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 Contents
INTRODUCTION v
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS: Semester 1 1
Learning Unit 1: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF SOUTH AFRICAN EDUCATION 3
Learning Unit 2: EDUCATION IN A NEW SOUTH AFRICA 19
Learning Unit 3: CHILDREN IN SCHOOLS 29

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS: Semester 2 37

Learning Unit 4: TEACHERS, SCHOOLS AND THE CURRICULUM 39
Learning Unit 5: FACING THE CHALLENGES: A FRAMEWORK OF ETHICS 45
Learning Unit 6: PROFESSIONALISM IN SOUTH AFRICAN SCHOOLS 55
REFERENCES 61

SAE3701/1/2020–2022 (iii)
(iv)
 Introduction

INTRODUCTION
Dear Student

Welcome to South African Education System.

We hope that you will enjoy working through the collection of prescribed readings. The study guide
will give you additional support and will facilitate your understanding of the readings.

This module builds on a previous module, Theoretical Frameworks. A major purpose of Theoretical
Frameworks was to assist you in developing a more nuanced view of the education and its context
through questioning and in gaining the insight that there is no single solution to educational
challenges. South African Education System will complement the previous module by providing a
historical framework of South African schooling and focusing on the professional aspects of being
a teacher in South Africa.

The emphasis will be on both past and present education and specifically on the professional
role of the teacher in the education system. These areas will help you understand why certain
curriculum decisions were made in the early democratic period in South Africa. Importantly, the
module intends to demonstrate that the South African system is a dynamic and evolving social
construct. This section seeks to provide you with the ability to anticipate and contribute to positive
transformation within the educational arena.

We wish you all the best with your studies in South African Education System.

Because this is a blended module, you will need to use myUnisa to study and complete the learning
activities. Visit the website for SAE3701 on myUnisa frequently. The website for your module is [the
module website code written out in full, e.g. MODULE CODE-20-Y].

Getting started …

Owing to the nature of this module, you can read about the module and find your study material in
print and online. Go to the website at https://my.unisa.ac.za and log in using your student number
and password. You will see [module site-20-Y] in the row of modules displayed in the orange blocks
at the top of the webpage. Select the More tab if you cannot find the module you require in the
blocks displayed. Then click on the module you want to open.

SAE3701/1 (v)
INTRODUCTION

OVERVIEW OF SAE3701

1. Purpose
Students who have completed this module successfully will be able to contextualise the current
South African education system from a historical perspective and to explain the role of the teacher
as a professional.

1.1 Outcomes
For this module, you will have to master several outcomes:

Specific outcome 1: Explain the content and context of historical developments in South
African education.
Specific outcome 2: Explain in detail how the post-1994 South African system underwent change.
Specific outcome 3: Gain insight into the notion of teacher professionalism.
Specific outcome 4: Examine your position as a teacher through self-reflection and self-management.

LECTURER AND CONTACT DETAILS

2. Lecturer
The primary lecturer for this module is Dr Marian Baker.

Department: Educational Foundations

Telephone: 012 429 6956
Email: ebakerm@unisa.ac.za

3. Department
You can contact the Department of Educational Foundations as follows:
Telephone number: 012 429 6009
Email: ndala1@unisa.ac.za

4. RESOURCES

4.1 Joining myUnisa

The myUnisa learning management system is the University’s online campus which will help
you communicate with your lecturers, with other students and with the administrative departments
at Unisa.
To go to the myUnisa website directly, go to https://my.unisa.ac.za. Click on the Claim UNISA
Login on the top of the screen on the myUnisa website. You will then be prompted to give your
student number in order to claim your initial myUnisa details as well as your myLife email login
details. For more information on myUnisa, consult the brochure Study @ Unisa, which you received
with your study material:
www.unisa.ac.za/brochures/studies.

(vi)
 INTRODUCTION

4.2 Recommended books/articles

Jay, JK & Johnson, KL. 2002. Capturing complexity: a typology of reflective practice for
teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(2002):73–85.
Mayeza, E. 2017. Girls don’t play soccer: children policing gender on the playground in a township
primary school in South Africa. Gender and Education, 29(4):476-494, https://doi.org/10.10
80/09540253.2016.1187262
Nieftogodien, N. 2014. The Soweto uprising. Johannesburg: Jacana Media.
Worden, N. 1994. The making of modern South Africa. London: Blackwell.
Recommended books can be requested online, via the Library catalogue.

4.3 E-reserves
Balfour, R. 2015. Education in a new South Africa, crisis and change. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Christie, P. 1991. The right to learn. Johannesburg: Sached Press.
Christie, P. 2008. Opening the doors of learning. Cape Town: Heinemann.
Hoffman, N, Sayed, Y & Badroodien, A. 2016. Different rules for different teachers: teachers’ views of
professionalism and accountability in a bifurcated educated system. Journal of Education, 65:123-153.
Hyslop, J. 1999. The classroom struggle: policy and resistance in South Africa, 1940 – 1990. Durban:
University of Natal Press.
Moloi, T. 2011. Bodibeng High School: black consciousness philosophy and students’ demonstration,
1940s – 1976. South African Historical Journal, 63(1):102-126.
E-reserves can be downloaded from the Library catalogue. More information is available at http://
libguides.unisa.ac.za/request/request

4.4 myUnisa options

The main option that we will use is Lessons. This option will provide the content of and the
assessments for your module. At times you will be directed to join discussions with fellow students
and complete activities and assessments before you can continue with the module.

It is very important that you log on to myUnisa regularly. We recommend that you log on at least
once a week to do the following:

Check for new announcements. You can also set your myLife email account so that you receive
the announcement emails on your cellphone.

Do the Discussion Forum activities. When you do the activities for each learning unit, we want
you to share your answers with the other students in your group. You can read the instructions
and even prepare your answers offline, but you will need to go online to post your messages. We
have also provided a Social Cafe where you can socialise with the other students in the module.

CONCLUSION

Do not hesitate to contact us by email if you are experiencing problems with the content of this
tutorial letter or with any academic aspect of the module.

We wish you all the best with your studies in South African Education System.

Enjoy the journey!

