British Journal of Educational Technology Vol 00 No 00 2018 00–00

doi:10.1111/bjet.12618

Rethinking the flipped learning pre-class: Its influence on the

success of flipped learning and related factors

Jihyun Lee and Hyoseon Choi

Jihyun Lee is an assistant professor with the School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute at the Seoul National
University. She received her Master Degree with Technology in Education from Harvard Graduate School of
Education, and her Ph.D. in Educational Technology from Seoul National University. Her research interests include
dental/medical education, model development methodology, flipped learning, and technology integration for higher-
order thinking. Hyoseon Choi is an assistant professor with the College of Medicine at the Chosun University. She
received her Master and Ph. D. in Educational Technology from Seoul National University. Her research interests
include medical education, flipped learning, problem based learning, higher-order thinking, technology integration for
learning, research methodology, and competency-based education. Address for correspondence: Hyoseon Choi,
Chosun University College of Medicine, 309 Pilmum-daero, Dong-gu, Gwangju 61452, Republic of Korea. Email:
goodluck@chosun.ac.kr

Abstract
Flipped learning (FL) has had a substantial impact on higher education worldwide,
prompting active dialog among educational researchers and practitioners. It is widely
accepted that the value of FL lies in enabling in-depth, learner-centered learning
experiences by offloading content delivery onto pre-class online learning. The in-class
component is thus generally considered more critical, even though both pre-class and
in-class elements are indispensable components of FL and practitioners are faced with
the issue of under-prepared learners. In this study, we examine the significance of pre-
class learning as a gateway to the intended benefits of FL. We aim to investigate the
extent to which FL pre-class learning influences overall FL success and what other
factors affect FL pre-class learning to ascertain the implications of designing and
implementing FL pre-class learning. A college life science course was designed
and implemented with the FL model for a semester, from which data were collected and
statistically analyzed. The results indicate that the influence of pre-class learning on
final FL success is significant and strong. Regarding the modality of pre-class learning
materials, learners demonstrated higher levels of performance in the weeks with video
materials than during those with reading materials. Among several learner factors, self-
direction was found to significantly influence pre-class learning performance and
perceived learning readiness. The role of FL pre-class learning to attain the intended
value of FL is discussed, and theoretical and practical design implications are suggested.

Introduction
Flipped learning (FL) continues to broaden its impact on higher education worldwide, prompting
active discussion among educational researchers and practitioners (Bergmann & Sams, 2014;
He, Holton, Farkas, & Warschauer, 2016). FL differs from the earlier blended learning model in
that it consists of two types of learning: individual learning as homework outside the classroom
and interactive group-based learning inside the classroom (Bishop & Verleger, 2013). However,
despite the plethora of work on FL, several pressing questions remain. How can the instructor
best utilize both online and offline elements in an FL course? How can technology be integrated
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Practitioner Notes
What is already known about this topic
• Although both the pre-class and in-class portions are indispensable elements of
Flipped Learning (FL), the in-class portion is generally considered more critical
than the pre-class portion.
• Regarding the modality of FL pre-class learning media, cognitive load theory
(CLT) and the cognitive theory of multimedia may support video over reading
materials.
• Learners’ media preferences and learning styles have been shown to affect media
effectiveness and learning performance. The same may apply in the FL pre-class.
What this paper adds
• Pre-class learning was found to be positively correlated with final learning out-
come, and the strength of this relationship was fairly strong, almost twice that
between in-class learning and outcome.
• The modality effect was valid in this FL context; that is, the learners learned bet-
ter through video materials for FL pre-class learning than through reading
materials.
• The learners’ self-directedness was a significant factor that influenced perceived
learning readiness and performance in pre-class learning. The outcomes of FL
pre-class learning were not affected by learners’ media preference and learning
style or by learners’ self-regulation.
Implications for practice and/or policy
• Strategies must be implemented to ensure that learners truly gain the knowledge
included in the pre-class materials.
• Multimedia design principles are valid in designing FL pre-class learning.
Multimedia learning materials must be utilized to minimize extraneous cognitive
load for learners.
• Instructors must assist learners who have low self-directedness.

