local communication can be used for a lot of tasks that don't require the
cloud. Multicultural education refers to any form of education or teaching that incorporates the
histories, texts, values, beliefs, and perspectives of people from different cultural backgrounds

The study of global communication is an interdisciplinary field focusing on global communication, or the
ways that people connect, share, relate and mobilize across geographic, political, economic, social and
cultural divides.
COMMUNICATING ACROSS CULTURES

Communicating across cultures is challenging. Each culture has set rules that its members take for
granted. Few of us are aware of our own cultural biases because cultural imprinting is begun at a very
early age. And while some of culture‘s knowledge, rules, beliefs, values, phobias, and anxieties are
taught explicitly, most of the information is absorbed subconsciously.

The challenge for multinational communication has never been greater. Worldwide business
organizations have discovered that intercultural communication is a subject importance not just because
of increased globalization, but also because their domestic workforce is growing more and more diverse.

Intercultural communication

- is a discipline that studies communication across different cultures and social groups, or how culture
affects communication. It describes the wide range of communication processes and problems that
naturally appear within an organization or social context made up of individuals from different religious,
social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds. In this sense it seeks to understand how people from
different countries and cultures act, communicate and perceive the world around them.

BARRIERS TO LOCAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION IN MULTICULTURAL SETTINGS

Some of the barriers to effective communication are language, medium of communication, personality
and culture. Culture became barrier to an effective communication when a person has different
language bearing, and they have different interpretation to such words.

What is the difference between multicultural and cross-cultural or Intercultural?

While they all might be under the same roof, they describe entirely different rooms. The differences in
the meanings have to do with the perspectives we take when interacting with people from other
cultures.

Multicultural refers to a society that contains several cultural or ethnic groups. People live alongside one
another, but each cultural group does not necessarily have engaging interactions with each other. For
example, in a multicultural neighbourhood people may frequent ethnic grocery stores and restaurants
without really interacting with their neighbours from other countries.

Cross-cultural (Intercultural)refers to the comparison of different cultures. In cross-cultural

communication, differences are understood and acknowledged, and can bring about individual change,
but not collective transformations. In cross-cultural societies, one culture is often considered ―the norm
and all other cultures are compared or contrasted.

People could react differently when they encounter another culture. Literatures say that they could
react through: ASSIMILATION, ACCOMODATION and SEPARATION.

According to Oetzel (2007), ASSIMILATION is the effort to eliminate the cultural differences towards
home and host cultures. ACCOMODATION attempts to retain some cultural uniqueness and to transform
the existing dominant structures so that there is less hierarchy while SEPARATION rejects the dominant
society and organizations, and individuals attempt to join similar co-cultural group members to form
organizations that are reflective of their own values and norms.

Also, some people have the tendency to think and feel that their culture is SUPERIOR than the others so
they use their own culture as the standard in judging other people’s cultures. This is called
ETHNOCENTRISM. CULTURAL RELATIVISM on the other hand sees other cultures equal to their own.

Sociolinguists argue that gender is a social variable that could account for language and communication
differences. Women speeches for instance according to results of some researches suggest that they are
generally characterized as indirect, apologetic, sensitive, relationship-oriented and are usually into
rapport-talk and advise seeking. For example, some studies suggest that women more than men have
the tendency to use the expressions, “Please, correct me if I’m wrong” and similar forms of hedges
(language devices that lessen the appearance of bragging and assertion).

Men’s speech on the other hand are often described to be assertive, dominant, power and status-
oriented, information-oriented and are inclined to report talk.

There are cases however that regardless of gender, one’s talk is characterized as feminine (soft and less
assertive) or masculine depending on one’s personality.

The differences need not be interpreted as to which gender demonstrates a better and more positive
communication patterns or which gender seems to be more inferior. Being aware of the male and
female communication variances could lead to better and deeper understanding of someone in
communication situations.

GENERATION CULTURE COMMUNICATION DIFFERENCES

Every generation or age group may also use its own unique set of jargons or lingos in their casual
conversations. Their era’s trends, popular events, movies, television shows, radio programs, songs and
literature among many other machineries could introduce these lingos. Also, technology has made some
changes on words and introduced ones that are easier to type (forming acronyms) and innovative. The
digital natives or the “millenials” are the ones who are creatively using them.

The following are a few examples of popular or viral English terms and expressions among the millenials
from John Brandon.

Sometimes, it almost seems like people are speaking in Klingon.

With the advent of social media and texting came an entirely new way to communicate. It's a mix of
shorthand, conjoined words, abbreviations, and phrases that came about because of a meme or even a
mistake on social media that people found funny--and useful for communicating in a digital age. Here
are a few I've heard or discovered on social media myself. (With a special shout-out to my Twitter pals
for the help.)

1. Phubbing

I'm reading an early review copy of a book by Sherry Turkle and this word comes up a few times. It
means someone is talking to you while he or she is texting or on a computer. It's a negative term only
because it's impossible for most of us to talk and type at the same time.

2. Hundo P

This phrase is fairly obvious when you think about it. It means "a hundred percent" or that the person
using the phrase is supportive and approves.

3. JOMO (Joy of missing out)

Millenials like to take an overused acronym like FOMO (fear of missing out) and twist it to their will. The
"joy of missing out" means missing something that was lame in the first place.

4. Sorry not sorry

Fake apologies are part of the ethos when you are a Millennial. You are a little sorry, but you also want
to make fun of the idea of being sincerely apologetic when it is not deserved.

5. I can't even

When you hear this phrase at work, watch out. It means the speaker is losing patience, is at a loss for
words, and is pretty annoyed about something.

6. The struggle is real

When Millenials use this phrase at work, it means they are annoyed. They might use the phrase to let
you know there is a tough problem or a real hardship.

7. On fleek

Used originally in an Instagram post about eyebrows (yes, the origin stories for these terms tend to be
as weird as the terms themselves), being "on fleek" means to be on point. In a business context, it
means something was well executed and is worthy of acknowledgement.

8. Dipset

I was confused when I heard this one on social media. It means to bail on something--to leave because
something is lame. You might "dipset" from a meeting if the topic is boring. If you use this one, let me
know if people understand you.

9. Bae
This word has fallen out of favor, that probably was not necessary, but you'll still hear people use it at
work. It means your significant other.

10. V

Another "word" that is a single letter, v is common because it adds some emphasis to texting and social
media conversations. It means "very," as in "I'm v excited" about this project. It also means you don't
have to type three extra letters.

11. Perf

Another shortened word, perf means "perfect" and denotes agreement to a cause or plan. Like many of
the slang words on this list, it came about because you don't have to type as many letters. Just don't
confuse it with the shortened version of performance.

12. JK

JK--just kidding--is not a new abbreviation, but it has stood the test of time. It's used when someone has
made a joke and wants to make you pick up on the humor.

13. It me

This shortened version of "it's me" is often used as a term of agreement and self-identification. It means
the person identifies with the topic, but they don't want to explain at length. It's just a quick way to say
you can relate to something.

14. P

Is one letter by itself a word? That's something Oxford will have to decide if it hasn't already, but to
Millennials, p is already part of their cannon. It's a replacement for pretty (as in "I'm p excited") and
might show up in your next email conversation.

15. TBH

This one is pretty easy to guess (or should I say "it p easy to guess"?). It means "to be honest" and is
usually followed by either a joke or a more sincere comment.

EXPLANATION OF REGISTER IN ENGLISH FOR WRITING AND SPEAKING

Vocabulary:

For centuries in Britain, Anglo-Norman French was the language used by the aristocracy, law courts, and
formal education in schools, and universities and in some sections of the gentry. Latin was the language
of business and the church.

At the time, English was classed as the language of the common people.
Because of this history of language in Britain, French, and to a lesser extent Latin have both remained
integrated with modern English. Therefore, the choice of words and verbs, in particular, based on their
etymology govern modern English register.

Latin and French-based verbs are always one full word, quite long, and are generally used in formal
writing and speaking. Most single-word Anglo-Saxon verbs are recognizably very short. Think about to
do, to hit, to put, to look, to give, to run, and to jump. These are informal.

English phrasal verbs are always a short verb plus one or two particles, which are mostly prepositions.
Examples are, give up, call in, take off and get on with.

If we take a few Latin and French-based verbs such as to receive, to purchase, to comprehend, to
appreciate, to tolerate, to schedule, to consider, to approve, and to accommodate, they are noticeably
much longer. These formal verbs would be replaced in informal register with to get, to buy, to get, to
like, to put up with, to set up, to think about, to okay, and to put up.

Common and uncommon words are often words such as linking words. And, but and so are informal,
while furthermore, however, and therefore are the formal equivalents.

What is vulgar language or vocabulary? Examples of common or vulgar words and expressions are, ta for
thank you, ta-ta for goodbye, tummy for the stomach and belly button for the navel.

For vocabulary register, you can use this general rule of thumb. You would use long words and verbs if
you are wearing formal attire and you attend a formal dinner or formal garden party.

But you would short words that are informal when conversing with friends or family at a picnic.

Punctuation

Register punctuation is defined as contraction and abbreviation both in writing and speaking.

Without contractions or abbreviations, it is formal language, and with all contractions and abbreviations,
it is informal.

While asap, memo and HQ are informal because they are abbreviations, as soon as possible,
memorandum and headquarters are formal because they are written or said in full.

As for contraction, when speaking to a friend, one might say, “I wouldn’t’ve baked a cake if I’d known
you weren’t coming.”

But if this phrase were used when speaking to your boss it would change to the formal structure of, “I
would not have arranged the meeting if I had known you would not be available.”

Another example is that the modal verb will is always used in full in formal register, and always
contracted in informal language. We will arrive as compared to we’ll arrive. The same rule applies to the
verb can in the negative.
I can’t come on Friday. Informal.

I cannot (or can not) attend on Friday. Formal.

Grammar

The structures noted in the table are mostly self-explanatory. But the ones that do need a little
explanation are noun and verb phrases. Simply put, a noun phrase uses an object as the subject of a
phrase, and not a subject pronoun or name.

Often this results in creating the passive voice. For instance:

Joe and Charles attended the meeting. Informal.

The meeting was attended by Joe and Charles. Formal.

Joe and Charles thought the meeting was a success. Informal.

The meeting was thought to have been a success. Formal.

Robert Mortimer built the house in 1789. Informal.

The house was built in 1789 by Robert Mortimer. Formal.

Mary and Ryan went to a formal dance on Saturday. Informal.

The formal dance was attended by Mary and Ryan. Formal.

Another important grammar point is in constructing correct indirect questions. Care should always be
taken to ensure that only one question structure is used in the complete phrase. This always means
structuring the first verb phrase as the question and the second verb phrase in statement order. It is a
common cause of grammar mistakes.

In the two examples below, the first moves the verb to be, and in the second, the auxiliary do is dropped
in the indirect or polite question form.

What is your name? This is a direct informal question.

Could you please tell me what your name is? This is an indirect formal question.

Do you have time for a quick chat? This is a direct informal question.

I was wondering if you have time for a quick discussion? This is an indirect formal question.

Inversion sentences and clauses are also quite common in formal writing but are rare in any form of
informal discourse. On the other hand, question tags are always classed as informal.
HIGHLIGHTING THE DIFFERENCES IN LANGUAGE REGISTER FORMALITY

When you learn how to write a formal letter there are a number of conventions you need to follow.

With formal letter writing you know that you should write Dear Sir or Madam before the first paragraph
of your letter and Yours sincerely or Yours faithfully at the end. Depending on letter format styles in
different countries, you might put the street address of the person in the top right- hand corner of the
page.

The sender’s address would then be on the left. For some, it is a good idea to left justify the body of the
letter. For others, it could be to fully justify so that the text is equally spaced on both sides of the page.

For a business letter or cover letter, there are many options and standards.

However, these rules and guides are not governed by the use of register in writing. Salutations and
layout are protocols that can differ greatly from country to country.

However, when it comes to writing the letter, the body of the text will use register to control formal
writing. This applies to any form of communication both in writing and orally.

Here are two example forms of a letter, without salutations. Both are concerning the same subjects but
written in different registers.

Example formal letter

Thank you for your letter we received on the 14th of September 2018.

A copy has been sent to company headquarters in addition to a memorandum concerning your financial
situation.

A meeting has been scheduled for the 3rd October 2018 at 11 am to discuss your request for a further
bank loan. Therefore, please inform us of your availability for this meeting at the earliest opportunity.

However, a number of issues concerning your income and expenditure may be queried prior to a loan
being granted.

Furthermore, the General Manager needs to be contacted in order to authorize bank loans of this
nature. Moreover, your previous failure to meet payment arrangements will first have to be considered.

Nevertheless, in the interim, you are required to complete the enclosed business plan, which should be
brought to the meeting.

Example informal letter

Thanks for your letter. We got it on 14 Sept.