Dr Marian Baker – lecturer for SAE3701

SAE3701/1 (vii)
(viiii)
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS

INTRODUCTION

SEMESTER 1

This section of the module aims to provide a historical context of the current education system
in South Africa. It will cover precolonial, colonial and apartheid education. The module will also
focus on the early democratic period in South Africa in the 1990s.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this module, you should be able to

ƒ explain the content and context of historical developments in South African education
ƒ provide historical background for the current South African education system
ƒ examine your own position as a future teacher within a historical context
ƒ engage with the debates around post-1994 challenges in South African education
ƒ explain in detail how the post-1994 South African system underwent change
ƒ discuss the notion of teacher professionalism
ƒ explain post-1994 teacher-related policies and their impact on teacher practice
ƒ identify and explain concerns around values in education and the demand for quality and
effective education
ƒ examine critically your position as a teacher through self-reflection and self-management

DEFINING KEY CONCEPTS

NOTE

The following is a glossary of some of the key terms you will come across. Note that a glossary
is in alphabetical order. Compile your own glossary of key words and their definitions as you
progress through this module.

SAE3701/1 1
 Colonialism: The unequal relationship between colonists and the colonial power, and the colony and
the indigenous peoples.
Colonisation: A large political body or country which, with some exceptions, conquers and
rules over territories that are outside of its own country’s borders. The colonisation process is
also about ideological control of colonised people through, for example, schooling.
Mission education: The education which missionaries and churches provided for learners from
the 1800s until 1953. Mission education became associated with the education of black learners
in South Africa. The state only introduced mass, state education in 1953.
Precolonial society: The period before the arrival of colonisers in a specific territory. In the
South African context precolonial societies existed before the arrival of the Dutch in 1652 and
before the extensive colonisation process by the British in the 1800s.
The following definitions will assist you with the section on education during apartheid:
Apartheid education: The education system which existed during the apartheid period; a
blanket term for the different education systems at the time: black, coloured, Indian and white.
Bantu education: A parliamentary Act was passed in 1953 that introduced mass, state schooling
specifically for black (African) learners.
Group Areas Act: This piece of apartheid legislation decreed that different South African race
groups (including coloured and Indian people) had to live, go to school and run businesses in
designated areas. Much of South Africa’s current urban and rural landscape has its roots in
apartheid spatial planning.

AN OVERVIEW OF PRECOLONIAL, COLONIAL AND APARTHEID EDUCATION

This section provides a discussion of precolonial, colonial and apartheid education and we will
examine the development of segregationist education in South Africa. We provide a broad sweep
of events from the 19th century to the democratic period which started in 1994. An important
date pertaining to education is 1996 when the 1996 Schools Act was passed. State schools are
still subject to this Act. We give you an overview of the continuities (what stayed the same) and
the discontinuities (the changes) in educational policy and curriculum examine the historical
context of South African education. We also cover issues of change within educational policy
and plot the impact of the past on the current educational domain. The focus is also on you as
a teacher, or teacher-in-training, and how the past has affected your experience in schools. To
do this, we examine colonial and apartheid education. These topics are followed by a discus-
sion on education in the post-1994, early democratic era in South Africa.

2
 1
LEARNING UNIT

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF
SOUTH AFRICAN EDUCATION

After working through this learning unit, you should be able to

ƒ place South African education within a historical context

ƒ demonstrate knowledge of the content and context of colonial and apartheid education
ƒ analyse the above education systems
ƒ demonstrate knowledge and understanding of post-1994, early democratic education
ƒ recognise changes made in the post-apartheid education system
ƒ describe how the South African Constitution influenced post-apartheid education

Why do we need to understand our historical context?

This unit will help you to examine your own position as a future teacher within a historical context.
The following questions are aimed at encouraging you to think about yourself in the present
and consider how the past has influenced or affected you. It will also help you engage with the
experiences of different generations and understand their context. The unit will give you a more
personal understanding of the past which could assist you in comprehending the broader historical
purview provided by the readings. You will learn certain skills that will help you think about how
present education is contingent (or dependent) on the past and how education changes (or stays
the same) over time.

QUESTION 1
(1) Describe your family background.

(2) Did your background impose constraints on you? Offer you opportunities?

SAE3701/1 3
(3) What was your experience of attending school?

(4) Did your teachers and your peers influence you in any way?

QUESTION 2
Find a family member or friend who was at school during apartheid. Please obtain their permission
before you start the interview. Ask your interviewee the above questions and add these:

(1) What are your memories of apartheid?

4
 Historical overview of south african education

(2) How did you feel at the time?

(3) Did your life change after apartheid ended?

NB: Jot down or record the answers during the interview.

Now consider the following questions arising from the above exercise:

(4) Can you extricate yourself from the past? Explain your position.

(5) Is educational policy in South Africa influenced by the past?

SAE3701/1 5
(6) Is there too much emphasis in education on redressing past injustices?

NOTE

Start a timeline plotting the main dates and events discussed in the following units. The timeline
does not need to be depicted as linear (in a line) but you do need to start with the earliest date
and then work forward in time. You also need to be brief – just add the main events and their
consequences. This exercise will help you gain an outline of events and an understanding of
the what is known as a historical trajectory (a course or a path). Note that history is not only
about memorising dates and events. This module is designed to help you to analyse and to
think about historical concerns with more insight.

NOTE

Take note that in the readings the 1800s are also referred to as the 19th century and the 1900s as the
20th century. We are currently in the 21st century. Literature on the history of education frequently
concentrates on the advent of British colonialism in the 19th century and then progresses into
the 20th century with a focus on apartheid education. This means that precolonial education
is underrepresented or simply omitted in the literature. We have tried to redress this in the
following section on precolonial education.

Precolonial education

Precolonial education has often been neglected in deliberations on South African education history.
Mission education, which bears similarities to our current education system, only became influential
around 180 years ago. This means that prior to mission education, and in fact into the 20th century,
what is termed “precolonial” or “pre-industrial” education was the norm for the majority of South
Africans.

In The right to learn, (chapter 1) there is a brief description of precolonial education in which Christie
makes the point that education in precolonial societies is often referred to as “informal”, whereas
our current state and private schooling system is termed “formal”. The word “informal” refers to
the way children (and adults) learnt in precolonial societies. As there were no formal schools as we
know them, people learnt from experience, from older members of the community and through
the oral transmission of knowledge and social values (morals). However, this could be considered
an oversimplification because education was more complex in that there were formal aspects to
it, for example, in schools which taught, and still teach, knowledge concerning rites of passage.

Seroto, J. 2011. Indilinga. African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems, 10(1).