to promote the success of FL? Current research indicates that FL researchers and practitioners
generally agree that students need more face-to-face help from peers or the instructor when they
are struggling with intricate concepts or problems than when they receive knowledge transmis-
sion through lectures (Bergmann & Sams, 2014). Technology is considered to function far better
than humans for the purpose of repeating, speeding up or slowing down lectures to match the
learner’s pace and to make content accessible at any time (Bush, 2013). It has been noted that
by offloading content delivery onto online lectures that address the varying needs of students, off-
line face-to-face classroom time can be allocated to learner-centered activities such as discussion,
debate, problem-solving and hands-on learning with teacher-provided assistance, such as individ-
ualized guidance, prompt feedback and motivational and emotional support (Milman, 2013).
Many of the practical questions about the FL pre-class, which is the gateway to achieving the
intended benefits of FL, are not yet fully resolved, however.

The pre-class of flipped learning

Although neither the pre-class nor the in-class portions of FL can be supplementary and these
two indispensable elements should complement each other, the consensus seems to be that the
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in-class portion is a more critical component of FL than the pre-class portion (Bergmann & Sams,
2014). Media and communication theories that implicitly support FL also place more value on
this in-class element (Lee, Lim, & Kim, 2017). Media richness theory, for example, points to a
relationship between the characteristics of a task and the richness of a communication medium
(Daft & Lengel, 1984). The theory classifies tasks as either equivocal (ambiguous and conflicting)
or unequivocal (unambiguous and factual), and it classifies communication media as either rich
or less rich. Rich media are types of media that provide plentiful cues or immediate feedback with
an individualized focus. The theory suggests that equivocal tasks are better supported by rich
media such as face-to-face communication, whereas unequivocal tasks, such as learning factual
information, do not demand rich media. According to this theory, the face-to-face meeting for the
in-class element of FL belongs to richer media and is thus better suited to challenging, equivocal
learning activities; however, the online pre-class element is less rich media and is thus better used
to deliver unequivocal learning content.
In contrast, some studies have argued that the quality of learners’ pre-class learning significantly
affects the overall success of FL (Bergmann & Sams, 2014). Based on the definition of FL, pre-
class learning should be a gateway to in-class learning to facilitate its intended benefits. A well-
designed FL class creates a tight link between what learners learn at home and what they do in
class. When learners are not adequately prepared through pre-class learning, the path to in-class
learning is obstructed and the essential advantage of FL—freeing up class time for more meaning-
ful learning activities by offloading the delivery of new material before class—may be lost.
However, in practice, learners commonly fail to see the importance of pre-class study and dismiss
it as an additional supplementary task, or they simply lack the self-regulation to concentrate on
pre-class work and complete it in a timely manner (He et al., 2016). For various reasons, under-
prepared learners often have difficulty contributing to group activities, which can even demoti-
vate well-prepared learners. How critical, then, is the pre-class to the overall success of FL? What
affects its effectiveness? How can the pre-class be better designed? Previous research on FL prac-
tices indicates the need for empirical research that answers such questions on pre-class learning.

The modality effect of pre-class learning materials

Many practitioners are unsure whether video learning materials can adequately be replaced with
reading assignments for pre-class learning (Lo, Hew, & Chen, 2017). This question is related to
the evolving nature of the concept of FL as well as the effectiveness of learning materials with dif-
ferent modalities. There is a lack of consensus among researchers and practitioners on a
recognized definition of FL (He et al., 2016). Some take the typical and stricter approach to defin-
ing FL pre-class learning materials and acknowledge only online video lectures (Bishop &
Verleger, 2013; Lee, Lim, & Kim, 2017; Milman, 2013). Others use a broader definition of FL
that includes not only video but also reading assignments, homework problems and PowerPoint
presentations as pre-class learning materials (Lai & Hwang, 2016). Given that the defining role of
pre-class material in FL is to prepare learners for in-class learning and to motivate them to learn
further and deeper on their own, it follows that limiting the modality to only one type seems
unnecessary. Moreover, the original concept of FL is undergoing changes. Whereas the original
version focused on the pre-class online lecture using the term Flipped Class, a later version by the
same authors took a broader and more flexible approach using the term Flipped Learning. As they
observed, “What mattered was that they could do the science – that they could learn with or
without my specific instruction” (Bergmann & Sams, 2014, p. 63).
Beyond the concept of FL, however, lies a practical curiosity about which modality of pre-class
learning media is most effective for, and whether this modality fundamentally impacts the success
of, FL. Although online video learning materials have proliferated and provided learners with rich
and flexible learning opportunities (Chen & Wu, 2015), learners have been found to be
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vulnerable to distraction while watching online lectures by other websites, for instance (Milman,
2013). Nevertheless, theories such as cognitive load theory (CLT) and the cognitive theory of
multimedia learning (CTML) have long supported multimedia learning. Studies comparing video
learning materials with their auditory and visual modalities to printed reading materials with
only visual modality indicate that video materials reduce cognitive load and optimize the ger-
mane capacity of working memory, thus enhancing learning performance better than printed
materials (Mayer, 2014; Sweller, 2014). Questions remain, then, about whether video or reading
material is more effective for FL pre-class learning and for FL learning overall. Despite the exis-
tence of theoretical conjecture and anecdotal evidence, little if any empirical research has
addressed these questions.