We’ve sent a copy to comp. H.Q. along with a memo re. your financial situation. I’ve set a meeting for 3
Oct at 11 am to talk about another bank loan.
So, please let us know if you can make it a.s.a.p. But, we might ask you a few things to do with your inc.
and exp. before giving you a loan.

Also, I need to get in touch with the G.M. to okay it.

Plus, we’ll first have to think about the last time you didn’t keep up with your payments. Anyway, in the
meantime, you need to fill in this business plan. Bring it to the meeting with you.

Compare the changes from the first letter to the second letter to understand how the formality has been
changed by the use of grammar, vocabulary, and punctuation.

SUMMARY

The ability to maintain consistent register is a skill all writers need to master.

It is a way to avoid long descriptive phrases of how a character says something. Or worse, using adverbs
to describe how a character speaks.

Register allows a fiction writer to maintain a consistent voice for characters and to give consistency to
the narrative. All of this can be controlled by the correct use and control of register in English.

If you are writing fiction and your character is wearing a suit or a formal dress, they should probably be
using formal register.

If they are dressed in jeans and a t-shirt, then perhaps informal or even vulgar language would be more
suitable. The most important point to remember is that you should never mix formal and informal
registers. You can refer to the table above to ensure that you stay in your selected level of formality.

While there are some minor differences in register between United States and British English, the basic
rules of maintaining register are relatively consistent across all forms of English.

DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

English is the most widely-spoken language in the world, having the distinct status of being the official
language of multiple countries. While the English language is uniform with major variations in spelling
present between American English and British English, the dialect or accent is usually the factor that
enables one to distinguish the various types of English out there. Like most languages, there are varieties
of English too, however, the difference is not as prominent as you may see in other languages.

From the thick Ugandan English to the French-themed Canadian English, the varieties of accents present
are both diverse and beautiful. Apart from accents, there is a tendency for people to mix English with
their local lingo to form a hybrid variety of English language that is as colorful as the culture in that
country.

VARIOUS ENGLISH LANGUAGE DIALECTS FROM AROUND THE WORLD

BRITISH ENGLISH - Is the English language as spoken and written in the United Kingdom or, more
broadly, throughout the British Isles. Slight regional variations exist in formal, written English in the
United Kingdom.

English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by
Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands.
The resident population at this time was generally speaking Common Brittonic—the insular variety of
continental Celtic, which was influenced by the Roman occupation. This group of languages (Welsh,
Cornish, Cumbric) cohabited alongside English into the modern period, but due to their remoteness
from the Germanic languages, influence on English was notably limited.

AMERICAN ENGLISH

Sometimes called United States English or U.S. English, is the set of varieties of the English language
native to the United States and widely adopted in Canada. English is the most widely spoken language in
the United States and is the common language used by the federal government, considered the de facto
language of the country because of its widespread use. English has been given official status by 32 of the
50 state governments.

AUSTRALIAN ENGLISH

Australian English is a major variety of the English language, used throughout Australia. Although English
has no official status in the constitution, Australian English is the country’s national and de facto official
language as it is the first language of the majority of the population.

Australian English began to diverge from British English after the founding of the Colony of New South
Wales in 1788 and was recognized as being different from British English by 1820. It arose from the
intermingling of early settlers from a great variety of mutually intelligible dialectal regions of the British
Isles and quickly developed into a distinct variety of English.

CANADIAN ENGLISH

Canadian English is the set of varieties of English native to Canada. According to the 2011 census, English
was the first language of approximately 19 million Canadians (57% of the population) the remainder of
the population were native speakers of Canadian French (22%) or other languages (allophones, 21%).

The term “Canadian English” is first attested in a speech by the Reverend A. Constable Geikie in an
address to the Canadian Institute in 1857. Canadian English is the product of five waves of immigration
and settlement over a period of more than two centuries. The first large wave of permanent English-
speaking settlement in Canada, and linguistically the most important, was the influx of loyalists fleeing
the American Revolution, chiefly from the Mid-Atlantic States – as such, New York, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Washington, D.C., Virginia, and West Virginia. Canadian English is
believed by some scholars to have derived from northern American English.

INDIAN ENGLISH
English public instruction began in India in the 1830s during the rule of the East India Company (India
was then, and is today, one of the most linguistically diverse regions of the world). In 1835, English
replaced Persian as the official language of the Company. Lord Macaulay played a major role in
introducing English and western concepts to education in India. He supported the replacement of
Persian by English as the official language, the use of English as the medium of instruction in all schools,
and the training of English-speaking Indians as teachers.

The view of this language among many Indians has gone from associating it with colonialism to
associating it with economic progress, and English continues to be an official language of India, albeit
with an Indian twist, popularly known as Indian English.

PHILIPPINE ENGLISH

Philippine English is any variety of English (similar and related to American English) native to the
Philippines, including those used by the media and the vast majority of educated Filipinos. English is
taught in schools as one of the two official languages of the country, the other being Filipino (Tagalog).

Philippine English has evolved tremendously from where it began decades ago. Some decades before
English was officially introduced, if not arguably forced, to the Philippines, the archipelagic nation has
been subject to Spanish rule and thus Spanish was the language of power and influence. However, in
1898, when the Spanish gave the United States control of the nation, the English language, although
initially not favored, became widely used in a matter of years, which was catalyzed by the coming of
American teachers.

According to an article written by Gleaner, we have six language registers: formal, casual, intimate,
private, frozen and consultative. These registers can be used depending on the situation and people we
encounter. It is essential to use appropriate varieties and registers of language in certain communication
context because in different situations and people call for different registers. It shows the level of
formality and informality of the language used. When we use appropriate varieties and register of
language we‘re showing respect, interest, comfortableness and professionalism.

However, we have different approach in language register when it comes to face-to-face conversation
and in written mode. We characterized face-to-face conversation as multi-modality because we can use
different registers and we considered the status, position or the way of living of the person we‘re
communicating with in order to know when and where to use or drop the formality. While in writing a
paper we commonly use the formal register since the construction of sentences, correction of grammar
and appropriate using of words really matter.

CHARACTERISTICS OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE

Permanence– once something is written down and delivered in its final form to its intended audience,
the writer abdicates certain power: the power to amend, to clarify and to withdraw. Students think that
the fact of releasing a written work to their instructor is the same that put themselves in front of a firing
squad. The teacher has to remember, though that he is a guide, a facilitator. So he has to revise and
refine students’ works in order to lessen their lack of confidence in their written outputs.

Production time– there are good and bad news in writing. The good news is that given the appropriated
stretches of time, a writercan become indeed a good writer by developing efficient processes for
achieving the final product. The bad news is that, most of the educational contexts require students to
write within time limitations or simply writing for display. The goal of the teacher then is to train the
students to give their best given the time limitations.

Distance– one of the biggest problems that a writer faces is anticipating the intended audience. This
anticipation ranges from the audience’s general characteristics to how words, phrases, sentences and
paragraphs are going to be interpreted. The distance factor needs to have cognitive empathy. This
means that good writers can read their own writing from the perspective of the mind of the targeted
audience. It is very important that writers predict audience’s general knowledge.

Orthography– there are two kinds of students. The first are the ones who are not literate in their native
language. With these students, the teacher has to begin with the fundamentals of reading and writing.
The second kind of students are the ones who are literate of their native language but is not alphabetic.
New symbols have to be created by using their hands.

Complexity – writers must be good at some activities like removing redundancy, combining sentences,
making references of the other elements in a text, and creating syntactical and lexical variety.

Vocabulary – writers must take advantage of the richness of the English vocabulary. They have to know
everything from single greetings to full blown essays by mastering a few dozen letters and other written
symbols.

Formality- this is a complex convention for academic writing (describe, explain, compare, criticize, argue,
etc.). If the writer is into academic writing, it means the product has to be formal and polite. Because of
that the language that they use has to formal and polite.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE

1. VARIATION IN SPEED

2. LOUDNESS OR QUIETNESS

3. GESTURES

4. INTONATION

5. STRESS

6. RHYTHM

7. PITCH RANGE
8. PAUSING AND PHRASING

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE

WRITTEN:

· Tends to be more complex and intricate than speech with longer sentences and many subordinate
clauses. The punctuation and layout of written text also have no spoken equivalent.

· Usually permanent and written texts cannot usually be changed once they have been printed/written
out

· Written text can communicate across time and space for as long as the particular language and writing
system is still understood.

· Writers can make use of punctuation, headings, layouts, colors and other graphical effects in their
written texts.

· Some grammatical constructions are only used in writing as are some kinds of vocabulary such as some
complex chemical and legal terms.

SPOKEN:

· Tends to be full or repetitions, incomplete sentences, corrections and interruptions with the exception
of formal speeches and other scripted forms of speech such as news reports and scripts for plays and
films.

· Usually transient unless recorded and speakers can correct themselves and change their utterances as
they go along.

· Speech is usually used for immediate interactions.

· Speech can us timing, tone, volume and tremble to add emotional context.

· Some types of vocabulary are used only or mainly speech. These include slang expressions, and tags
like y’know, like, etc.

REGISTER IN ENGLISH WRITING AND HOW TO CONTROL IT

The first question you may be asking is, what is register in English?

Language register in English is the scale of formality we use when we write and speak.

Register in linguistics is divided into five basic levels describing different types of register or formality
definition in writing and speaking.

They are, high formal, formal, neutral, informal, and vulgar.

These are also sometimes called address registers because we use them to address people in different
situations in life as a speaker or writer.

They work to increase the variety of a language as well as the appropriateness in writing and speaking.

The term register also defines the differences between when, why, and how we use formal or informal
language in our day to day life.

WHY DO YOU NEED TO CONTROL REGISTER?

For authors, using appropriate and consistent register can help in showing, instead of telling, your story.
When you use a certain register for your characters it can bring them to life. For the narrative, you might
choose a different register.

For article and blog writers, maintaining a constant register helps you to deliver your message in your
voice and style. Think of it as a tool that can help your readers get to know you. Can you mix registers?
Yes, of course, you can. But perhaps you need to know the rules before you can break them.

THE SIX BASIC ENGLISH LANGUAGE REGISTER DEFINITION LEVELS

High formal: It is the level of language that you would use in spoken English on formal occasions to
address the Queen, an archbishop, president, or prime minister. It is also often used in legal
correspondence, proceedings, and especially in a court of law.

Formal: You would use Formal language when you speak or write to your boss, a client, or in a
transactional letter. The formal language definition is sometimes called the consultative register. You
use it when, for example, you are referring to or talking to your doctor and using the polite address of
Dr.

Neutral: It is the formal or conventional language level you would use in transactional situations. The
subject matter could include business letters, report writing, business plans, marketing presentations, or
speaking to a client. It often uses the passive voice to avoid attribution, fault, or responsibility.

Informal: You use informal or casual register when you speak to or write emails and messages to friends,
family, or work colleagues.

Vulgar: The vulgar definition is not the language of a smutty joke. This intimate register refers to the
type of language we use when we talk to immediate or close family members, very close friends, a child,
or a family pet.

Frozen or static register:Although it is not covered in this article, this is one more form of register in
English. It is language use that remains unchanged due to custom or etiquette, particularly in printed or
often repeated form. Examples of the frozen register include biblical quotations, oaths of office, prayers,
or a pledge of allegiance.

ENGLISH REGISTER AND THE YOU PROBLEM

For writers, it is very important to know how to use the different formality levels.

Register is the level and a tool that you can use to develop a style, especially in dialogue, to give
characters a consistent voice using natural language.

Unlike many Latin languages, which have dedicated formal and informal subject pronoun and verb
conjugations, register in English uses a far more complex array of vocabulary and grammar structures to
govern register.

In French, for instance, these two phrases that ask “how are you?” clearly identify formality because
French has two forms of the second person subject pronoun, you.

HOW DO YOU USE AND CONTROL REGISTER AND FORMALITY CONSISTENTLY IN ENGLISH?

Language register, or formality definition, is controlled by using three language points. They are
grammar, vocabulary, and punctuation. These elements are common to all linguistic varieties of English
international register.

The table below shows you the key differences between the basic formal and informal registers.

The Visual Elements are Line, Shape, Tone, Color, Pattern, Texture and Form.

They are the building blocks of composition in art.

THE VISUAL ELEMENTS OF ART:

The Visual Elements are Line - Shape - Tone - Color - Pattern - Texture - Form. They are the building
blocks of composition in art. When we analyze any drawing, painting, sculpture or design, we examine
these component parts to see how they combine to create the overall effect of the artwork.

The Visual Elements have a relationship to one another:

Most images begin their life as line drawings.

Lines cross over one another to form shapes.

Shapes can be filled with tone and color, or repeated to create pattern.

A shape may be rendered with a rough surface to create a texture.

A shape may be projected into three dimensions to create form.

Each of the elements may also be used individually to stress their own particular character in an
artwork.
Different elements can express qualities such as movement and rhythm, space and depth, growth and
structure, harmony and contrast, noise and calm and a wide range of emotions that make up the
subjects of great art.