6
 Historical overview of south african education

QUESTION 3
Read this extract from Seroto (2011:78) and answer the following questions:

A Western viewpoint proposed that formal schooling and education were synonymous (Theal, 1894).
However, education should be understood as the “whole process by which one generation transmits its
culture to the succeeding generation” or as a “process by which people are prepared to live effectively
and efficiently in their environment” (Sifuna & Otiende, 2006). In this sense, indigenous education
was closely intertwined with social life. It embraced character building, the development of physical
aptitudes and the acquisition of moral qualities that are an integral part of adulthood. Scanlon (1964:
3) describes the education of the African before the coming of the European as an education that
prepared him/her for his/her responsibilities as an adult in his/her home, village and tribe.

Education within local communities during the pre-colonial period involved the oral histories
of the group, tales of heroism and treachery, and practice in the skills necessary for survival in a
changing environment (Mbamara, 2004; Mazonde, 2001). Pre-colonial history and education were
based on oral tradition, oral culture and oral lore – which are broadly messages or testimonies
that are transmitted orally from one generation to another. Transmission of these testimonies also
took the form of ballads, songs or chants. The main focus of this oral history, according to Leshoai
(1981: 242), was to teach children, men and women about morality, religion, philosophy, wisdom,
geography, history, politics and the entire spectrum of human existence in the various communities.

(1) What aspects of social life did precolonial education embrace?

(2) Explain what is meant by oral testimonies.

SAE3701/1 7
 QUESTION 4
Read the following extract from Seroto (2011:79) and answer the questions below:

The process of indigenous education in Africa was intimately integrated with the social, cultural,
artistic, religious and recreational life of the indigenous peoples. Education took place through the
socialisation process which had to do with the acquisition of cultural norms, values and beliefs,
and rules for interacting with others. The process of socialisation begins within the context of
the family. The family has a fundamental function of shaping a child’s attitudes and behaviour.
The family also determines the child’s initial social status and identity in terms of race, religion
and social class. The central concern is how infants and children are taught to think, act and feel
appropriately. Broadly conceived, education is seen as the means whereby individuals “are recruited
to be members of a culture and whereby culture is maintained” (Spindler, 1974).

The education of indigenous people was transmitted in two ways: (i) informally by parents and elders
in society through a socialisation process; and (ii) ‘formally’ through initiation rites or apprenticeship/
craftsmen (Hlatshwayo, 2000: 28). Informal education is the “lifelong process by which every
person acquires and accumulates knowledge, skills, attitudes and insights from daily experiences
and exposure to the environment” (Coombs and Ahmed, 1974: 8). One of the characteristics of
informal education is the contact individuals have with a variety of environmental influences that
result from day-to-day learning. In the informal education mode, formal characteristics that are
associated with certain rites of passage in formal organisation (such as the initiation ritual) might
exist (La Belle, 1982). Formal education, on the other hand, can be defined as the “institutionalised,
chronologically graded and hierarchically structured educational system” (Coombs & Ahmed,
1974:8). Unfortunately, this mode of education did not exist in the pre-colonial era. Nevertheless, the
absence of formal education during this period did not necessarily translate into the total absence
of provision of education as a lifelong process to and by indigenous people.

(1) Discuss the main aspects of socialisation in precolonial societies. Who were the primary agents
of socialisation? What were children taught?

(2) Distinguish (state the differences) between formal and informal learning in the precolonial
context.

8
 Historical overview of south african education

QUESTION 5
Read the following example of precolonial education (Seroto 2011:84):

Music and dance played, and still continues to play, a special role not only in South African society
but also throughout the rest of the world. People have sung and danced to express joy or sadness
to reinforce cultural beliefs and values. Song and dance were often regarded as living records of
past and present events and traditions (Kgobe, 1999). Even though formal lyrics and musical notes
were not taught, indigenous music equipped young generations with knowledge about past and
present events and traditions. It was through music and dance that the social norms, traditions and
beliefs of a community were depicted. Music and dance also played a role in marriages, funerals,
initiation ceremonies, religious practices and rituals.

A common feature of all indigenous music is rhythm, which engages all members of a group to
respond to the beat in a social way. The co-existence of different and simultaneous rhythms created
a strong sense of community and a highly interactive mode of learning. Oehrle (1991) refers to
indigenous music as something profoundly pluralistic to which one responds in a social fashion.
Indigenous music has relied entirely on an oral tradition of transmittance. Musical knowledge is
learned through highly interactive social events and rituals where music is the predominant means
of communication (Westerlund, 1999: 99).

(1) What is meant by the following: “Musical knowledge is learned through highly interactive
social events …” (Seroto 2011:84)

(2) Can you provide additional examples of social learning in precolonial societies?

SAE3701/1 9
(3) Gender differentiation existed in relation to social roles in precolonial societies. Have gender
roles changed in current, industrialised societies? If so, how?

(4) How did education in precolonial societies differ from the current education system in South
Africa? Use the distinction between formal and informal education to explain this.

10
 Historical overview of south african education

The colonial period: mission education

QUESTION 6
(1) With reference to Christie, chapter 1, what did 19th century colonialism entail in Southern Africa?

(2) Explain what Christie (1996:69) means when she states that “missionary activity often went
hand in hand with merchants and traders and the colonial government”.

(3) How did colonisation and mission education change precolonial societies?

SAE3701/1 11
(4) Mission education expanded during the 19th and 20th centuries (until 1953/4) mainly due to
British and European missionaries. What was taught in schools in the 19th century?

(5) What educational changes were introduced in the first half of the 20th century?

(6) What kinds of values did mission schools attempt to transmit?

(7) What criticisms of mission education does Christie put forward? Discuss the validity of her
criticisms.

12
 Historical overview of south african education

(8) Are previous South African education systems “enfolded” in the present? Think about Christie’s
discussion of mission schools – do they differ from current schools? Are there similarities?

Apartheid education

QUESTION 7
(1) Read Hyslop, chapter 2.
Hyslop (1999:52) argues that the apartheid state in the 1950s “created a much larger education
system than had ever existed before”. Explain what type of education the Nationalist Party
(NP) introduced through the Bantu Education Act of 1953.

(2) What was the “urban crisis” and how did the NP respond to it?

SAE3701/1 13
(3) Hyslop (1999) forwards two primary reasons for the introduction of the “mass education
system” (Bantu Education): these revolved around issues of the economy and social control.
Discuss these reasons in detail.