The effect of learner characteristics on pre-class learning

Given the assumption that pre-class learning is a crucial gateway to achieving intended FL out-
comes and that the modality of pre-class learning media can affect the success of pre-class
learning and the success of FL overall, practitioners have sought to determine what factors other
than learning media modality may affect the success of pre-class learning. Researchers have long
suggested that diverse learner characteristics interact with the effects of media modality and ulti-
mately impact learning outcomes (Mayer, 2014). Studies on FL have also indicated that FL does
not work equally well for all students with different characteristics (Chen & Wu, 2015). Among
the various learner characteristics that may affect FL outcomes, FL practitioners’ attention has
been drawn to factors regarding media and learning style since FL seeks to optimize different
media and learner-directed learning.
Learners’ media preferences and learning/cognitive styles have been shown to affect media effec-
tiveness and learning performance (Chen & Wu, 2015; Cronbach & Snow, 1977). The attribute-
treatment interaction (ATI) hypothesis claims that some learners learn most effectively with
verbal materials (ie, verbalizers), whereas others learn most effectively with visual representations
(ie, visualizers) (Mayer, 2014). Depending on the learning style of the learner, the effectiveness of
different learning media (ie, static text only, image based, video based or interactive multimedia)
may vary along with learners’ preferences for verbal versus visual media and for talking versus
writing (Chen & Wu, 2015). Additionally, studies have stressed that because the pre-class portion
of FL is grounded in individual learning, the success of this portion of FL relies heavily on learners’
time management and independent learning strategies, including self-regulation and self-
direction (He at al., 2016; Lai & Hwang, 2016; Milman, 2013). Other studies have confirmed
that FL is more effective for highly regulated, highly motivated and academically well-prepared
learners (He et al., 2016; Lai & Hwang, 2016). Although many researchers have concurred that
FL treatment effects can differ by learners’ cognitive style and media preference and by learners’
levels of self-regulation, self-directedness and academic performance, exactly how such variables
affect FL pre-class learning seems to be unknown (Seufert, Sch€ utze, & Br€unken, 2009).

Research questions
This study addresses the critical significance of pre-class learning as a gateway to the intended
benefits of FL and aims to address the lack of relevant research to support the growing practice of
this pedagogical approach. More specifically, this paper strives to provide empirical evidence for
the importance of FL pre-class learning and implications of the findings for the design and imple-
mentation of FL pre-classes. With these goals in mind, we pose the following research questions:
1. To what extent does pre-class learning contribute to the overall success of FL?
2. Which modality, video or written text, is a more effective way of delivering FL pre-class
learning?
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3. How do (1) modality-related learner variables (ie, media preference and learning style),
(2) learning strategy-related learner variables (ie, self-regulation and self-directedness)
and (3) learning outcome-related learner variables (ie, perceived learning readiness and
academic performance) affect FL pre-class learning?

Methods
Context
This study was conducted in a semester-long life science course offered in the pre-dental curricu-
lum of a school of dentistry located in Seoul, Korea. Five tutors collaboratively ran the course.
This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the participating university under
the number S-D20160021.

Course design
This course was designed following the FL model and included pre-class individual learning, in-
class quizzes, in-class mini-lectures and in-class discussions and debates. The pre-class learning
required learners to engage in self-study while watching videos or reading course materials. The
in-class learning consisted of quizzes (10 minutes) to check learners’ understanding of pre-class
learning content and a mini-lecture (15 minutes) to wrap up the pre-class content and introduce
in-class activities. Finally, students participated in a 90-minute in-class discussion related to the
learning objectives of the week. The students were randomly divided into five different discussion
groups each week.