The Visual Elements – Line

Line is the foundation of all drawing. It is the first and most versatile of the visual elements of art. Line in
an artwork can be used in many different ways. It can be used to suggest shape, pattern, form,
structure, growth, depth, distance, rhythm, movement and a range of emotions.

We have a psychological response to different types of lines:

Curved lines suggest comfort and ease

Horizontal lines suggest distance and calm

Vertical lines suggest height and strength

Jagged lines suggest turmoil and anxiety

The way we draw a line can convey different expressive qualities:

Freehand lines can express the personal energy and mood of the artist

Mechanical lines can express a rigid control

Continuous lines can lead the eye in certain directions

Broken lines can express the ephemeral or the insubstantial

Thick lines can express strength

Thin lines can express delicacy

The Visual Elements - Shape

Shape can be natural or man-made, regular or irregular, flat (2-dimensional) or solid (3- dimensional),
representational or abstract, geometric or organic, transparent or opaque, positive or negative,
decorative or symbolic, colored, patterned or textured.

The Perspective of Shapes: The angles and curves of shapes appear to change depending on our
viewpoint. The technique we use to describe this change is called perspective drawing.

The Behavior of Shapes:

Shapes can be used to control your feelings in the composition of an artwork

Squares and Rectangles can portray strength and stability

Circles and Ellipses can represent continuous movement

Triangles can lead the eye in an upward movement

Inverted Triangles can create a sense of imbalance and tension

The Visual Elements - Tone

Tone is the lightness or darkness of a color. The tonal values of an artwork can be adjusted to alter its
expressive character.

Tone can be used:

To create a contrast of light and dark.

To create the illusion of form.

To create a dramatic or tranquil atmosphere.

To create a sense of depth and distance.

To create a rhythm or pattern within a composition.

The Visual Elements - Color

Color is the visual element that has the strongest effect on our emotions. We use color to create the
mood or atmosphere of an artwork.

There are many different approaches to the use of color:

Color as light

Color as tone

Color as pattern

Color as form

Color as symbol

Color as movement

Color as harmony

Color as contrast

Color as mood

The Visual Elements - Pattern

Pattern is made by repeating or echoing the elements of an artwork to communicate a sense of balance,
harmony, contrast, rhythm or movement.

There are two basic types of pattern in art: Natural Pattern and Man-Made Pattern. Both natural and
man-made patterns can be regular or irregular, organic or geometric, structural or decorative, positive
or negative and repeating or random.

Natural Pattern: Pattern in art is often based on the inspiration we get from observing the natural
patterns that occur in nature. We can see these in the shape of a leaf and the branches of a tree, the
structure of a crystal, and the spiral of a shell, the symmetry of a snowflake and the camouflage and
signaling patterns on animals, fish and insects.

Man-Made Pattern: Pattern in art is used for both structural and decorative purposes. For example, an
artist may plan the basic structure of an artwork by creating a compositional pattern of lines and shapes.
Within that composition he/she may develop its visual elements to create a more decorative pattern of
color, tone and texture across the work.

The Visual Elements - Texture

Texture is the surface quality of an artwork - the roughness or smoothness of the material from which it
is made. We experience texture in two ways: optically (through sight) and physically (through touch).

Optical Texture: An artist may use his/her skillful painting technique to create the illusion of texture. For
example, in the detail from a traditional Dutch still life above you can see remarkable verisimilitude (the
appearance of being real) in the painted insects and drops of moisture on the silky surface of the flower
petals.

Physical Texture: An artist may paint with expressive brushstrokes whose texture conveys the physical
and emotional energy of both the artist and his/her subject. They may also use the natural texture of
their materials to suggest their own unique qualities such as the grain of wood, the grittiness of sand,
the flaking of rust, the coarseness of cloth and the smear of paint.

Ephemeral Texture: This is a third category of textures whose fleeting forms are subject to change like
clouds, smoke, flames, bubbles and liquids.

The Visual Elements - Form

Form is the physical volume of a shape and the space that it occupies.

o Form can be representational or abstract.

o Form generally refers to sculpture, 3D design and architecture but may also relate to the illusion of 3D
on a 2D surface.

Three-Dimensional Form can be modelled (added form), carved (subtracted form) and constructed (built
form). It can be created from sculptural materials like clay, wax, plaster, wood, stone, concrete, cast and
constructed metal, plastics, resins, glass and mixed media. It may also be kinetic, involving light and
movement generated by natural, mechanical and electronic means. More recently the CAD process of
3D printing has been added to the list of sculptural processes.

Two-Dimensional Form constructs the illusion of 3D in 2D media by a skillful manipulation of the visual
elements. Perspective drawing, trompe l'oeil [1], 3D computer graphics programs and holograms are
examples of 2D form.

Grand narratives have come to extinction. Those pieces of history that the great Napoleon Bonaparte
considers ‘one-sided account’ no longer stand as sell-outs. These are no longer sufficient to make people
understand the phenomena around them.

As issues arise the determination to comprehend them more than ever can be seen in how
advertisements emerge in the limelight as ground-breaking technology that advances advocacies.
People realize of their importance. Gradually, tiny details manage to awaken their sensibilities.

Evaluating messages in this era is made simpler. Looking at them through several lenses is helpful as
culture is arbitrary in nature. It conveys ideas that are distinct and rooted in myriad sensibilities. What
one experiences is what one brings to the table to further explain what is depicted in the picture, video
or any form of illustration. Unlocking messages is central to evaluation. So be mindful of the elements
that make up the bulk of the illustration, as these are the ones you will be assessing as you read on.

GUIDE QUESTIONS IN UNLOCKING MESSAGES

What is the general motif of the picture?

How does the motif reflect interrelatedness of the elements?

What objects/elements stand out?

What objects/words seem out of place?

What culture prevails in understanding the meaning conveyed?

What general note can be drawn from the picture?

INFO CORNER:

A MOTIF is a usually recurring salient thematic element

(As in the arts) especially: a dominant idea or central theme.

GUIDE QUESTIONS IN EVALUATING MESSAGES

How is the message conveyed?

What belief is used to support the message?

In what way is the message best delivered?

To what extent is the impact of the message felt?

Who is the addressee of the message?

What ethos does the message support?

Simple unlocking means distinguishing the objects present, even colors. As these gradually come to the
fore, careful investigations of the value each present follows.

The explosion of cultures is alluded to how distinct people’s ideas are from each other. Pinning down a
meaning to something without acknowledging the culture of the author is perhaps considered an
offense. Without examining the cultural backdrop, many things could be displaced, and out of the many
things identity is unquestionably the first one to lose essence.

Within man’s spectrum, messages could go ad infinitum – these make him who he is. Evaluating them
would support the quest for truth behind his consciousness.

EASY STEPS:

Determine what you will evaluate.

Define your goal.

State your objective.

Identify your audience.

Establish your baseline.

“Our interpersonal effectiveness depends on more than words. Nonverbal messages add to or detract
from our words. In effect, we become the message, with our nonverbal cues announcing our state of
mind, and sense of self. Our entire beings chatter incessantly, revealing what we really feel and think.”

Listening to someone talking gives the privilege of proving his sincerity to the addressees. Like many
politicians, anyone finds common gestures along with words uttered. This is based on the premise that
human beings share commonalities. Standing before a crowd, for example, not only exposes one’s
vulnerabilities but it also shows, most importantly, his ability to overcome the fear of public speaking. In
many instances, speakers are evaluated based on the tiniest of details they display to people. This
implies that nonverbal cues are so powerful in communication.

People unknowingly uncover the other side of themselves when communication is free-flowing. It does
reveal habits such as gestures while speaking. While these do not necessarily define an individual’s
overall being, it shows, however, a huge part of the psyche. It is important to note that this does not at
all translate into changing personalities by putting an end to some of these habits.
At the end of the day, the concern is just to evaluate messages put across by these manifestations
during communication. What is more vital in the process is the ability to understand what they would
want to convey to add clarity to the spoken words.

INFO CORNER

TYPES OF NONVERBAL CUES

Kinesics: Facial expressions, gestures, eye movement,

Posture: rate of walk

Paralinguistics: How words are spoken, variations in the voice

Proxemics: How space and distance are used

Haptics: different types of touching

Clothing & Artifacts: Appearance, style

Color: Variations in clothing & environmental colors

Chronemics: Using time to communicate

Rich expressions provide rich meanings. The eyes primarily reflect the totality of an individual. They are
considered as the windows of the soul. The sample images are snapshots from HBO’s World Premiere of
Game of Thrones Season 7, Episode 6. Characters (Jon, Arya, Sansa, and Daenerys) are immensely
celebrated by fans all over the world for their unparalleled artistry in evoking emotions that intensify the
impact of what needs to be delivered.

Disclaimer: The inclusion of information from Game of Thrones is giving credit to the world-renowned
characters that specifically highlight the impact of careful communicative strategies employed in a given
context.

A “text” isn‘t limited to something written down. A text can be a film, an artifact, anything in a language
and culture that conveys meaning. Think about the text that you use in your language classroom: what‘s
in the textbook? What do you read in class or even at home? How do you describe the classroom, its
design? Why do you think the chairs are placed facing the tables? Those questions, with its finite answer
would tell you that there are texts that are reflection of one‘s own culture.

Text can be categorized into the following groups:

Created texts: Texts authored by non-native speakers for non-native speakers to achieve pre-
determined curricular goals.
Semi-authentic texts: Texts created by native and/or non-native speaker, based on original language
materials, but adapted to fit curricular needs.

Authentic texts: Texts created by native speakers for native speakers for consumption in a native
environment.

Cultural texts are those objects, actions, and behaviors that reveal cultural meanings. A photo is an
image, but is also a cultural text, a picture with cultural information beyond just the picture itself. Food
and clothing also suggest cultural information, and it doesn‘t stop there. The entire place and space, all
of the people and interaction, all of the rituals and rules and the various forms in which they manifest
themselves, are “readable” texts, suitable for observation and analysis by the ethnographer and writer
—namely by you.

The initial description of a cultural text may make it seem as though everything is a cultural text. While
in some sense true, this doesn‘t mean that every text has particular cultural relevance. Sometimes a
book is just a book; a picture is just a picture. The difference between relevant cultural texts, (one that
has one connection with your project) and an irrelevant cultural text, (one that may have nothing to do
with your project), has to do with the meaning transferred to that text by the people who create and/or
use the text.

Identification of a cultural text is relatively easy. Take a look around the room or place you are in right
now and briefly catalog the people and/or thing you see. These objects and actions are cultural texts.

HOW TO EVALUATE MESSAGES AND IMAGES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF TEXT REFLECTING DIFFERENT
CULTURE?

The following should do:

o Understand how the specified cultures live.

o How the people in the specified group communicate each other.

o Learn the symbolism of their culture.

o Be aware in every detail such as artifact, language, and symbolism.

Text is not literal text, but in semiotics refers to a combination of signs, signifies and mechanism like
metonymy. A text could be a sentence, paragraph an image, a story, or a collection of stories. Collection
of signs in a single photograph or painting, a video clip, a television show, a feature film and whenever
these signs come together in the land of semiotics, they become texts. These texts can be understood,
rearranged and put together in different combinations, with different meanings to different groups of
people. But cultural texts are not one-dimensional. A text is not simply representative of one culture; it
does not belong to one culture, even if it purposely excludes others semiotically. Cultural texts are multi-
dimensional, they are dynamic.
A cultural text is perhaps better understood as having cultural layers of understanding where groups
different in age, race, nationality, sexual orientation may read and understand a collection of signs in
different ways. Depending on the producer or the audience, the text itself has a kind of flexibility in
meaning to different people when it starts to operate culturally.

Multimodality refers to the interplay between different representational modes, for instance, between
images and written/spoken word. Multimodal representations mediate the sociocultural ways in which
these modes are combined in the communication process (Kress & Van Leeuwen 2001, p. 20).
Nowadays, it is difficult to draw lines between reading, speech, watching and writing. Humans are not
only targets of messages but also producers of communications and meanings and participants in
meaning-making communities and networks (Lankshear & Knobel 2006). Using video games as a
research target, Gee (2003) has outlined the relationship between literacy and learning.

According to Gee, language is not the only important communication system in digital media, since
visual symbols and signs are as significant as written or spoken language. The idea of visual literacy as a
part of new literacies is an important one. Words and images are integrated in a variety of ways in web
pages, newspapers and magazines, as well as in textbooks. Gee stresses that in specific domains,
content is generated, debated and transformed via distinctive ways of thinking, talking, valuing, acting
and, often, writing and reading.

Multimodality is an inter-disciplinary approach that understands communication and representation to

be more than about language. It has been developed over the past decade to systematically address
much-debated questions about changes in society, for instance in relation to new media and
technologies.

Multimodal approaches have provided concepts, methods and a framework for the collection and
analysis of visual, aural, embodied, and spatial aspects of interaction and environments, and the
relationships between these. It is the application of multiple literacies within one medium. For example,
understanding a televised weather forecast (medium) involves understanding spoken language, written
language, weather specific language (such as temperature scales), geography, and symbols (clouds, sun,
rain, etc.).