(4) Bantu Education meant that “the numbers of African students doubled from about one million
to about two million” in 10 years. However, Hyslop argues that the quality of education was
poor. Discuss how he substantiates this criticism.

(5) Identify some of the key points that characterised the apartheid education system. For example,
what was meant by segregated education? Were there different curriculums for different race
groups? What ideas underpinned the apartheid curriculum?

(6) On a piece of paper, mind-map or summarise the key points made in the above discussion
concerning apartheid education from 1953–1972. In your summary, you will need to exam-
ine what happened as well as why events occurred. For instance, was it only because of racial
discrimination that Bantu Education was introduced? What would the authors you have read
say about an interpretation based only on race?

14
 Historical overview of south african education

Resistance to Bantu Education

QUESTION 8
(1) Read Hyslop’s chapter 8 entitled “The student revolt: 1972–1976” in your reading pack.
What does the evidence tell us about the standard of education at the time?

(2) Hyslop discusses the impact of educational restructuring in the 1970s. Why does he argue that
this was a major factor contributing to the outbreak of the student revolt in 1976?

(3) Discuss why the issue of Afrikaans was so contentious (seen as a problem) in schools in the
1970s. (Read Hyslop from page 158.)

SAE3701/1 15
(4) Who initiated the protests and why?

(5) How did the state react to the protests?

QUESTION 9
Read Tshepo Moloi’s article entitled “Bodibeng High School: black consciousness philosophy and
students’ demonstration, 1940s–1976” written in 2011 and published in South African Historical
Journal, 63(1):102-126.

(1) In his case study of a school in Bodibeng, Moloi discusses the aftermath of the 1976 revolt.
In the light of this article, discuss the complexities of resistance during that period. Was the
Black Consciousness Movement influential? Why? What form did resistance to apartheid take?
What were the consequences of the resistance?

16
 Historical overview of south african education

(2) Carefully read the conclusion in Moloi’s article.

(2.1) Identify the main points presented in the conclusion.

(2.2) What is Moloi’s main argument? Summarise it.

SAE3701/1 17
18
 2
LEARNING UNIT

EDUCATION IN A NEW SOUTH AFRICA

Balfour, chapter 1 of Education in a new South Africa

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After working through this learning unit, you should be able to

ƒ explain why a post-apartheid education system was adopted

ƒ discuss changes to the system after 1994
ƒ discuss how the principles of non-racism, non-sexism and equal opportunity in education
were allied to the new South African Constitution
ƒ describe notions of teacher professionality
ƒ assess South African education

INTRODUCTION

As you can see from the title of the book, it examines the “new” South Africa. This refers to the
post-apartheid, democratic South Africa when all South Africans became citizens with the right
to vote and a plethora of apartheid legislation was done away with. Chapter 1 in Balfour’s book
provides an overview of 20 years of schooling (1994-2014) in South Africa after the country became
a democracy in 1994. The new Constitution guaranteed that South Africans would enjoy equality
of access to schooling and espoused the principles of non-racism, non-sexism, equal opportunity
and dignity for all citizens. Education was prioritised by the new government and the South African
Schools Act (SASA) 84 of 1996 came into effect.

In line with the aims of the module which emphasise issues of teacher professionality, this chapter
deals with the role of the teacher in current South African schools and provides information on the
politicisation of teachers and their status in the economy. In this chapter, Balfour frequently casts
a critical eye on the education system.

NOTE

Questions 10.1 – 10.4 provide a context for the changes that took place in post-1994
democratic South Africa.
Read pages 1-3 in Balfour, chapter 1.

SAE3701/1 19
 QUESTION 10
Read the following quote from chapter 1 of Balfour (page 2):

Prior to the demise of the apartheid State there were 19 departments of education in South
Africa; each province had its own; each Bantustan (known as homelands or ‘native reserves’; see
Thompson 2001) had its own; and there were examining boards and examinations set by each
authority more or less independently of each other even at the highest (pre-tertiary level). Given
that the structure of the education system was designed along race categories, the perpetuation
of the system, with its structures, remained unacceptable at a political level, as well as inequitable
on material and other grounds.

(1) Explain what was meant by a homeland.

(2) How many education departments existed prior to democracy in South Africa?

(3) Discuss why the number of departments could have been problematic in terms of the admin-
istration and the standardisation of education during apartheid South Africa.

20
 Education in a new south africa

(4) What does Balfour (page 2) mean when he writes: “the structure of the education system was
designed along race categories”? Look at tables 1.1.1 and 1.1.2 on p. 3. These will help you
formulate your response in relation to the racial inequalities that existed in South Africa in 1994.

HOMELANDS NOTE

You have already been introduced to the homeland system in the section on apartheid education.
The system, designed by the minority Nationalist Party, designated portions of land in South
Africa as “Bantustans” or “homelands” which were set aside for particular “ethnic” groups.
For example, the Transkei homeland was situated north of the Kei River in the current Eastern
Cape and was designated as a homeland for Xhosa-speaking people. The system was deeply
criticised by the majority of South Africans.

QUESTION 11
The following questions (11.1-11.16) address the rights of South African citizens and a selection of
the clauses found in the South African Schools Act of 1996. Read pages 4 – 6 in the Balfour chapter.

Focus on the extracts from the Bill of Rights on pages 4 and 5 and answer the following
questions:

(1) Summarise in your own words the four primary rights that South African citizens have in
relation to education, language and culture and cultural religious and linguistic communities.
(Points 1-4, pages 4-5)

SAE3701/1 21
(2) Why was there a need to educate adults (for example, parents) in the post- apartheid context?

(3) Discuss each of the following points:

(3.1) Should everyone have the right to basic education, adult basic education and fur-
ther education?

(3.2) Do all South Africans indeed have these rights? Discuss.

22
 Education in a new south africa

(4) “Everyone has the right to receive education in the official language or languages of their
choice in public educational institutions where that education is reasonably practicable”
(Balfour, page 4).
Think about this statement in the South African context. Is the right to a language of choice
being exercised in schools? Explain your position.

(5) Are there certain languages which are dominant in South African schools? Discuss.

(6) Is it always reasonably practicable (practical) to allow people to be educated in their mother
tongue?

(7) Read through section 5 starting with the statement: “Everyone has the right to establish and
maintain, at their own expense, independent educational institutions” (Balfour, page 4). This
means that communities that speak a particular language and follow, perhaps, a particular
religion may establish their own schools, provided they are not racially discriminatory, are
registered with the state and maintain educational standards comparable to the Constitution.