Pre-class learning materials

The students were provided with two to four YouTube video clips produced by the National Geo-
graphic Channel and the Education Broadcasting System in Korea or with weekly reading
materials. Five units of video materials were offered from weeks 2 to 5. The students were given
reading materials for the remaining four units from weeks 8 to 12. The video materials were
selected by the course teaching team to balance the difficulty level of the learning content.

Evaluation
Each student’s total score for the course was composed of attendance (10%), quizzes (30%) and
discussion (30%), as well as the final exam (30%). Each quiz consisted of 10 questions about the
video clips or reading materials. The evaluation of the discussion section was based on the scores
given by tutors and peers each week. The final exam included multiple-choice, short-answer,
descriptive-essay and discussion-essay items. All of evaluation components were reviewed and
agreed on by the five tutors for their validity; they were scored based on pre-developed criteria
and rubrics after calibration for reliable evaluation.

Participants
Among the 81 students enrolled in the course, 61 participated in this study. Female students con-
stituted 44.3% (n 5 27) of the sample, and the remaining 55.7% were male (n 5 34). The
participants were juniors (n 5 28, 45.9%) and sophomores (n 5 33, 54.1%). Data were collected
throughout the 2016 spring semester.

Instrument
The data used in the analyses were derived from both the students’ scores for the course and a
self-report questionnaire. This questionnaire was constructed with four sets of validated survey
items measuring modality-related variables (ie, media preference and learning style), learning
strategy-related variables (ie, self-regulation and self-directedness) and perceived learning readi-
ness. The questionnaire employed a 5-point Likert scale (1 5 strongly disagree, 5 5 strongly
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agree). The validity of the instrument achieved by the established validity of the sub-instruments
from which the items were drawn and was also confirmed by expert reviews (four educational
researchers and five tutors), all of whom considered the questions highly relevant to the purpose
and context of this study. A pilot test of the questionnaire was conducted with five college stu-
dents and indicated that no modifications were necessary. The reliability of each set of
instrument in this study was calculated statistically using Cronbach’s alpha, which was all within
the desirable threshold. The validity and reliability of each set of survey items are described
below.

Modality-related learner variables

Questions on learners’ media preference and learning style were included in the survey question-
naire. To measure each learner’s media preference, the students were asked to answer two
questions (ie, “Do you prefer watching video clips?” and “Do you prefer reading things?”). The
CITE Learning Styles Instrument was used to measure the students’ learning style. The nine items
asking about learning style were drawn from the CITE Learning Styles Instrument (Matzin, Shah-
rill, Mahalle, Hamid, & Mundi, 2013). The internal reliabilities were 0.902 for written
expressiveness (M 5 3.25, SD 5 0.92) and 0.690 for oral expressiveness (M 5 2.80, SD 5 0.75).

Learning strategy-related learner variables

In this study, the learning strategy-related learner variables consisted of questions for self-
directedness and self-regulation. Although debates continue on the distinction between these two
concepts, the items on self-regulation largely asked about learners’ managerial behavior and
strategies whereas items on self-direction asked about learners’ metacognition and motivation.
The four items for self-regulation and the five items for self-directedness were drawn from the
framework of the QCA (the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, UK). In total, 11 items
were adopted and modified from the validated Korean version of the QCA (Kim & Kim, 2014).
These items for self-regulation included, “I complete assignments according to the deadline,” “I
plan to study and proceed with the learning plan,” and “I plan to make a schedule for my study-
ing and tasks.” Items of self-directedness included, “I actively gather the data needed for tests or
tasks compared to other students” and “I keep thinking about studying when I am studying
something important.” The Cronbach’s alpha values were 0.627 for self-regulation (M 5 3.38,
SD 5 0.52) and 0.747 for self-directedness (M 5 3.38, SD 5 0.45).

Learning readiness
To assess the learners’ learning readiness, we selected items from the Korean National Survey of
Student Engagement based on the U.S. National Survey of Student Engagement, UK National
Student Survey and Australian Course Experience Questionnaire (Yu, 2010). Five items for learn-
ing readiness were selected. The Cronbach’s alpha was 0.600 (M 5 3.18, SD 5 0.61).