Multiple literacies or "modes" contribute to an audience's understanding of a composition. Everything

from the placement of images to the organization of the content to the method of delivery creates
meaning. This is the result of a shift from isolated text being relied on as the primary source of
communication, to the image being utilized more frequently in the digital age. Multimodality describes
communication practices in terms of the textual, aural, linguistic, spatial, and visual resources used to
compose messages.

Multimodality is a theory which looks at the many different modes that people use to communicate with
each other and to express themselves. This theory is relevant as an increase in technology tools, and
associated access to multimedia composing software, has led to people being able to easily use many
modes in art, writing, music, and dance and every-day interactions with each other.
A mode is generally defined as a communication channel that a culture recognizes. Examples of modes
are writing, gesture, posture, gaze, font choice and color, images, video, and even the interactions
between them.

While many of these modes have always existed, they have not always been recognized as a legitimate
or culturally accepted form of communication or expression. Learning theorists who advocate for
multimodality emphasize that people communicate in a variety of ways, and that in order to completely
understand someone, the many modes they use to communicate must be observed and recognized.

The theory of multimodality can be found in writings and discussions related to communication theory,
linguistics, media literacy, visual literacy, anthropological studies, and design studies.

WHY MULTIMODALITY MATTERS?

The future of reading and writing are closely interwoven with the future of digital technologies.

Students already know much about multimodal texts from their home experiences. As teachers it is their
responsibility to build on these experiences and the students’ knowledge of multimodality in the
classroom. This means we need to recognize the relationships between different modes: text and image,
sound and gesture and use this in our teaching.

Supporting students with reading, analyzing and using modes will enable them to develop literacy skills
for today and the future.

MODES

The following overview of how meaning can be composed through different semiotic resources for each
mode (spoken language, written language, visual, audio, gestural, and spatial) is informed by The New
London Group (2000), Cope and Kalantzis, (2009), and Kalantzis, Cope, Chan, and Dalley-Trim (2016).
Learners engage with all of these meaning making practices through multicultural and/or multilingual
lens.

Currently, there is extensive pedagogic support for teaching meaning making through spoken and
written language, and some resources developed to support teaching meaning making in the visual
mode, through ‘viewing’. However, as yet there are few resources available for teaching young students
how to comprehend and compose meaning in the other modes.

· Written Meaning - Conveyed through written language via handwriting, the printed page, and the
screen. Choices of words, phrases, and sentences are organized through linguistic grammar convention
register (where language is varied according to context), and genre (knowledge of how a text type is
organized and staged to meet a specific purpose). In bilingual or multilingual texts, written meaning may
be conveyed through different scripts and laid out differently, whether typed or handwritten. Learners
may also write words from their home languages using English letters (transliteration).
· Spoken (oral) Meaning - Conveyed through spoken language via live or recorded speech and can be
monologic or dialogic. Choice of words, phrases, and sentences are organized through linguistic
grammar conventions, register, and genre. Composing oral meaning includes choices around mood,
emotion, emphasis, fluency, speed, volume, tempo, pitch, rhythm, pronunciation, intonation, and
dialect. EAL/D learners may make additional choices around the use of home languages to create mood
or emphasize meaning.

· Visual Meaning - Conveyed through choices of visual resources and includes both still image and
moving images. Images may include diverse cultural connotations, symbolism and portray different
people, cultures and practices. Visual resources include: framing, vectors, symbols, perspective, gaze,
point of view, color, texture, line, shape, casting, saliency, distance, angles, form, power,
involvement/detachment, contrast, lighting, naturalistic/non-naturalistic, camera movement, and
subject movement.

· Audio Meaning - Conveyed through sound, including choices of music representing different cultures,
ambient sounds, noises, alerts, silence, natural/unnatural sounds, and use of volume, beat, tempo,
pitch, and rhythm. Lyrics in a song may also include multiple languages.

· Spatial Meaning -Conveyed through design of spaces, using choices of spatial resources including:
scale, proximity, boundaries, direction, layout, and organization of objects in the space. Space extends
from design of the page in a book, a page in a graphic novel or comic, a webpage on the screen, framing
of shots in moving image, to the design of a room, architecture, streetscapes, and landscapes.

· Gestural meaning - Conveyed through choices of body movement; facial expression, eye movements
and gaze, demeanor, gait, dance, acting, action sequences. It also includes use of rhythm, speed,
stillness and angles, including ‘timing, frequency, ceremony and ritual’ (Cope and Kalantzis, 2009. p.
362). Gestures and body language may have diverse cultural connotations.

TYPES OF MULTIMODAL TEXTS

Multimodality does not necessarily mean use of technology, and multimodal texts can be paper- based,
live, or digital.

Paper-based multimodal texts include picture books, text books, graphic novels, comics, and posters.

Live multimodal texts, for example, dance, performance, and oral storytelling, convey meaning through
combinations of various modes such as gestural, spatial, audio, and oral language.

Digital multimodal texts include film, animation, slide shows, e-posters, digital stories, podcasts, and we
b pages that may include hyperlinks to external pronunciation guides or translations.

WHY TEACHING MULTIMODAL LITERACY IS IMPORTANT

Effective contemporary communication requires young people to be able to comprehend, respond to,
and compose meaning through multimodal texts in diverse forms.
To do this, students need to know how each mode uses unique semiotic resources to convey meaning
(Kress, 2010) and this needs to be taught explicitly. In a visual text, for example, representation of
people, objects, and places can be conveyed using choices of visual semiotic resources such as line,
shape, size, line and symbols, while written language would convey this meaning through sentences
using noun groups and adjectives (Callow, 2013) written or typed on paper or a screen.

Students also need to be taught how authors juggle the different modes to determine the most apt way
to tell their story, and how meaning in a multimodal text is ‘orchestrated’ through the selection and use
of different modes in various combinations (Jewitt, 2009. p.15).

A COMMUNICATION MEDIUM is a means of conveying meaning to people. This includes any outlet that
can be used to communicate knowledge, data, emotion, entertainment, visual symbols and any other
type of information. The following are illustrative examples:

· Conversation – an interactive conversation in person or using a voice tool such as a telephone. For
example, word-of-mouth recommendations of a television show that cause viewership to rise.

· Public Speaking – verbal communication that is more or less one-way such as a presentation at a
conference.

· Documents – a written artifact such as a note, research paper, report, chart, presentation or meeting
minutes. Often a digital file.

· Messages – messages that are sent to a person or group of people such as a letter, email, or direct
message.

· Art – art and performance are forms of communication. For example, a painting that critiques society,
culture, politics or economics.

· Music – music such as a song that communicates an emotion or aesthetic.

· Video – video such as a film, television show or a promotional music video.

· Images – static visual information such as photographs, symbols, graphs, or diagrams.

· Publication – documents that are distributed to the public such as a book, eBook or newspaper.

· Media – information environments that can be explored as a website or app.

· Broadcast Media – any media that is transmitted from a single point to a large audience such a radio
station or television show.

· Social Media – tools that allow anyone to share content with a potentially large audience.
· Physical Environment – physical things such a billboard, product package, in-store display or movie
poster.

· Virtual Reality – information conveyed in digitally simulated environments such as a game.

· Mixed Reality – digital elements that are introduced into the real world or vice versa.

Communication requires language. That language can be aural as in the spoken word, it can be gestural
as in sign language, or it can be visual as in design. The more you understand any language the better
you can communicate using that language. The visual language of design is no exception.

Design elements are like letters and words. When we add design principles and apply them to our
elements, our words, we form a visual grammar. As we learn to use both, we enable ourselves to
communicate visually.

DEFINING VISUAL GRAMMAR

Most of the information in this lesson is coming from Christian Leborg’s book; from the preface of the
book:

The reason for writing a grammar of visual language is the same as for any language: to define its basic
elements, describe its patterns and processes, and to understand the relationship between the
individual elements in the system. Visual language has no formal syntax or semantics, but the visual
objects themselves can be classified.

The last point in the quote above is important. It would be great if we could place a circle on the page, a
rectangle to the right of it, and a curved line to the right of the rectangle and have it mean the same
thing to all people. It won’t. That makes it harder to think and communicate visually, though also much
more interesting. It’s one reason a single design problem can have so many different design solutions.

However, we can classify much of this visual grammar. I’m going to deviate just a bit from the way
Christian organizes his book and organize visual grammar as:

Objects – The basic elements we have to work with. Can be abstract or concrete.

Structures – The patterns formed from our basic elements. Can be abstract or concrete.

**Activities **– The processes we can represent with our basic elements and patterns.

Relations – The relationships between objects, patterns, and processes. They’re the way everything in
your design relates to each other and the viewer.

**OBJECTS - **Objects are the basic elements at our disposal. They’re akin to letters and words. We use
objects to express different ideas and concepts. A circle is an object as is a line as is a single character of
type. A single point is an object as is an image of a person holding your product. Objects are the most
basic elements we can add to any design.

Objects can be abstract or concrete.

**ABSTRACT OBJECTS - **Abstract objects are idealized shapes that can’t physically be created. For
example take a point. A point by definition has no area. It only has a position. Any point we try to draw
will have some kind of area if we are to see it and once it does, it ceases to become a point. It can only
exist as an abstract concept and not as a physical thing.

Abstract objects include:

Points – A position on a coordinate system without area. Points have no dimensions

Lines – A series of points adjacent to each other. Points have one dimensions

Surfaces – A series of lines that are adjacent to each other and perpendicular to their direction. Surfaces
have two dimensions.

Volumes – An empty space defined by surfaces, lines, and points. Volumes have three dimensions.

Theoretically objects can have an infinite amount of dimensions. Of course we can only perceive three of
them, width, height, and depth so our abstract objects end with volumes. Beyond volumes we can only
imagine more abstract objects and we can only represent these additional abstract objects using points,
lines, surfaces, and volumes.

Everything we see is perceived in relation to some kind of external limit. This external limit is the format.
For example this post is seen in relation to the format of your browser window. The format of a book or
magazine is the page.

CONCRETE OBJECTS: Concrete objects are perceived within defined limits called contours. Inside and
including the contour itself is our object, our shape, our form, and outside the contour is everything
else. Forms or shapes can be geometric, organic, or random (sometimes called abstract). A circle is an
example of a concrete object. It’s contour being the curved line that encloses it.

Concrete objects have:

Form – defined by a contour of surfaces and lines. A form is how a thing looks.

Size – Forms can be large or small. They are perceived relative to the person viewing, other forms in the
composition, and the format of the design.

Color – we perceive different wavelengths of light as color. A form can be any color, though we are
limited to seeing only those colors in the visual spectrum

Any element we place on the page is a concrete object. Remember abstract objects can not physically be
created. Abstract objects exist to talk about objects in general in order to better describe them.
STRUCTURES - Whenever we place two or more objects in relation to one another we form a structure.
We describe these structures by the patterns they form. We must be able to recognize the presence of a
pattern in order to describe the structure.

Structures have structure lines connecting objects. These lines are the axis along which the objects are
arranged. Structure lines may be visible or invisible and they may be active or inactive.

As with objects, structures can be abstract or concrete.

ABSTRACT STRUCTURES - When the structure lines of a structure are invisible and inactive the structure
is considered to be abstract. Consider the image below. The circles are clearly arranged in a pattern.
There is a structure present, but the lines defining that structure are invisible. Even when the structure
lines are invisible we can often see them in our minds. Through the gestalt principle closure we fill in
what’s missing to complete the picture. Again consider the image above. While no lines are visibly
connecting the circles, it’s easy to imagine straight lines from the center of one circle to the next.
Structure lines are not limited to running through the center of objects though.

In the image below the structure lines are not only invisible, but inactive as well. That is they don’t
influence the form of the structure in any way even while they are defining the position of the structure.

The circles below are an example of a formal structure. The objects are evenly distributed. They’re
symmetrical and arranged on a grid. The structure lines are either horizontal or perpendicular.

Formal structures are not the only type of abstract structures we can encounter or use. Structures can
be categorized as:

• Formal – even distribution of elements and spacing (structure units) between them

• Informal – lacking regularity in the arrangement of objects. Even if a pattern is observed the structure
is informal if the objects do not follow straight structural lines

• Gradation – structure units change in form or size, but at an even rate

• Radiation – structure units radiate from a common center

• Spiral – uneven distribution from a common center

When the structure organizing the objects can be judged by the eye alone we say the structure has
visual distribution. Each form is allowed to occupy a similar amount of space as the others in the
structure.

All compositions or objects are bound within certain limits of the surface on which they exist. These
limiting forces follow certain axis or paths which are considered the structural skeleton of the
composition or object.
In contrary to face-to-face communication, Mediated Communication refers to a communications that
happens using the technological tools of Information and Communication Technology as a mode of
exchanging information to one person or another.