SAE3701/1 23
(8) Think of examples of independent and/or private schools that you might have encountered.

(9) Think about the phrase “at their own expense” (Balfour, page 4). Could this mean that
some communities are advantaged and others are disadvantaged? Provide examples to back
up your discussion.

(10) The South African Schools Act (SASA) allows schools “to govern themselves, it defines types
of schools (private and public with varieties on these two types) and the power of schools
concerning admissions, language policy and maximum class size” (Balfour, page 6). This
means that schools have strong powers through their governing bodies to make decisions
around language policy and admissions to the school (for example, how many new learners
are admitted per year).
Do you think schools have been granted too much power? Discuss the pros and cons of
giving schools the autonomy (independence) to make choices around certain issues such as
the medium of language through which lessons are taught.

24
 Education in a new south africa

(11) Balfour argues that despite these powers, “there have been strong tendencies towards cultural
and other forms of exclusion in many schools, either on the basis of language or class and
sometimes even ethnicity”.
(11.1) Firstly, define the following terms: cultural exclusion; class (or social class) and ethnicity.

(11.2) Now discuss Balfour’s argument. Are schools sometimes exclusionary in terms of lan-
guage, social class and ethnicity? Provide examples of these negative practices.

(12) SASA made provision for schools to levy school fees to “top-up” limited state funding. Bal-
four in paragraph 2, page 6, discusses a consequence of the school fees provision. Summarise
what Balfour proposes and then add your own ideas about levying fees (think about issues of
equality and privilege). Also consider which social class, in general, ends up attending fee-
paying schools. Which social class generally attends schools that are entirely state funded?
Read page 6 carefully to help you to engage with the relevant arguments.

SAE3701/1 25
 QUESTION 12
SASA (1996) also banned corporal punishment in South African schools. However, the practice
still exists in some schools.

(1) Why do you think corporal punishment has persisted in some South African schools?

(2) Explain what is meant by the gap between policy (e.g. found in SASA) and practice in schools.
Choose any one of the following issues to explain the concept (idea):
Equal education
Language policy
Corporal punishment

26
 Education in a new south africa

SAE3701/1 27
28
 3
LEARNING UNIT

CHILDREN IN SCHOOLS

Balfour, pages 7–14

This section outlines the numbers of children in schools over the last 20 years, the impact of
legislative changes made to schooling and the effectiveness of these changes. Read pages 7–14 in
the Balfour chapter. These pages cover questions 13.1–13.8.

QUESTION 13
(1) Start off this section by writing 1-2 paragraphs on your own schooling. Consider the follow-
ing: Where did you go to school? In a rural or an urban area? Did you go to a state or a private
school? Were there more boys or girls at your school? Did you go to a single-sex school?

SAE3701/1 29
(2) Study the enrolment levels on page 7 in the Balfour article (tables 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3).
(2.1) In which sector has there been the biggest increase of learners?

(2.2) Are there differences between girls’ and boys’ enrolments? If so, which group has the
higher enrolment figures? Why?

(2.3) Why have there been significant increases in pre-Grade R and Grade R enrolments in
the Early Childhood Development (ECD) sector? (Balfour, pages 7-9).

30
 Children in schools

(3) The discussion on page 10 of Balfour returns to apartheid education (which we have exam-
ined in previous units). Balfour makes clear links between the apartheid system and current
schooling inequalities. What are these links?

(4) Read pages 10–14 of Balfour. The decline in the number of state schools is examined and
reasons are proposed for this phenomenon. What are the reasons for this decline?

(5) What are the consequences of this decline for impoverished urban and rural learners? See
pages 10-14 of Balfour.

SAE3701/1 31
(6) Specify which sectors of society are advantaged by the increasing number of private schools.

(7) Think about the following statement: “The pass rate in former Model C schools is over 98%,
while the pass rate in township schools is about 50 or 60%” (pages 13 and 14 of Balfour).
Explain if this statement makes sense in relation to your responses to the above questions.

(8) Summarise the main points in pages 10–14. Use point form or a mind map. Then reread the
paragraphs you wrote about your own schooling. Can you make links between what you have
summarised and your own experiences of school? Jot down any significant links.

32
 Children in schools

QUESTION 14
Read the section “Learners who experience barriers to learning” on pages 15-18 of Balfour.
(1) What is meant by an inclusive learning system? (page 15)

(2) What is meant by full-service and inclusive education?

(3) What are special schools?

SAE3701/1 33
(4) Do you think ordinary schools in South Africa are equipped to deal with an inclusive learning
system? Support your response.

(5) The section “Learning and performance” on pages 19-22 deals with, inter alia (among other
things), dropout rates in schools.
Why do you think girls tend to have lower dropout rates in school than boys? See page 19.

QUESTION 15
(1) Do you know anyone who has dropped out of school? What do you think caused him/her to
drop out?

34
 Children in schools

(2) What major factors do you think affect dropout rates in South African schools?

(3) “Access to, and success, in education [in 2014] continued to be configured along racial lines
...” (page 19). Is this still the case in 2020? Discuss this statement, giving reasons why racial
inequalities still exist in South African schools.

(4) South Africa has one of the lowest educational performance rankings in the world. Explain
what is meant by the notion of performance. Why do you think South Africa ranks so low?

SAE3701/1 35
(5) Where was South Africa ranked in the Progress to International Reading Literature Study
(PIRLS)? (For the answer, read the Naidoo quote on page 21.)

(6) Read Jansen’s points about pass rates and the promotion policies in South Africa on page 21.
How should we respond to this crisis as teachers/teachers-in-training?

(7) What would you do as a teacher to improve the performance of learners?

CONCLUSIONS

The two major threads running through the first semester module relate to issues of the past and
the present. The module provided an overview of the historical context of South African education
and covered precolonial, colonial and apartheid education. We investigated the introduction of
a new education system in South Africa after 1994. The Balfour chapter (chapter 1) addressed
more contemporary issues and outlined issues such as school enrolment numbers over the last
20 years. We considered the impact of legislative change and governmental policy on the South
African education system. We also examined the still pressing issues of school performance, pass
rates and inclusion.