Data analyses
To answer the research questions, we conducted a correlation analysis, multiple and simple linear
regressions and a paired-sample t-test. The preliminary assumptions of each method were
assessed. First, the multicollinearity assumption was met with a Variance Inflation Factor below
10 and tolerance values above 0.729 for all the variables. Second, the assumption of linearity
and homoscedasticity was met with the random pattern scatter plot of the residuals against the
values of the outcomes. Third, the assumption of normality was met with the symmetrical and
approximately bell-shaped histogram and normal probability plot showing normally distributed
residuals.
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Table 1: Correlations among the scores of learning outcomes

[Pre-Class] Quiz [In-Class] Discussion Final exam M SD

[Pre-Class] Quiz 1 40.08 8.46

[In-Class] Discussion 0.515** 1 24.0 3.53
Final Exam 0.602** 337** 1 19.05 4.21

*p < .05, **p < .01.

Results
The effect of pre-class learning on FL learning performance
The pre-class quiz scores, in-class discussion scores and final exam scores were significantly corre-
lated, as shown in Table 1. The quiz scores for pre-class learning (r 5 0.602) (moderate to strong
association) and in-class discussions (r 5 0.337) (small to moderate association) were positively
correlated with the students’ final learning performance (Cohen, 1988; Ferguson, 2009). The
quiz scores for pre-class learning were also significantly correlated with the in-class discussion
scores (r 5 0.515). A multiple regression analysis was used to examine the extent to which pre-
class learning affected the learners’ performance in FL. The results indicated that the two predic-
tors explained 36.4% of the variance (Adj. R2 5 0.342, F(2, 58) 5 16.579, p < .000). It was
found that pre-class learning significantly predicted final FL learning performance (b 5 0.583,
p < .000).

The effect of learning material modality on pre-class learning

A paired-sample t-test was conducted to compare the learners’ perceived readiness and pre-class
quiz performances when provided with video materials and reading materials. For the learners’
perceived readiness, there was no significant difference between video and reading materials with
regard to the learners’ perceived readiness for class in the video weeks (M 5 3.11, SD 5 0.81) or
the reading weeks (M 5 3.25, SD 5 1.09); t(60) 5 21.015, p 5 .299, d 5 20.14). For the learn-
ers’ pre-class quiz performances, scores were significantly higher for the video weeks (M 5 66.71,
SD 5 14.09) than for the reading weeks (M 5 60.47, SD 5 15.68); t(57) 5 4.204, p < .000,
d 5 6.24). These results confirmed that although the two material modalities did not promote
perceived learning readiness, pre-class learning performance with video materials was superior to
that with reading materials.

Learner characteristics and the effect of pre-class learning

A correlation analysis was performed to determine the relationships among modality-related
learner variables, learning strategy-related learner variables, learning readiness and learning per-
formance for pre-class learning. The Pearson’s correlation coefficients among the variables are
summarized in Table 2. Correlations among learner preference for media, learning style, self-
regulation, learner readiness and quiz scores for pre-class learning were not significant. However,
self-directedness was positively correlated with learner readiness (r 5 0.368) and quiz scores for
pre-class learning (r 5 0.342).
Stepwise multiple regressions were conducted to investigate the influences of media preference,
learning style, self-directedness and self-regulation on perceived learning readiness and quiz
scores, with the result that learners’ self-directedness was the only significant variable for both
the perceived learning readiness and pre-class learning performance. Other variables (preference-
video/reading, learning style oral/written) were not statistically significant and did not enter into
the equation at later steps of the analysis. As shown in Table 3, the final models suggested that
self-directedness explained 13.5% of the variance in perceived learning readiness (Adj.
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Table 2: Correlations among factors of learner characteristics and learning outcomes

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 M SD

1 Preference—Video – 3.08 0.94

2 Preference—Reading 0.297* – 2.79 1.14
3 Learning Style—Oral 20.129 0.055 – 2.80 0.75
4 Learning Style— 0.112 0.107 20.480** – 3.25 0.92
Written
5 Self-directedness 0.046 0.195 20.096 0.074 – 3.38 0.52
6 Self-regulation 20.087 20.158 20.157 20.016 0.396** – 3.32 0.63
7 Readiness 0.015 0.094 0.000 20.026 0.368** 0.184 – 3.18 0.61
8 Quiz Score 0.046 0.180 0.104 20.031 0.342** 0.243 0.477** 40.08 8.46

*p < .05, **p < .01.