These include the following:

Video communication is achieved by using Web cameras to connect two or more parties. This is the
next- best communication option after face-to-face, as you get most of the same benefits. However,
there is always the possibility of bad connections or other technical issues that hinder the
communication. If there are no technical glitches encountered, this could be very effective mode of
communication especially for people separated by distance. For example, you may engage in a
conversation via Skype with you loved ones especially during significant, meaningful or memorable
occasions. This is a convenient communication mode for people how want to reach-out to each other
despite distance.

Audio Communication is a voice-only form of communication, such as a conversation on a telephone.

This is a good instant communication tool if you catch the person instead of getting an answering
machine or voice mail, but it does not have the benefit of allowing you to see the other person. It is also
more difficult to include more than two parties. An obvious down side of this mode is not being able to
see the body language or cues of the person you are talking to. However, if good listening skills is
applied, one may detect the tone and rising of intonation or pitch of the voice which may indicate the
feeling or mood of the speaker or listener.

The last mode is text-based communication. Although it can be linked or traced back to the traditional
mode of communication, however, because of the evolution of our communication we learned to adapt
and integrate it to our daily living to address such necessities. Like e-mail, text messaging and instant
messaging and social networking site such as Facebook, Twitter and Instagram likewise offer text-based
interaction. Text communication includes Internet communication, such as email, instant messaging and
forums, text messaging and printed papers. Text communication does not have the benefits of audio
and video, but it is much easier to distribute information to a large group of people and save records of
the communication.

Social media can be described as the collection of online platforms that involve sharing and collaborating
with an online community by posting, commenting, and interacting with one another.

The most commonly used social media platforms today are Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest,
LinkedIn, and Snapchat. In the past there are various modes through which we communicate. These
modes took the form of hand written messages, type written messages, short telegrams, computer
encoded text, as well as the audio and video conversations. Each mode of communication is distinct
form the other, the ways in which you craft our messages differ.

Now people can use email, social media, chat messengers, video conferencing, video calls, images,
videos, symbols, diagrams, charts, and emoticons, etc. for the communication. Many things are wasting
our time and we‘re becoming more busy than productive. The debates, questions, viral communications
are not achieving the desired results and conclusions. There are even newer topics to communicate the
next day and we start looking for the next conclusions. If we follow good communication skills we can
use many tools and platform for research and development of nature including a synergistic
development of humans, our environment and natural sources. Technology has affected communication
tremendously, but it is entirely dependent on us how we use it.

Today with the rapid rise and spread of internet connectivity, they old forms of communication have
given way to new forms that make communication easier and faster. The emergence of social media has
created a new avenue for facilitating daily information and communication needs. As technology grows
and expands our range of communication, social media is becoming a vital tool for daily social
interaction. It creates opportunity for people to interact with each other in a way that is both helpful
and essential to socially motivate people. The rapid fire quick communication style that captivates the
millennial and other generation has shifted our conversations from “face-to-face” instances to “through
–the-screen” ones.

Social media and online communication is believed to be having adverse effect on social skills and
communication among adolescents. When social media did not exist and social communication and
interaction were the only way of communication. In the era of technology, social media interactions now
dominates both online and offline conversations. In a society where interacting and over-sharing is the
norm, you are probably more likely to speak to friends and family through electronic devices than face-
to-face. As more generations are born into the social age, social media will continue to be the favoured
communication form among young people. Being able to reach customers, co-workers and vendors
quickly helps improve the efficiency of any business operation. Mobile technology makes it easy to get
or to keep contact information in a mobile device. You can reach out with questions or updates from
anywhere. For example, a manager in the field trying to determine why an order hasn't arrived can
quickly contact his office, supplier and delivery courier within a few minutes from the offsite location.

Furthermore, technology has reduced the amount of face-to-face interaction or the number of actual
telephone conversations that people have. It is much easier to send a quick text rather than to engage in
a phone call. Although this efficiency is certainly a benefit, there is value to the chit-chat that's now
becoming lost. Relationships are built when a business knows its customer and discovers opportunities
to serve them more effectively through personal interactions.

When the message you convey are not communicated properly and felt guilty of not conveying the
message as it wants to be conveyed feels worse. It is because the effective communication is being
hindered by noise or in other reference, barriers. Some of the barriers that obstructs effective
communication include noise, inappropriate medium, assumptions, emotion, and use of jargons or
technical terms, and poor listening skills.

These barriers are categorized into five. Physical, Psychological, Cultural, Language Used, and Personal

It’s no surprise that the widespread use of social media for communicating ideas, personal and
professional stories and experiences has had a profound effect on the overall way people communicate
today. Just how has social media affected communication, you ask? In more ways than you may think!
But not all are bad — just look at our list of social media effects on communication.

Around 3 billion people use social media today, which means that 40% of the world uses social media for
communication. It’s no surprise that this widespread use has social media effects on communication.

11% of adults reported preferring staying home on Facebook than going out on the weekend.
Communication is affected in ways such as personal expression, our expectations of others, and the way
companies communicate with customers.

Exposure to Messaging

· Information Overload - Many people tend to binge on social media, spending hours and hours scrolling
though sites. Ultimately, this may lead to a constant craving of more internet and more social media
consumption. The more people get, the more they want — and it’s hard to stop the cycle.

· Young People Read News - Social media has made reading the news cool again. According to Wibbitz,
23% of young users get news from social media, and a whopping 61% get political news from Facebook.
On social media, people share interesting news they read, and they can follow various news sources’
pages.

· Getting the Full Picture - Stories — a part of Instagram, Snapchat, and Facebook — mean that people
get the full picture of an event, activity, or occurrence in someone’s life. We no longer just get a
snapshot of a home-cooked meal, we might see the entire process from start to finish. This has changed
the way people think about what to post — there is much less thought put into a post when it is a story
that will be erased after 24 hours.

· Boredom in Conversation - Here’s a sad social media effect on communication. We are becoming bored
when we have real, in-person conversations. People have such a need for social media consumption and
that instant, colorful feedback only social media can give, they will often become bored during real
conversations, resorting to their phones. This can lead to a decrease in the quality and number of
meaningful conversations.

· Reactions to Non-Verbal, Emotional, and Social Cues - In-person reactions to non-verbal, emotional, or
social cues are changing in that people don’t need to respond to these types of communication when
they are online. This leads to less experience and awareness of others’ needs based on these types of
cues that can only be received from in-person communication.

Self-Expression

· Sense of Urgency - No one has to wait for longer than a few hours for a response, and people have
come to expect that timeline for conversations. There is so much of a sense of urgency that people are
often anxious if they haven’t heard back from a family member, friend, or partner in a number of hours.
· Need to Share - Social media has created a feeling among users that they must share whatever they are
doing — from restaurant orders, to concerts, to the books they are reading. This can be a social media
positive effect because people are getting more exposure to things they might not otherwise, such as
new reads. But it can also be a negative effect as it can urge people to become dependent on posting
anything occurring in their own lives and painting those occurrences as rosier than they truly are.

· How We Value Ourselves - When people see others having a wonderful life, as represented on social
media, they tend to have a negative self-image, and start to devalue their own ways of life. In addition,
there is a feeling of needing to paint an inaccurately positive and ‘fun’ version of one’s own life which
leads to feelings of negativity about one’s ‘real’ life.

· Inside Perspective of Afar - One of the positive effects of social media is the ability to get an intimate
view of other cultures and places. With social media, especially on Instagram, users are able to see what
others are doing around the world. People are exposed to travel ideas, new cultures, and ways of life
unlike before.

· Broadcasting Live - Broadcasting live started as a fun, innocent idea to share life’s moments, but it’s
transformed to become a large part of political movements, sharing some dark aspects of today’s
society. The option to post live videos has created an important platform for serious issues that need to
be spoken about.

· Personalized Digital Messages - Both Instagram and Snapchat have popularized the highly personalized
message. People can now completely change their own faces with selfie filters, or draw pictures to send
to friends, and more. Creativity soars, which is a great thing, but people can start to spend too much
time personalizing picture messages.

Communication Style

· Summarized Writing - Starting with the limited character text messaging of the 2000s, and nowadays
with the 140-character tweet, messages have been getting shorter and more concise. Other areas of
communication have adapted for summarized writing as well, such as in shortened work memos,
shortened academic communication between students and professors, and shortened messages in
advertising.

· Abbreviations - The abbreviated style of communicating that became popular when text messaging
started in the 00’s has continued into online conversations. It has also made its way into traditionally
non-abbreviated forms of communication such as spoken language, email communication, and even
academic forms of writing. This has caused concern among some academics, citing studies that show a
causation between “textese” and negative effects on literacy skills such as writing skills and reading
accuracy. Other studies show that using “textese” has no effect on spelling ability, or correct grammar
use.
· Unfiltered Interactions - Social media and internet interactions offer a veil between the person sending
and the person receiving the message. These interactions are no longer face to face, and this can lead to
some unfiltered conversations as people feel they can say anything with no repercussions.

· GIFs and Emojis - The introduction of using emojis to illustrate a written message or a GIF to express a
reaction may seem fun and innocent, but it is also interfering with our ability to properly craft a written
response. It ends up being too tempting to respond with a small picture, or a funny moving photo than
to use the mind to create a response with words from scratch.

· Viral Messages - That quick and easy “share” button on so many social media platforms has led to the
phenomenon of “going viral.” Messages, videos, and other content can be easily shared between
platforms with millions of people in a matter of days.

In Business

· Building a Community - By utilizing social media, brands are able to create an entire community based
on their products or services. The use of a particular brand can be integral to being a part of a certain
lifestyle, and social media perpetuates that idea. By being involved with the right communities, or
making your own community out of a brand (such as Disney), companies are creating the most loyal of
customers.

· Brands Are Speaking Directly to Audiences - Companies no longer need to go through media such as TV
stations, magazines, or newspapers to reach consumers. Brands now have direct access to customers by
way of social media — they can now find out exactly the needs of the customer much faster and
respond accordingly.

· Social Media is Changing Traditional Media - Traditional media was such that a brand would just post
an article and it would reach audiences. With social media and the way information reaches consumers
today makes it so that it’s important who is posting or writing about a product. Influencers, bloggers,
and YouTube celebrities can all have a much bigger impact on getting a product successful in the market.

· Brands Can Have a More Personal Connection with the Media - With social media, brands have a more
personal and long-term connection with journalists. Instead of a one-time phone call or email for a story
or new product information, brands can create relationships with journalists and get them interested in
sharing their stories.

· There’s an Opportunity to Coordinate with PR Efforts - Brands can create some important PR
campaigns through social media. Through social media, companies have an easier time finding
influencers to work with, other brands to collaborate with, and news sources to feed stories to.

There are many reasons why interpersonal communications may fail. In many communications, the
message may not be received exactly the way the sender intended and hence it is important that the
communicator seeks feedback to check that their message is clearly understood. There exist many
barriers to communication and these may occur at any stage in the communication process. Barriers
may lead to your message becoming distorted and you therefore risk wasting both time and/or money
by causing confusion and misunderstanding.

Effective communication involves overcoming these barriers and conveying a clear and concise message.

Physical Barrier- this barrier includes the defects in media or the medium for communication,
environment or geographical location, and physical disability like in hearing, vision, or speaking.

Psychological Barrier- it is the manifestations of human behaviour and attitude when communicating.
These are emotions, past experiences or trauma, lacks retention of attention or simply inattentive,
status, and temperament.

Cultural Barrier- include the age and gender of the person, educational background, economic status
quo, popularity, religion, political views, and ethics.

Language Used- as the word posits, it refers to the contributory factor of the diverse language across the
world, dialect, and even its accent or the way the word is uttered. Nonetheless, colloquial term adds the
situation.

Personal Barrier- refers to the poor listening skills, egoistic, interpersonal trust, and ability to
communicate effectively.

For us to be a good communicator, one must develop the effective communications and be able to
identify the barriers in communication.

Thus, identifying the purpose of the message and target audience will give a solid framework and will
determine the success of the communication. However, this cannot be done in just one try, constant
practice and developing good communications skills will improve the way we convey the message to and
equip us to converse with the people surrounding us without any interferences or misunderstanding to
both parties.

“COMMUNICATION MAY BE BROADLY DEFINED AS THE PROCESS OF MEANINGFUL INTERACTION

AMONG HUMAN BEINGS. MORE SPECIFICALLY, IT IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH MEANINGS ARE PERCEIVED
AND UNDERSTANDINGS ARE REACHED AMONG HUMAN BEINGS.” (D.E. MCFARLAND, 1994).

TECHNOLOGY HAS TAKEN OVER THE WORLD IN THESE PAST DECADES. ITS RAPID DEVELOPMENT HAS
MADE A HUGE IMPACT ON EACH ASPECT OF LIFE — AND, YES, COMMUNICATION. BUT HOW HUGE IS
ITS IMPACT...IN COMMUNICATION?

What is a Communication Aid?