36
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS

INTRODUCTION

SECOND SEMESTER

This section of the module focuses on teacher professionalism in post-apartheid South Africa. It
will also raise questions about what it means to be an effective, accountable and ethical teacher.
We continue to use Balfour as a source, but also include the work of a range of authors who discuss
teacher professionalism and the debates informing the topic.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this part of the module, you should be able to

ƒ explain the notion of teacher professionalism in post-apartheid South Africa

ƒ discuss debates informing teacher professionalism
ƒ describe how teacher professionalism has an ethical foundation
ƒ apply the notion of reflective thinking
ƒ work with examples of teacher professionalism from a South African perspective

DEFINING KEY CONCEPTS

The following are some of the key terms you will come across in these learning units. Compile your
own glossary of key words and their definitions as you progress through this module.

ƒ Accountability: Being answerable to somebody or to an institution. So, if you are accountable

to someone or to an institution, you cannot do whatever you please; you need to follow certain
rules and regulations.
ƒ Bifurcated schools: In relation to schooling, this means, in part, that the schooling system in
South Africa is not equal in terms of resources and that there are two often widely different
schooling systems: one for the “haves” and one for the “have nots”.
ƒ Curriculum: The broad teaching and learning process that takes place in educational institutions.
It also can mean the cluster of subjects that are taught in schools, such as the Science curriculum.
ƒ Ethics: Knowing and acting on what is good and correct (morals).
ƒ Professionality: This is a much-debated term but broadly it is about being trained/educated
into a profession and behaving in a way that is appropriate to that profession.
ƒ Reflective thinking: Thinking about your practice as a teacher and improving on your practice.

SAE3701/1 37
38
 4
LEARNING UNIT

TEACHERS, SCHOOLS AND

THE CURRICULUM

In this unit we contextualise the role of South African teachers in post-apartheid society and address
the expectations the curriculum has of teachers. As Balfour (page 23) writes, “This section describes
the teaching corps of South Africa in terms of where they are located, how they are supported, and
how ready they have been to embrace and enact new curriculum initiatives after 1995.”

QUESTION 1
(1) Discuss the role the unions played in the teaching profession in post-apartheid schooling.
(Balfour, page 23)

(2) Do you agree/disagree with Jansen’s statement (page 24): “In a school – as in any functioning
organization–rhythm and routine are essential. This is absent in most schools. On average five
teachers are absent every day–and SADTU is motivating for more sick leave.” Briefly discuss
your position on the matter of teacher absenteeism.

(3) What is meant by accountability in the teaching profession? (Jansen, page 23)

SAE3701/1 39
(4) “The struggle to develop a culture of a professionally-focused teachers’ corps has been a per-
sistent cause for concern” (Balfour, page 24). We will return to this issue later in the module,
but for now, discuss what you think is meant by a culture of professionality among teachers.

(5) Section 1.7.2 (pages 24-30 of Balfour) provides quantitative data (measurable data, figures,
statistics) on the South African education system. Read section 1.7.2 and fill in the table for
1999 below (see page 25):

Date: 1999 Number of public schools Comments:

Number of private schools

Date: 1999 Number of educators in ordinary

schools

Date: 1999 The educator/learner ratio was

Fill in the table for 2011 below (see page 27):

Date: 2011 Number of schools

Date: 2011 Number of educators

Date: 2011 Number of learners

40
 Teachers, schools and the curriculum

Date: 2011 Independent schools taught ______%

of the entire learner population in
South Africa

(6) On page 27, Balfour mentions that there were fewer teachers and learners in the system in
2011 than in 1999. This was due, in part, to factors such as the merging of some schools, ac-
cess to schooling and dropout rates. Read pages 27 and 28 and summarise the main reasons
suggested by Balfour.

(7) Why do you think there is a trend of more learners in primary schools than in high schools
in South Africa? Read Balfour, pages 27 and 28.

(8) Read Jansen’s argument in Balfour on pages 29 and 30. What are the main points he makes
about why learners are underperforming? What ideas do you have concerning this pressing
issue?

SAE3701/1 41
(9) Go back to question 1.4. You might have to revise some of your comments now that you have
covered this section.

QUESTION 2
Read the section on school infrastructure needs (section 1.8) on pages 31–32.
(1) List some of the resources that schools did not have in 2011 and still do not have in certain
areas in South Africa. (See page 31.)

(2) What percentage of schools, according to Spaull (2013), are functional? (page 31)

42
 Teachers, schools and the curriculum

(3) Should there be an emphasis on the quality of schooling and not just on the number of educa-
tors/teachers and learners in schools? Discuss.

(4) From your perspective, how can the quality of schooling be improved?

SAE3701/1 43
 Curriculum reform

QUESTION 3
Read pages 32–36 in the Balfour article.
(1) Fill in the final column in the table below (direction, intention and problems with the curriculum).

Summary of major direction and intention of

Date Curriculum
curriculum. Problem areas?

1994 Outcomes-based education

(OBE)

2002 Revised National Curriculum

Statement (RNCS)

2004 National Curriculum Statement This is not explicitly covered in the section.
(NCS)

2011 Curriculum and Assessment

Policy Statement (CAPS)

(2) What are the major differences between OBE and CAPS?

44
 5
LEARNING UNIT

FACING THE CHALLENGES: A

FRAMEWORK OF ETHICS

Christie, chapter 7

This unit covers issues that can assist you in understanding social inequalities, reflecting on your
practice and operating within an ethical framework. The chapter from Christie’s Opening the doors
of learning (2008) deals with the inequalities within the South African schooling system. It also
provides an ethical framework to help teachers and teachers-in-training to face the complexities and
challenges of contemporary schooling. Christie emphasises an “ethical commitment for educational
practice and change” (page 209) and aims to guide teachers to become better teachers and hence
to improve the performance of their learners.

QUESTION 4
Read chapter 7, pages 210–211 in Christie and answer the following questions:

(1) What is meant by globalisation?

(2) Discuss why inequalities between the haves and have nots are increasing on a global scale.

SAE3701/1 45
(3) What, according to Christie, are the two education systems in South Africa?

(4) What factors encourage education to prosper in certain countries?

(5) In terms of nation state policies, discuss why it is sometimes difficult to implement policy
concerning the reduction of inequalities in South Africa.

46
 Facing the challenges: a framework of ethics

(6) In the paragraph about schools and classrooms, what are the differences between fortified
schools and schools that are exposed sites?

(7) Provide your own examples of how fortified and exposed schools operate in South Africa.

QUESTION 5
Ethical challenges
Read page 212 to the first paragraph of page 216 and answer the following questions:
(1) Why is it important to teach systematically and with intellectual rigour?