R2 5 0.120, F(1, 59) 5 9.216, p < .01) and 12.0% of the variance in pre-class learning perform-
ance (Adj. R2 5 0.102, F(1, 59) 5 7.798, p < .01). These results suggest that self-directedness
could significantly predict learners’ perceived learning readiness (b 5 0.368, t(59) 5 3.036,
p < .01) and pre-class learning performance (b 5 0.307, t(59) 5 2.478, p < .05). The prediction
of perceived learning readiness and pre-class learning performance by self-directedness has a
medium effect size according to Cohen’s guidelines.

Discussion and conclusion

This study addresses the practical questions that FL practitioners commonly have and the lack of
relevant research on issues related to the FL pre-class. We explored the extent to which pre-class
learning affects the overall success of FL and how it can be optimized in relation to the modality
of learning materials and learners’ characteristics.

The role of pre-class learning in FL

Pre-class learning was found to be positively correlated with final learning outcome, and the
strength of this relationship was fairly strong, almost twice that between in-class learning and
outcome. Furthermore, pre-class learning and in-class learning were strongly and positively cor-
related. The influence of pre-class learning on final FL success was found to be much larger than
common conjectures suggest. This result suggests the need to rethink the role of pre-class learn-
ing in successful FL. Pre-class learning can serve as a phase in which learners prepare for
learner-centered in-class learning activities. The preparatory role of pre-class learning can work

Table 3: Regressions for perceived learning readiness and pre-class learning performance

Dependent variables Independent variables b SE b B T p

Perceived learning readiness Self-directedness 0.434 0.143 0.368 3.036 0.004

R2 0.135
Adjusted R2 0.120
F 9.216**
Pre-class learning performance Self-directedness 8.270 3.338 0.307 2.478 0.016
(Quiz scores) R2 0.094
Adjusted R2 0.079
F 6.139*

*p < .05, **p < .01.

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not only as a “lever” to lift learners up to being self-directed, motivated learners but also as an
“equalizer” to move low- and middle-performing students up to a common ground of knowledge
for collaborative learning tasks (Jong, 2017). Studies have noted that low- and middle-
performing students often tend to neglect pre-class learning and are underprepared for in-class
learning, resulting in difficulty contributing to group activities, which can consequently
demotivate both themselves and well-prepared learners (He et al., 2016). Well-designed and well-
implemented pre-class learning can empower both low- and middle-achieving learners to be bet-
ter prepared for an upcoming class and to attain better learning achievement by having more
time to process new information than in a traditional classroom (Khanova, Roth, Rodgers, &
McLaughlin, 2015). The even levels of learner readiness also afford diverse and challenging col-
laborative learning activities for FL in-class learning.

The modality of pre-class learning material

We investigated the comparative effectiveness of different modalities of FL pre-class learning
materials. The results largely supported the CLT (Sweller, 2014) and the CTML (Mayer, 2014).
The learners learned better through video materials for pre-class learning than through reading
assignments, even if their perceived readiness levels did not differ. In other words, the modality
effect was valid in this FL context, which means that the attributes of video lectures facilitated
learning more effectively than those of reading materials. From the scheme of CLT, video lectures
can reduce extraneous processing and save cognitive capacity for intrinsic and germane process-
ing. Reading materials require learners to engage in more extraneous processing within the
visual channel by looking back and forth. The unnecessary extraneous load limits learners’ cog-
nitive capacity that is available for retaining, organizing and integrating learning content,
processes constituting intrinsic and germane processing. The results of this study were also sup-
ported by the CTML that video lectures can promote both intrinsic and germane processing by
constructing new mental knowledge integrated with existing prior knowledge (Mayer, 2001).
Some studies building on CLT and the CTML have posited that the modality principle is particu-
larly valid in the context of limited learning time (Harskamp, Mayer, & Suhre, 2007). Although
one advantage of video lectures is the possibility for individual learners to repeat learning content
as much as they wish, the actual time available for preparing for a particular class is certainly
not limitless, which means that the efficiency of the cognitive processing of learning materials
matters, and efficiency is essentially equal to effectiveness in the FL context.