A communication aid helps an individual to communicate more effectively with people around them.
Communication aids are also referred to as AAC devices. AAC refers to Augmentative and Alternative
Communication, which is defined as,
… A huge range of techniques which support or replace spoken communication. These include gesture,
signing, symbols, word boards, communication boards and books, as well as Voice Output
Communication Aids (VOCAs).

There are two main types of AAC system:

Unaided Communication and Aided Communication.

Unaided communication does not use additional equipment. Body language, gesture, vocalization,
signing are typically used.

Aided communication uses equipment, but this ranges from low-tech to high-tech methods, with
pictures and symbols often used instead of, or together with words and with alternative hardware
options available to provide access. Whilst a low-tech method of communication like a simple,
laminated communication book to carry around with a few pages of pictures or symbols would be a
communication aid, the term ‘device’ would only describe a more high-tech solution. An electronic
communication aid can be a dedicated device built for that job, which does nothing else, or it can be a
standard computer running specialist communication aid software as well – this includes Apple tablets
which are increasingly being used to help people communicate.

What Are Communication Strategies?

Communication is the exchange of information between a sender and a receiver. It used to be that you
only had to worry about the way you communicated face-to-face or on paper. Technology has changed
this completely. It is important for people to take into account every aspect of how they are relaying
information. This is where communication strategies come into play. Communication strategies are the
blueprints for how this information will be exchanged.

Types of Communication Strategies

Communication strategies can be verbal, nonverbal, or visual. Integrating all the strategies together will
allow you to see the most success. This allows a business to meet employee needs and increase
workplace knowledge.

· Verbal communication strategies can be broken down into the two categories of written and oral
communication. Written strategies consist of avenues such as e-mail, text, and chat. Examples that fall
into the oral category are phone calls, video chats, and face-to-face conversation.

· Nonverbal communication strategies consist of mostly visual cues, such as body language, facial
expressions, physical distance between communicators, or the tone of your voice. These cues are
typically not intended. However, it is important to realize the message you are sending. Otherwise, you
may be saying one thing, yet the receiver is hearing another.
· Visual communication strategies can be seen through signs, web pages, and illustrations. These
strategies are used in the workplace to draw attention and provide documentation. Human resources is
required to post certain visuals throughout the workplace to comply with safety laws.

Using Tools of Technology

Multimedia is content that uses a combination of different content forms such as text, audio, images,
animations, video and interactive content. Multimedia contrasts with media that use only rudimentary
computer displays such as text-only or traditional forms of printed or hand-produced material.

· A transparency, also known variously as a view foil, foil, or view graph, is a thin sheet of transparent
flexible material, typically cellulose acetate, onto which figures can be drawn. These are then placed on
an overhead projector for display to an audience. Many companies and small organizations use a system
of projectors and transparencies in meetings and other groupings of people, though this system is being
largely replaced by video projectors and interactive whiteboards.

· Video is an electronic medium for the recording, copying, playback, broadcasting, and display of
moving visual media.

· Sound recording and reproduction is an electrical, mechanical, electronic, or digital inscription and re-
creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects.

According to Oliver Schinkte, communication is a critical part of our daily lives, and it is something that
we often overlook and fail to practice. There are times that we also disregard the importance of
speaking, listening, and other forms of communication.

Although communication is an innate skill that is subconsciously learned and used, this skills needs to be
enhanced in order to attain a strong foundation of your communication ability.

WHAT ARE BASIC COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES?

In the aspect of communication, there are basic skills that help form the foundations of our more
advanced communication skills. If these basic skills are missing, it is unlikely that more advanced
communication can develop.

As a student, you can thrive whether in writing or speaking, if you understand several foundations of
successful communication. The following are considered as communication fundamentals: know your
purpose, know your audience, organize your ideas, and follow basic communication principles.

KNOW YOUR PURPOSE – why are you speaking? You need to have a specific purpose in mind. A purpose
is an exact statement of what you want your audience to understand, to do, or to believe. You may want
to entertain, inform, or persuade your audience.
KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE – to whom will you speak? As a communicator, it is important that you need to
analyze, cater, and respect the needs of your audience.

ORGANIZE YOUR IDEAS – how will you put your ideas together? Create an outline to diagram how your
communication will be organized. Your outline should help you ensure that you don’t omit any vital
information.

FOLLOW BASIC COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES – how will you be an effective communicator? Master the
principles of clarity in presenting your ideas, use familiar words in communicating your thoughts, and be
an active participant in the entire communication process.

RHETORICAL SITUATION

According to Sprout, Driscoll and Breeze (2012), there is no one singular rhetorical situation that applies
to all instances of communication. Rather, all human efforts to communicate occur within innumerable,
individual, rhetorical situations that are particular to those specific moments of communication.

Likewise, Johnson-Sheehan and Paine, in their textbook Writing Today, state than an awareness of
rhetorical situations can help in both composition and analysis. Once you know how to identify and
analyze the elements of rhetorical situations, you will be able to produce writing that meets your
audience’s needs, fits the specific setting you write in, and conveys your intended message and purpose.

WHAT ARE THE FIVE RHETORICAL SITUATIONS?

As social beings, we communicate on a daily basis. In a broader sense, communication is not only about
using explicit language like speaking and writing words but also about using implicit messages like tone
or eye contact. For an individual to become a successful communicator, he or she needs to learn how to
explicitly and implicitly communicate in various situations. Miller and Webb (1995) identified additional
components to consider in communication called the rhetorical situation which includes: author,
audience, purpose, topic and occasion.

1. AUTHOR

a. Consider your needs as an author:

Work habits

Style

Environment

b. Knowing your style and being able to edit and adjust to a particular situation is essential to effective
communication.

2. AUDIENCE

The level of formality and intimacy are determined by the recipients of communication, your audience.
Different audiences:

o Friend/classmates (personal, informal, jargon, slang)

o Professionals (professional tone, formal language)

3. PURPOSE

a. identify the purpose why you communicate, is it to:

o Inform

o Persuade

o Convince

o Entertain

4. TOPIC

a. this is a specific area of a particular subject that you choose to communicate.

b. this should be clearly revealed to your audience.

5. OCCASION

a. this is one of the circumstances prompting a communication.

b. There should be formality, purpose and tone in an occasion.

INFO CORNER!

Rhetorical Situation – in the classical tradition, the art of public speaking is called rhetoric, the
circumstances in which you give your speech or presentation are the rhetorical situation.

By understanding the rhetorical situation, you can gauge the best ways to reach your listeners and get
your points across. In so doing, you’ll make the transition from your viewpoint to that of your audience
members. Remember, that without an audience to listen and respond to you, it’s really not much of a
speech. The audience gives you the space and time as a speaker to fulfil your role and, hopefully, their
expectations. Just as a group makes a leader, an audience makes a speaker. By looking to your audience,
you shift your attention from an internal focus (you) to an external (them/others) emphasis. This “other-
orientation” is key to your success as an effective speaker.

Source:

http://open.lib.umn.edu/.../12-1-rhetorical-situation/

When we hear the word speaking what comes in our mind might be the president of the nation giving a
speech, politicians, and guest speakers in an event. We speak to express our feelings and thoughts; one
can share his/her experience. He/she can appreciate and be grateful through his/her speech, might as
well you can roast someone and entertain everyone, speaking is so applicable in all we do . It is also
used in school when a student delivers an oral report; it develops the confidence, vocabulary,
pronunciation, and even the speaking skills. In fact speaking is a norm that we all share. We hear a lot of
great and influential speakers from different countries. Through speaking we achieve world peace and
through speaking it creates partnership with other nations. Having the confidence to speak in front of
numbers of people can be both courageous yet critical. Amazing how powerful your message yet critical
that leads to conflict. That is why you need to be direct and clear with your ideas on how you will deliver
it. That also applies with the students.

Madrunio and Martin (2018) said that ―”some students and professionals do not like the idea of
speaking in public, whether in front of small or large groups. Just the thought that they will be facing
people already makes them jittery.” (p.223) Communication skills are vital for a student‘s academic
success and future career prospects. In today‘s challenging environment, students must not only possess
academic expertise, but also the requisite skills to enhance their learning and employability prospects in
the future.

An individual learns the basics of oral communication right at home. The school environment takes this
learning a notch higher by teaching the student how to interact with peers and teachers alike. The
quality of communication in student life will define professional communication later in life. Good
communication enables students to assimilate more from the learning process by empowering them to
ask relevant questions and discuss doubts.

From the book of Madrunio and Martin entitled “Purposive Communication” the following is to be
considered to have an effective speech and be a good public speaker:

1. Audience - Know the profile of your listeners. It is important that you know who will listen to you-
their age, gender, educational background, religion, economic status, and interests. Also, know how
much the audience knows about the topic. That way you can avoid discussing points that would run
contrary to their beliefs and practices and thus prevent miscommunication and misunderstanding.
Further, you can introduce new things for them to learn and not simply repeat things that they may
have already learned from previous speakers. Know how to read the posture and the gesture of your
audience members as these will signal to you what kind of an audience they are. Be ready to face
different kinds of audiences as there may be some who are questioners, hecklers, disrupters, hostile, or
unresponsive/bored audiences. Know how to deal with any unpleasant incident or conflict with your
audience and always stay in control of the situation.

2. Logistics- It is something basic or essential for every speaker to know who is organizing the event.
Know who will be introducing you and who will be speaking before and after you. That way, you will be
able to tie up the earlier presentation with your own resulting in a more coherent presentation. You may
even give the audience an idea as to what the next talk is going to be.

2.1 Venue- The venue is equally important. Locate the lights and if you have movable visual aids, know
where to position them. As a speaker, you should also know how to position yourself and how you
should move in front to get the attention of the listeners. Remember to work on your posture and avoid
bad habits when speaking. Do not block the view of your visual aids as you present them. Employ a
balanced posture by not standing on one leg only. Do not lean on any object that will give support to
your weight. These postures give the impression that you lack confidence and authority.

2.2 Facilities- Ask beforehand about the pieces of equipment available for you. These facilities should
match the presentation aids that you will use. If there is no available projector, find a way to have one
especially if your visual aids are highly complex. If there are any electrical problems or technical glitches
you encounter, know how to trouble-shoot them.

3. Content of report/speech/lecture- Since you have been invited as a speaker, the organizers might
have sought you because of your reputation as an effective speaker. If the purpose of the event is to
inform just like in a convention, conference, or a training seminar, it is expected that you are able to
contribute new information. If the purpose is to entertain, your speech should be light-hearted,
amusing, and lively. If the purpose is to persuade, your presentation should sound convincing enough.
Note, however that any communicative event may have more than one purpose but there is always a
more dominant one.

PREPARING AN EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION

An effective presentation is more than just standing up and giving information. A presenter must
consider how best to communicate the information to the audience. Oral presentations require a good
deal of planning. Scholars estimate that approximately 50% of all mistakes in an oral presentation
actually occur in the planning stage (or rather, lack of a planning stage). Use these tips to create a
presentation that is both informative and interesting:

1. Organize your thoughts. Start with an outline and develop good transitions between sections.
Emphasize the real-world significance of your research.

2. Have a strong opening. Why should the audience listen to you? One good way to get their attention is
to start with a question, whether or not you expect an answer.

3. Define terms early. If you are using terms that may be new to the audience, introduce them early in
your presentation. Once an audience gets lost in unfamiliar terminology, it is extremely difficult to get
them back on track.

4. Finish with a bang. Find one or two sentences that sum up the importance of your research. How is
the world better off as a result of what you have done?

5. Design PowerPoint slides to introduce important information. Consider doing a presentation without
PowerPoint. Then consider which points you cannot make without slides. Create only those slides that
are necessary to improve your communication with the audience.

6. Time yourself. Do not wait until the last minute to time your presentation. You only have 15 minutes
to speak, so you want to know, as soon as possible, if you are close to that limit.
7. Create effective notes for yourself. Have notes that you can read. Do not write out your entire talk;
use an outline or other brief reminders of what you want to say. Make sure the text is large enough that
you can read it from a distance.

8. Practice, practice, practice. The more you practice your presentation, the more comfortable you will
be in front of an audience. Practice in front of a friend or two and ask for their feedback. Record yourself
and listen to it critically. Make it better and do it again.

PRESENTING EFFECTIVELY

When you start your presentation, the audience will be interested in what you say. Use these tips to
help keep them interested throughout your presentation:

1. Be excited. You are talking about something exciting. If you remember to be excited, your audience
will feel it and automatically become more interested.

2. Speak with confidence. When you are speaking, you are the authority on your topic, but do not
pretend that you know everything. If you do not know the answer to a question, admit it. Consider
deferring the question to your mentor or offer to look into the matter further.

3. Make eye contact with the audience. Your purpose is to communicate with your audience, and people
listen more if they feel you are talking directly to them. As you speak, let your eyes settle on one person
for several seconds before moving on to somebody else. You do not have to make eye contact with
everybody, but make sure you connect with all areas of the audience equally.