SAE3701/1 47
(2) Provide examples of how South African education can develop “habits of mind (and heart)
that strive for intellectual rigour” (Christie, page 212).

(3) What is meant by an ethics of civility?

(4) Have you ever experienced “thinking in the presence of others”? Discuss how this process
could work in the classroom or in the staffroom.

48
 Facing the challenges: a framework of ethics

(5) Is the ethics of civility a practical ethical system? What do you think could go wrong?

(6) Regarding the ethics of care, what do you think it means to be human?

(7) Discuss your response above in relation to what Immanuel Kant and Judith Butler propose
about human subjects.

(8) Iris Young (Christie, page 215) argues that we, as humans, need to have a moral humility
which recognises that there is “much that I do not understand about the other person’s expe-
rience and perspective”. Discuss this statement in relation to your role as a teacher and your
interaction with learners in the classroom.

SAE3701/1 49
(9) Levinas’s statement about being human is based on the ethical responsibility to care for others.
In your own words, discuss what he means by recognising “the face of the other”.

(10) Levinas also discusses the relationship of “face to face”. Do teachers sometimes not acknowl-
edge the face of the other? In what ways does this happen?

(11) As teachers we are committed to caring for our learners. Discuss how we can become more
attuned to taking responsibility for caring for others and acknowledging the different faces
in our classroom.

50
 Facing the challenges: a framework of ethics

(12) Christie asks, “What does an ethics such as this mean for education?” (page 215). What do
you think an ethics like this means for education?

Reflective thinking

In the preceding chapter, Christie writes that the type of ethical framework she is proposing calls for
“deep reflection”. The following extract deals with the importance of teachers becoming reflective
practitioners.

NOTE

There are also useful clips on the subject on YouTube. Take time to trawl YouTube.

QUESTION 6
Read the following extract by Hofer (2017):

For Dewey, reflective thought was defined as “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any
belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the grounds that support it, and the further
conclusions to which it tends” (Dewey, 1910, p. 6). He described reflective thinking as requiring
a suspension of judgment, an openness, a willingness to overcome mental inertia and entertain
doubt … Schon, perhaps most known as an organizational consultant, trained as a philosopher
at Harvard and wrote his dissertation on Dewey’s theory of inquiry. This led to a lifelong interest
in the role of reflection in learning processes, both individually and organizationally, and to two
books on the topic, one on reflective practice (1983) and one on educating the reflective practitioner
(1987); each book has had considerable influence in education and other professions.

As did Dewey, Schon described critical analysis and doubt as central to reflection, and through
multiple cases within the professions he showed how individuals utilize doubt and reflection to

SAE3701/1 51
forge new actions and then reflect back on them. Whether a jazz musician attuning to others
or a teacher recalibrating a lesson in response to student difficulty, professionals think about
what they are doing as they perform their practice and engage in reflection-in-action in cases of
uncertainty, ambiguity, conflict, and uniqueness (Schon, 1983). Schon’s goal was to try to legitimize
reflection-in-action as part of the epistemology of practice, as an accepted way of knowing, and he
called for broader, deeper, and more rigorous use across the professions. He envisioned reflective
practitioners as researchers who carry out experiments in response to the problems they observe
in their practice, resulting in both new understanding and changes in the situation. Schon did not
separate thinking from doing but saw them as deeply intertwined, with experimenting as action,
and with implementation built into inquiry. This vision of the reflective practitioner encompasses
reflexivity, both the self-awareness aspects and the move toward action. Such a professional reflects
on tacit norms, on theories implicit in behavior, on one’s own framing of a problem, or the role one
has constructed in an institutional context.

Schon (1983) described “a somewhat subversive aspect” (p. 337) of teachers becoming reflective
practitioners, as they may begin to question the organizational knowledge structure (and current
examples abound, particularly in regard to issues of assessment). Here Schon (1983) made the
leap beyond individual learning, indicating that organizational learning can occur more readily
in organizations that value reflective practice. Most importantly, reflective practice can be learned,
he argued, moving beyond… rules and toward learning to think like a professional, one who can
construct and experiment with new categories of understanding and develop new strategies for
action (Schon, 1987). In the example provided by Fives et al. (2017/this issue), the teacher they
describe reflects on uses of assessment and alters practices; in a school where this type of behavior
was encouraged, such changes could feed back into institutional changes.”

Hofer, BK. 2017. Shaping the epistemology of teacher practice through reflection and reflexivity.
Educational Psychologist, 52(4):299-306, DOI: 10.1080/00461520.2017.1355247

(1) Summarise the concept of reflective thinking.

(2) Why is it useful to entertain doubt as a professional teacher?

52
 Facing the challenges: a framework of ethics

(3) Two examples are presented in the extract: one of a jazz musician and the other of a teacher.
Can you think of other professions which would benefit from reflective thinking? Why?

(4) Provide an example of reflective thinking in the teaching profession and explain why reflective
thinking is a useful tool for teachers.

(5) Schon (1983) suggests that reflective thinking is not just about following the rules of the school
and that it has a “subversive” element. Explain why reflective thinking could cause profes-
sionals to question some of the rules governing their profession. Provide an example of this
within the teaching profession.

SAE3701/1 53
54
 6
LEARNING UNIT

PROFESSIONALISM IN SOUTH
AFRICAN SCHOOLS

This unit deals with teachers’ views on professionalism in South African schools. You will have a
better understanding of what is meant by bifurcated schools once you have read the article, but what
is important is that the term refers to the division into two branches or parts, so a branch of a tree
can bifurcate. It also means that an institution such as the state can bifurcate, that is, it separates
into two different factions. In relation to schooling, it means, in part, that the schooling system in
South Africa is not equal in terms of resources. Schools are bifurcated into schools for the “haves”
(more privileged, fee-paying schools) and the “have nots” (less privileged, no-fee schools). We
can also talk about bifurcation in relation to gender. In general, children are assigned two major
different roles by society: that of being a boy or that of being a girl.

QUESTION 7
(1) Read page 124 of the Hoffman et al article and work out a definition for the term “bifurca-
tion” in the context of the article. Provide an example illustrating bifurcation in relation to the
South African education system.

(2) Read pages 124–126.

Explain the debates over teacher professionalism. Identify the differences between democratic
and managerialist forms of professionalism.

SAE3701/1 55
(3) What professional position do you think teachers hold? (See from page 125.)

(4) The education profession is dominated by women, but are male teachers often seen as being
more “fully professional” than women? (See page 128.) Discuss.