4. Avoid reading from the screen. First, if you are reading from the screen, you are not making eye
contact with your audience. Second, if you put it on your slide, it is because you wanted them to read it,
not you.

5. Blank the screen when a slide is unnecessary. A slide that is not related to what you are speaking
about can distract the audience. Pressing the letter B or the period key displays a black screen, which
lets the audience concentrate solely on your words. Press the same key to restore the display.

6. Use a pointer only when necessary. If you are using a laser pointer, remember to keep it off unless
you need to highlight something on the screen.

7. Explain your equations and graphs. When you display equations, explain them fully. Point out all
constants and dependent and independent variables. With graphs, tell how they support your point.
Explain the x- and y-axes and show how the graph progresses from left to right.

8. Pause. Pauses bring audible structure to your presentation. They emphasize important information,
make transitions obvious, and give the audience time to catch up between points and to read new
slides. Pauses always feel much longer to speakers than to listeners. Practice counting silently to three
(slowly) between points.
9. Avoid filler words. Um, like, you know, and many others. To an audience, these are indications that
you do not know what to say; you sound uncomfortable, so they start to feel uncomfortable as well.
Speak slowly enough that you can collect your thoughts before moving ahead. If you really do not know
what to say, pause silently until you do.

10. Relax. It is hard to relax when you are nervous, but your audience will be much more comfortable if
you are too.

11. Breathe. It is fine to be nervous. In fact, you should be all good presenters are nervous every time
they are in front of an audience. The most effective way to keep your nerves in check aside from a lot of
practice before hand is to remember to breathe deeply throughout your presentation.

12. Acknowledge the people who supported your research. Be sure to thank the people who made your
research possible, including your mentor, research team, collaborators, and other sources of funding
and support.

Communication is a process of exchange facts, ideas, and opinions and as a means that individual or
organization share meaning and understanding with one another. The ability of fostering speed and
effective communication around the world has shrunk the world and made ―globalization‖ a reality.
Speech is a study of how people generate shared meaning through the use of verbal and nonverbal
symbols. Speech Communication majors work to develop confidence and effectiveness in their public
speaking, interpersonal, and small group communication skills.

When people share knowledge about the world they live, they are participating in the process of
informative communication. The main goal for an informative speech is to help explain a specific subject
and to help the audience remember the knowledge later. To achieve these goals, a speaker should
consider how best to package the complex understanding that they have cultivated of the topic, from
personal experience and research, into an easily communicable form for the audience.

It is a speech that aims to provide information to the listeners about some topic. The goal of information
is not to persuade listeners to change their beliefs or to actions, but rather the goal is to increase their
knowledge and awareness of the topic. Informative messages attempt to present an objective-that is,
truthful and unbiased-view of the topics being considered. For example, ―Kim just started her first day
at a new high school. After retrieving her schedule and having a brief meeting with the schools guidance
counsellor, Kim makes her way to her first class. Kim‘s teacher asks her to introduce herself to her
classmates. Kim walks to the front of the class, introduces herself, and tells her fellow students several
facts about her life. By doing this, Kim has just given an informative speech.

FOUR CLASSIFICATIONS OF INFORMATIVE SPEECH

• SPEECHES ABOUT OBJECTS

Speeches about objects focus on things existing in the world. Objects include, among other things,
people places, animals or products. Because you are speaking under time constraints, you cannot
discuss any topic in its entirely. Instead, limit your speech to a focused discussion of some aspects of
your topic. Some example topics for speeches about objects include: the Central Intelligence Agency,
Tombstones, Surgical lasers, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the pituitary gland and lemmings. To focus these
topics, you could give a speech about Franklin Delano Roosevelt and efforts to conceal how he suffered
from polio while he was in office.

• SPEECHES ABOUT PROCESSES

Speeches about processes focus on patterns of action. One type of speech about processes, the
demonstration speeches, teaches people ―how to‖ perform a process. More frequently, however, you
will use process speeches to explain a process in broader terms. This way, the audience is more likely to
understand the importance or the context of the process. Examples of speech about processes include:
how the internet works, how to construct a good informative speech, as with any speech, be sure to
limit your discussion to information you can explain clearly and completely within time constraints.

• SPEECHES ABOUT EVENTS

Speeches about events focus on the things that happened, are happening, or will happen. When
speaking about an event, remember to relate the topic to your audience. A speech chronicling history is
informative, but you should adapt the information to your audience and provide them with some way to
use the information. As always, limit your focus to those aspects of an event that can be adequately
discussed within the time limitations of your assignment. Examples of speeches about events include:
the 1963 Civil Rights March on Washington, Groundhog‘s Day, and The Battle of the Bulge, The World
Series, and the 2000 Presidential elections.

• SPEECHES ABOUT CONCEPTS

Speeches about the concepts focus on beliefs, ideas, and theories. While speeches about objects,
processes, and events are fairly concrete. Take care to be clear and understandable when creating and
creating a speech about concept. When selecting a concept, remember you are crafting in informative
speech. Often, speeches about concepts take on a persuasive tone. Focus your efforts toward providing
unbiased information and refrain from making arguments. Because concepts can be vague and involved,
limit your speech to aspects that can be readily explained and understood within the limits. Some
examples of topics for concept speeches include: Democracy, Taoism, Principles of Feminism, The
Philosophy of Non-violent protest, and the Big Bang Theory.

SUBJECTS OF INFORMATIVE SPEECHES

Informative speeches can cover many subjects as long as they can be discussed without persuading or
altering the perceptions of the audience. There are many different subjects that can be used in
informative speeches. College lectures about an event in history or a historical figure would be
considered informative speeches. More Technical subjects, such as the field of advertising, require more
technical information and specific data relevant to the industry. Technical subjects especially, but really
all informative speeches, benefit from the use of visualizations, such as bar graphs or images. For
example, an information speech about a particular actor or actress would likely to focus on providing a
description of who the person is and what movies or plays they have been in. Incorporating famous
pictures or clips from works is a way of increasing the audience‘s retention of the information about the
particular person.

TYPES OF INFORMATIVE SPEECHES

• Definitional speeches

In definitional speeches the speaker attempts to set forth the meaning of concepts, theories,
philosophies, or issues that may be unfamiliar to the audience. In these type of speeches, speakers may
begin by giving the historical derivation, classification, or synonyms of terms of the background of the
subject. Describing the essential attributes of one concept compared to another.

• Descriptive speeches

The purpose of descriptive speech is to provide a detailed, vivid, word of picture of a person, animal,
place or object. Audiences should carry away in their minds a clear vision of the subject. It determines
the characteristics, features, functions, or fine points of the topic.

• Explanatory speeches

Similar to the descriptive speech, they both share the function of clarifying the topic. But explanatory
speeches focus on reports of current and historical events, customs, transformations, inventions,
policies, outcomes, and options.

• Demonstration speeches

The most practical of all informative speeches, a demonstration speech shows listeners how some
process is accomplished or how to perform it themselves. The focus is on a chronological explanation of
some process, application, or course of action.

PROCESSING AND REFLECTION

Informative speech is an integral part in communication it helps the receiver aware and to be cognizant
in different aspects in life. So if we differentiate an informative speech from other types of speeches, it is
important to stick to the basic facts of the subject. No personal biases, unsubstantiated information, or
popular opinion should be included when stating the main ideas of the topic. The goal is to educate the
audience on the facts, not to provide the speaker‘s opinion. When crafting an informative speech look at
the subject carefully and eliminate any potential statements that have prejudice or might persuade the
audience.

INFO CORNER!

INFORMATIVE SPEECH: It is a speech that aims to provide information to the listeners about some topic.

SPEECHES ABOUT OBJECTS: Focus on things existing in the world.

SPEECHES ABOUT PROCESSES: Focus on patterns of action.

SPEECHES ABOUT EVENT: Focus on the things that happened, are happening, or will happen.

SPEECHES ABOUT THE CONCEPTS: Focus on beliefs, ideas, and theories.

SPEECH COMMUNICATION: Work to develop confidence and effectiveness in their public speaking,
interpersonal, and small group communication skills.

COMMUNICATION: A process of exchange facts, ideas, and opinions and as a means that individual or
organization share meaning and understanding with one another.

DEFINITIONAL SPEECHES: Describing the essential attributes of one concept compared to another.

DESCRIPTIVE SPEECHES: The purpose of descriptive speech is to provide a detailed, vivid, word of picture
of a person, animal, place or object.

EXPLANATORY SPEECHES: Focus on reports of current and historical events, customs, transformations,
inventions, policies, outcomes, and options

DEMONSTRATION SPEECH: Shows listeners how some process is accomplished or how to perform it
themselves.

There are four ways in which a speaker can deliver his or her information. Once can speak from his head,
commit every word to memory, read from a script or use a blended approach.

These are the four primary types of speech delivery:

Manuscript, Memorized, Impromptu and Extemporaneous.

Manuscript speaking, like it sounds, involves reading your speech word-for-word from its written form.

The advantage to delivering a speech this way is that you can perfectly plan and control the wording of
your speech. This sounds like it is ideal, but really it is not. In most speeches you should be striving for an
informal, conversational delivery style. Reading prevents that, as well as eye contact. Also, with set
wording, you can‘t adapt the speech if the audience isn‘t following or interested in your speech.

Memorized, like it sounds, involves committing your entire speech to memory. Once again, this sounds
great. But, practically speaking, who has time memorize even a short speech? And like a manuscript
speech, you can‘t adapt the feedback from the audience.

An Impromptu speech is the one that you are asked to deliver with little or no preparation.

Finally, the Extemporaneous speech is a speech delivered with some prepared structure, such as notes
or an outline, but is otherwise delivered off-the-cuff. In most cases, this is going to be your best choice.
The note allows you to structure your speech, without handcuffing you in the event that your audience
needs you to adapt. Also, you will sound more natural and conversational, and this will help hold
audience attention.

ASPECTS OF PHYSICAL DELIVERY

There are six aspects of physical delivery that will be covered in this section:

Voice Use, Facial Expressions, Eye Contact, Gesturing and Movement.

Effective Voice Use involves several elements. Naturally, one of the most important aspects is volume.
As a speaker you must be loud enough to be heard by everyone in the room, but not so loud that you
sound unnatural and bossy. It is also necessary to vary the pitch, rate, tone of your voice to avoid
sounding monotonous.

Your audience gathers a lot of information from your facial expression. If your facial expressions and
your spoken words conflict, the audience is likely to believe your face. So make sure that your facial
expressions mesh with the feelings and ideas being expressed.

The simple rule on eye contact is this: The more, the better. A good strategy for eye contact is to make
brief (a beat or two) eye contact with the members of the audience in one section of the audience and
then move to another section. Ideally, you should be making eye contact with someone whenever
words are being spoken in your speech.

One of the most common questions that people have about public speaking is: What do I do with my
hands? The quick and easy answer is: Whatever comes naturally (unless clutching the podium is what
comes naturally). The key to good gesturing is variety, which most of us have in our everyday gestures.

The final aspect of physical delivery is movement. If you are positioned behind a podium, your
movements are obviously going to be restricted. But if you are not using a podium, feel free to walk to
different parts of the stage as you deliver your speech. This keeps different parts of the audience
involved and adds variety.

METHODS OF SPEECH DELIVERY

1. Manuscript Speaking

o Rarely done well enough to be interesting

o Type your manuscript in short, easy-to-scan phrases

o Use appropriate nonverbal messages

o Do not read the speech too quickly

o Vary the rhythm, inflections, and pace of your delivery

o Use gestures and movement to add nonverbal interest

2. Memorized Speaking

o Do not deliver your memorized speech too rapidly

o Avoid patterns of vocal inflection that make the presentation sound recited

o Use gestures and movement to add interest and emphasis to your message

3. Impromptu Speaking

o “off the cuff”

o Consider your audience

o Be brief

o Organize

o Draw upon your personal experience and knowledge

o Use gestures and movement that arise naturally from what you are saying

o Be aware of the potential impact of your communication

4. Extemporaneous Speaking

o Method of delivery preferred by most audiences

o Use a full-content preparation outline when you begin to rehearse your presentation

o Prepare an abbreviated delivery outline and speaking notes

o Do not try to memorize your message word for word

o As you deliver your presentation, adapt it to your audience

EFFECTIVE NONVERBAL DELIVERY

o Vocal Delivery

o Volume

o Pitch

o Rate

o Articulation

o Appearance
RECAP: Characteristics of Nonverbal Delivery

Gestures: should be relaxed, definite, varied, and appropriate.