(5) Reflect on the section you covered in this module on apartheid education. Explain why “the
history of teacher professionalism in South Africa is not only raced and classed, but also
gendered” (page 128).

NOTE

“Raced” refers to the different, socially defined race groups in South Africa.
“Classed” refers to social class such as working class and middle class. It can also refer to the
unequal relations among the classes.
“Gendered” refers to the construction of masculinities and femininities in society. It addresses,
for example, how girls and boys are socialised into adopting gender-specific roles. There is
nothing “natural” about these roles–they are learnt through, inter alia, social interactions,
performance and imitation.

56
 Professionalism in south african schools

(6) Read the section on the collected research data (pages 130-140). Who has borne the brunt
of educational inequalities in South Africa? Using the data as a foundation, discuss why this
is the case.

(7) What are the most important obstacles to becoming a professional teacher in South Africa?

(8) Why do you think teachers, as well as learners, face inequities in the school system? Explain
your position.

Hoffman, N, Sayed, Y & Badroodien, A. 2016. Different rules for different teachers: teachers’ views of
professionalism and accountability in a bifurcated educated system. Journal of Education, 65:123-153.

SAE3701/1 57
(9) Read the extract from Balfour, chapter 2, page 45:

Taylor (2015) suggests that there are three dimensions to definitions of professionalism in
the workplace. The first concerns the social trust invested by the public in the profession in
question, and this social trust derives from public confidence in the profession’s abilities “to
demonstrate that its theories and practices are more effective in providing a particular service
than those of competing groups”:

However, it is one thing to achieve this first marker in one of more institutions, but it is quite
another to achieve it as part of a collective endeavor, across the entire sector. This is the second
mark of a profession: there is consensus on best practices. The requirement is not uniformity
– which would allow no possibility of innovation, even revolt or progress – but at least there
should be broad convergence on a limited number of minimum sets of practice protocols and
how they can be understood in relation to the underlying theory.

A third condition of professionalism is that the knowledge and practice standards are main-
tained and jealously guarded by practitioners within the occupational field, not by government.
This is professional quality assurance, as opposed to bureaucratic managerialism. It could
not be any different, since only adepts within a field have the expertise to judge the value of
new knowledge claims and to certify novice entrants into the profession. This is one of most
important characteristics of a strong profession.

(9.1) Do you think the public has confidence in the teaching profession? Back up your response.

(9.2) The phrase “minimum sets of protocols” implies that professionals should have certain
rules that are generally agreed upon, such as if you are a doctor you should subscribe
to the Hippocratic Oath. What kinds of protocols do teachers subscribe to?

(9.3) Discuss whether you agree that the teaching profession should set the rules rather than
the state.

CONCLUSION

The second semester module dealt with the context of the contemporary, professional teacher
and we examined how teachers need to face up to challenges and predicaments in the South
African education system both thoughtfully and actively. We provided information on teacher
accountability and on how to develop an ethical approach to teaching. Furthermore, we discussed

58
 Professionalism in south african schools

why South African schools, in general, are still unequal in terms of resources and teaching staff
allocation.

The module also provided information on South African curriculum reform and plotted the course
of curriculum development from outcomes-based education to CAPS.

SELF-ASSESSMENT

This section covers self-assessment questions to help you to think about your progress and grasp
of the major topics. Tick the relevant box. Once you have completed the exercise, jot down notes
concerning the key areas below. So, for example, write a paragraph or so about the differences
between colonial and apartheid education. This will assist you with your revision of the course
and it will sharpen your summarising skills.

Do you understand the Yes Must work on this…

difference between colonial
and apartheid education?

Do you have a grasp of the Yes Must work on this…

changes that took place in
the South African education
system after 1994?

Do you understand what is Yes Must work on this…

meant by professionalism in
the South African teaching
profession?

Do you understand what Yes Must work on this…

it means to be an ethical
professional?

Do you have a grasp of what Yes Must work on this….

it means to be a reflexive
professional?

Do you understand that Yes Must work on this

schools in South Africa are
often bifurcated?

SAE3701/1 59
 ADDITIONAL LEARNING EXPERIENCES

YouTube videos
History Channel–Miracle Rising South Africa [Full Movie]

What is Reflective Learning?

vccbaking
Published on 26 Feb 2013

Also: assistance with paraphrasing and academic argument

How to Paraphrase

Write to Top
Published on 11 Oct 2016

Good writing needs variety and style. One way to do this is by paraphrasing so that we avoid using
the same words and sentences. This lesson goes over the basics of strong paraphrasing, especially
for those who need to take the IELTS or TOEFL exams.

How to Write a Summary

Kathy Wood
Published on 3 Jan 2015

How to write a summary — Create animated videos and animated presentations for free. PowToon
is a free tool that allows you to develop cool animated clips and animated presentations for your
website, office meeting, sales pitch, nonprofit fundraiser, product launch, video resume, or anything
else you could use an animated explainer video. PowToon’s animation templates help you create
animated presentations and animated explainer videos from scratch. Anyone can produce awesome
animations quickly with PowToon, without the cost or hassle other professional animation services
require.

60
 REFERENCES
Balfour, R. 2015. Education in a new South Africa, crisis and change. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Christie, P. 1991. The right to learn. Johannesburg: Sached Press.
Christie, P. 2008. Opening the doors of learning. Cape Town: Heinemann.
Hoffman, N, Sayed, Y & Badroodien, A. 2016. Different rules for different teachers: teachers’ views of
professionalism and accountability in a bifurcated educated system. Journal of Education, 65:123-153.
Hyslop, J. 1999. The classroom struggle: policy and resistance in South Africa, 1940 – 1990. Durban:
University of Natal Press.
Jay, JK & Johnson, KL. 2002. Capturing complexity: a typology of reflective practice for
teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(2002):73–85.
Mayeza, E. 2017. Girls don’t play soccer: children policing gender on the playground in a township
primary school in South Africa. Gender and Education, 29(4):476-494, https://doi.org/10.10
80/09540253.2016.1187262
Moloi, T. 2011. Bodibeng High School: black consciousness philosophy and students’ demonstration,
1940s – 1976. South African Historical Journal, 63(1):102-126.
Nieftogodien, N. 2014. The Soweto uprising. Johannesburg: Jacana Media.
Worden, N. 1994. The making of modern South Africa. London: Blackwell.

SAE3701/1 61
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