Movement: should be purposeful

Posture: should feel natural and be appropriate to your topic, audience, and occasion

Eye Contact: should be established before you say anything and sustained throughout your presentation

Facial Expression: should be alert, friendly, and appropriate

Volume: should be loud enough to be heard and varied

Pitch: should be varied to sustain audience interest

Rate: should be neither too fast nor too slow

Articulation: should be clear and distinct

Appearance: should conform to what the audience expects

Persuasive communication is any message that is intended to shape, reinforce, or change the responses
of another or others such responses are modified by symbolic transactions (messages) which are
sometimes, but not always, linked with coercive force (indirectly coercive) and which appeal to the
reason and emotions of the target. Generally, persuasion refers to such communicative activities that
are mediated. Those that are face- to-face are called compliance-gaining. Persuasive communication can
be targeted at:

• Cognition. Persuasion can be used to change individuals ‘beliefs about an object or an issue, which
includes attributes, interpretation, definition, outcome, etc.

• Attitude. Persuasion can be used to change individuals ‘attitude toward an object or an issue, which
refers to the categorization of an object or an issue along an evaluative dimension (from negative to
positive).

• Behavior. Persuasion can be used to change individuals‘ behavior, which is the overt actions regarding
an object or an issue.

Persuasion is a literary technique that writers use to present their ideas through reason and logic, in
order to influence the audience. Persuasion may simply use an argument to persuade the readers, or
sometimes may persuade readers to perform a certain action. Simply, it is an art of effective speaking
and writing in which writers make their opinions believable to the audience through logic, by invoking
emotions, and by proving their own credibility.

TYPES OF PERSUASION

Persuasion has three basic types:

1. Ethos: It is linked with morality and ethics. In this method of persuasion, writers or speakers convince
their audience of their goodwill and present themselves as trustworthy. In order to determine whether a
writer is credible or not, the audience needs to understand his intention and his strong understanding of
the subject.

2. Logos: Logos comes of logic; therefore writers use logic, reasoning, and rationality to convince
audiences of their perspectives.

3. Pathos: The third method is pathos, which invokes and appeals to the emotions of the audience. This
is contrary to logos, as it presents arguments without using logic or reasoning. Many writers consider
love, fear, empathy, and anger as strong factors to influence the emotions of their audiences.

FUNCTION OF PERSUASION

Persuasion is the most common literary technique. We not only find it in literature, but also in political
speeches, conferences, courtrooms, and advertisements. Through persuasive writing, writers express
their own feelings and opinions by appealing to the audience emotionally and rationally. Hence, it is a
very effective technique to win over the readers or audience. In addition, it helps students to unearth
certain reasons in favor of their points of view, and gives them a chance to research facts linked to their
views. While developing an understanding of how writing can change and influence their thoughts and
actions, students can understand the nature of persuasive work.

6 PRINCIPLES OF PERSUASION

1. Principle of Reciprocity - Reciprocity is the mutual expectation for exchange of value or service. In all
cultures, when one person gives something, the receiver is expected to reciprocate, even if only by
saying ―thank you. There is a moment when the giver has power and influence over the receiver, and if
the exchange is dismissed as irrelevant by the giver the moment is lost. In business this principle has
several applications. If you are in customer service and go out of your way to meet the customer‘s need,
you are appealing to the principle of reciprocity with the knowledge that all humans perceive the need
to reciprocate—in this case, by increasing the likelihood of making a purchase from you because you
were especially helpful. Reciprocity builds trust and the relationship develops, reinforcing everything
from personal to brand loyalty. By taking the lead and giving, you build in a moment where people will
feel compelled from social norms and customs to give back.

2. Principle of Scarcity - You want what you can‘t have, and it‘s universal. People are naturally attracted
to the exclusive, the rare, the unusual, and the unique. If they are convinced that they need to act now
or it will disappear, they are motivated to action. Scarcity is the perception of inadequate supply or a
limited resource. For a sales representative, scarcity may be a key selling point—the particular car, or
theater tickets, or pair of shoes you are considering may be sold to someone else if you delay making a
decision. By reminding customers not only of what they stand to gain but also of what they stand to
lose, the representative increases the chances that the customer will make the shift from contemplation
to action and decide to close the sale.
3. Principle of Authority - Trust is central to the purchase decision. Whom does a customer turn to? A
salesperson may be part of the process, but an endorsement by an authority holds credibility that no
one with a vested interest can ever attain. Knowledge of a product, field, trends in the field, and even
research can make a salesperson more effective by the appeal to the principle of authority. It may seem
like extra work to educate your customers, but you need to reveal your expertise to gain credibility. We
can borrow a measure of credibility by relating what experts have indicated about a product, service,
market, or trend, and our awareness of competing viewpoints allows us insight that is valuable to the
customer. Reading the manual of a product is not sufficient to gain expertise—you have to do extra
homework. The principle of authority involves referencing experts and expertise.

4. Principle of Commitment and Consistency - Oral communication can be slippery in memory. What we
said at one moment or another, unless recorded, can be hard to recall. Even a handshake, once the
symbol of agreement across almost every culture, has lost some of its symbolic meaning and social
regard. In many cultures, the written word holds special meaning. If we write it down, or if we sign
something, we are more likely to follow through. By extension, even if the customer won‘t be writing
anything down, if you do so in front of them, it can appeal to the principle of commitment and
consistency and bring the social norm of honoring one‘s word to bear at the moment of purchase.

5. Principle of Consensus - Testimonials, or first person reports on experience with a product or service,
can be highly persuasive. People often look to each other when making a purchase decision and the
herd mentality is a powerful force across humanity: if ―everybody else‖ thinks this product is great, it
must be great. We often choose the path of the herd, particularly when we lack adequate information.
Leverage testimonials from clients to attract more clients by making them part of your team. The
principle of consensus involves the tendency of the individual to follow the lead of the group or peers.

6. Principle of Liking - Safety is the twin of trust as a foundation element for effective communication. If
we feel safe, we are more likely to interact and communicate. We tend to be attracted to people who
communicate to us that they like us, and who make us feel good about ourselves. Given a choice, these
are the people with whom we are likely to associate. Physical attractiveness has long been known to be
persuasive, but similarity is also quite effective. We are drawn to people who are like us, or who we
perceive ourselves to be, and often make those judgments based on external characteristics like dress,
age, sex, race, ethnicity, and perceptions of socioeconomic status. The principle of liking involves the
perception of safety and belonging in communication.

Many entertaining speeches fall under the category of special-occasion speeches. All the speeches in
this category are given to mark the significance of particular events. Common events include weddings,
awards ceremonies, funerals, and political events. In each of these different occasions, speakers are
asked to deliver speeches relating to the event. For purposes of simplicity, we‘ve broken special-
occasion speeches into two groups: ceremonial speaking and inspirational speaking. As the name
implies, special occasion speeches are delivered during special occasions. They are sometimes given to
commemorate a legacy or to celebrate an achievement. A special occasion speech is short and straight
to the point, possibly lasting for ten minutes or less. A mood is often set through these speeches,
enough to change everyone‘s spirit.
To give a good special occasion speech, you need to know your topic well. Do your research agenda,
especially when you‘re dealing with names and titles of significant people. There‘s nothing more
insulting than delivering a speech that has the wrong information and no factual basis whatsoever. From
there, you‘ll be able to add your own words and ideas to the speech Use an optimistic tone. Even when
you are presenting a eulogy, you need to be able to set a positive vibe that celebrates a person‘s time
here on earth. For introducing significant individuals, a good presentation speech that depicts honor and
gratitude would definitely do the job. Keep in mind that a special occasion speech is meant to relay a
positive message to an audience.

For special occasion speeches, it usually relates to the personal aspect. A special occasion speech can
often give pride to the individual being honored. It is a good way to recognize one‘s effort. For instance,
a welcome speech gives thanks to the audience for being present despite various circumstances. The
speech is a means of showing one‘s appreciation through words of praise and gratitude.

FUNCTIONS OF SPECIAL-OCCASION SPEECH

• Entertain and Celebrate - speeches intended to entertain an audience may be either informative or
persuasive, the rhetorical situation often provides a clear indication of when a speech falls into the
special occasion category. An awards banquet and weddings are examples of special occasions that call
for a speaker to present an upbeat, light speech designed to amuse the audience while celebrating a
person, event, or situation.

• Commemorate - When we think of a speech crafted to commemorate something or someone, perhaps

a eulogy is the first type to come to mind. Speeches of commemoration can also include building or
monument dedications that are designed to honor the memory of the person or situation that inspired
the site.

• Inspire - Often the rhetorical situation calls for a speaker to present words of wisdom and guidance
based upon their own personal experiences or what they‘ve learned through shared experiences of the
audience they are addressing.

• Advocate - Speeches of advocacy focus on goals and values, and are often cause-oriented or crafted to
impact policy-setting or change in some way.

CEREMONIAL SPEAKING

Ceremonial Speeches - Speeches given during a ceremony or a ritual marked by observance of formality
or etiquette. These ceremonies tend to be very special for people, so it shouldn‘t be surprising that they
are opportunities for speech making.

Speeches of Introduction - Which is a mini-speech given by the host of a ceremony that introduces
another speaker and his or her speech.

Effective Speech of Introduction:

o Balance the length of the introduction paragraph with the total speech length.

o Avoid broad, sweeping, and too general statements.

o Be clear, direct and straightforward in your speech.

Speeches of Presentation - A speech of presentation is a brief speech given to accompany a prize or

honor. Publicly speaking to an audience with intent to inform, demonstrate, explain or persuade. The
presentation is normally written, then performed and includes an introduction, a body consisting of
main focal points and a conclusion.

Good Presentation Speech:

Refer to the occasion by telling why you are there and why it is a special day. Explain briefly what the
award represents, and describe the following: symbol, goal, categories, history and previous winners.
Describe the organization you are representing and explain why you are privileged to present the award.
Offer personal thoughts, experiences, and feelings about the award. Praise the recipient by citing
relevant outstanding contributions, achievements, or records and adapt them to the goals and meaning
of the special occasion. Ask the recipient to come forward and read the text or inscription of the award.
Congratulate the awardee.

Speeches of Acceptance - The complement to a speech of presentation is the speech of acceptance. The
speech of acceptance is a speech given by the recipient of a prize or honor.

There are three typical components of a speech of acceptance:

a. Thank the givers of the award or honor,

b. Thank those who helped you achieve your goal, and

c. Put the award or honor into perspective.

Speeches of Dedication - A speech of dedication is delivered when a new store opens, a building is
named after someone, a plaque is placed on a wall, and a new library is completed, and so on. These
speeches are designed to highlight the importance of the project and possibly those to whom the
project has been dedicated.

Roasts - The roast speech is a very interesting and peculiar speech because it is designed to both praise
and good- naturedly insult a person being honored. Generally, roasts are given at the conclusion of a
banquet in honor of someone‘s life achievements. The television station Comedy Central has been
conducting roasts of various celebrities for a few years.

Eulogies - A eulogy is a speech given in honor of someone who has died. A eulogy is a speech or writing
in praise of a person or thing, especially one who recently died or retired or as a term of endearment.
Speeches of Farewell - A speech of farewell allows someone to say good-bye to one part of his or her life
as he or she is moving on to the next part of life. Maybe you‘ve accepted a new job and are leaving your
current job, or you‘re graduating from college and entering the work force.

INSPIRATIONAL SPEAKING

Inspirational Speeches: - The goal of an inspirational speech is to elicit or arouse an emotional state
within an audience. In Section 18.2.1 "Ceremonial Speaking", we looked at ceremonial speeches.
Although some inspirational speeches are sometimes tied to ceremonial occasions, there are also other
speaking contexts that call for inspirational speeches. For our purposes, we are going to look at two
types of inspirational speeches: goodwill and speeches of commencement.

Speeches to Ensure Goodwill - Goodwill is an intangible asset that is made up of the favor or reputation
of an individual or organization. Speeches of goodwill are often given in an attempt to get audience
members to view the person or organization more favorably. Although speeches of goodwill are clearly
persuasive, they try not to be obvious about the persuasive intent and are often delivered as
information-giving speeches that focus on an individual or organization‘s positives attributes.

There are three basic types of speeches of goodwill:

PUBLIC RELATIONS, JUSTIFICATION AND APOLOGY.

Speeches for Public Relations

In a public relations speech, the speaker is speaking to enhance one‘s own image or the image of his or
her organization. You can almost think of these speeches as cheerleading speeches because the ultimate
goal is to get people to like the speaker and what he or she represents.

Speeches of Justification

The second common speech of goodwill is the speech of justification, which is given when someone
attempts to defend why certain actions were taken or will be taken. In these speeches, speakers have
already enacted (or decided to enact) some kind of behavior, and are now attempting to justify why the
behavior is or was appropriate.

Speeches of Apology

The final speech of goodwill is the speech of apology which is to ask forgiveness .Frankly, these speeches
have become more and more commonplace. Every time we turn around, a politician, professional
athlete, musician, or actor/actress is doing something reprehensible and getting caught. In fact, the
speech of apology has quickly become a fodder for humor as well. In your apology, you need to be
specific and detailed and say exactly what you did wrong

Speeches for Commencements

The second type of inspirational speech is the speech of commencement, which is designed to recognize
and celebrate the achievements of a graduating class or other group of people. The most typical form of
commencement speech happens when someone graduates from school.