Learners’ self-directedness
Regarding the third and final research question, the results indicate that learners’ self-
directedness is a significant factor that influences perceived learning readiness and performance
in pre-class learning. The outcomes of FL pre-class learning were not affected by modality-related
learner variables (ie, learners’ media preference and learning style), nor were they influenced by
learners’ self-regulation, such as time and task management and self-control. These results indi-
cate that the learner characteristic that matters for successful FL is self-directedness rather than
self-regulation or media aptitude.
A line of research represented by the classic ATI hypothesis (Cronbach & Snow, 1977) has
argued that learner characteristics related to media modality affect learning outcomes. Some
studies contend that such learner characteristics can play an important role in learning out-
comes, particularly in the context of an online learning environment where learning media is a
crucial component (Chen & Wu, 2015). Others claim that the learner’s autonomy and willing-
ness to take responsibility for his or her own learning is more important than the learner’s media
aptitude (Ettazarini, 2017). This study supports the latter line of research, suggesting that
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distance and individual learning in isolation can be a challenge that may obstruct meaningful
learning.
The finding that self-directedness was an influential factor, whereas self-regulation was not, may
have meaningful implications. Studies propose that learners’ self-regulation is a significant vari-
able for FL pre-class success (He at al., 2016; Lai & Hwang, 2016; Milman, 2013), which is
inconsistent with the results of this study. Self-directedness is a more advanced level of self-
regulation and is more closely related to a learner’s intrinsic motivation. Since FL learners tend to
regard pre-class learning as a supplementary FL component (He et al., 2016), the impact of moti-
vational factors can be even greater in pre-class learning situations. Stockdale and Brockett
(2011) emphasize the role of self-directedness, arguing that it is what allows learners to be aware
of their own knowledge, sustain learning activities and expand their learning through peers and
instructors.
In conclusion, FL pre-class learning is strongly and positively correlated with final learning out-
come, and the strength of this relationship is almost twice that of in-class learning. The intended
learning outcome of FL will benefit considerably from well-designed and well-monitored pre-class
learning. The multimedia modality and learners’ self-directedness significantly influence per-
ceived learning readiness and performance in pre-class learning. Designing efficient and effective
media for cognitive processing and motivating learners to be self-directed will be key factors in
the success of FL.
Several practical implications to guide practitioners can be noted. First, multimedia design princi-
ples are effective in designing FL pre-class learning. Multimedia learning materials must be
utilized to minimize extraneous cognitive load for learners. Even when reading materials are nec-
essary, a brief video that introduces the content of the reading materials may prove helpful.
Additionally, core learning content must be covered concisely within a limited time duration,
suggested by many to be less than 15 minutes (Lo & Hew, 2017). Second, strategies must be
implemented to ensure that learners truly gain the knowledge included in the pre-class material.
For instance, worksheets to be completed during pre-class lectures can be distributed, instructors
should monitor how well learners have comprehended pre-class content, mini-lectures should
reflect the content of pre-class materials, and quiz scores on pre-class learning should be seriously
considered for a final evaluation. Finally, instructors must assist learners who have low self-
directedness. In the context of FL, the significance of the pre-class portion must be emphasized so
that these students understand its importance and become more motivated. Additionally, learn-
ing systems can employ learning analytics to automatically generate warnings for learners who
frequently neglect pre-class learning.
This study includes some limitations that may provide opportunities for future research. Some of
the data used in this study, such as that on media preference, learning style, self-regulation, self-
directedness and learning readiness, were collected through self-reported surveys. Although the
self-report measure is commonly accepted as similar to direct measures, intervening performance
or observation bias may still affect self-report data. Future studies with directly measured hard
data, especially of learning outcomes, would lead to more valid and sophisticated analyses. Diver-
gence among the video materials may also have influenced the results. More research is needed
to explore the impact of different types of video and reading materials for further investigation.
This study does not claim that FL pre-class learning is more important than FL in-class learning.
Rather, it aims to shed new light on how pre-class learning serves as a gateway to in-class learn-
ing and how the success of FL depends on the connectedness of the two portions. The central
issue of FL is to find an optimal blend of offline and online learning experiences. A simple mix of
technology or a combination of online and offline portions does not amount to an integration of
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the two parts; the advantages of both environments must complement each other. This study
hopes to contribute to the design of the oft-neglected pre-class component to ultimately facilitate
an optimal FL experience for learners.

Acknowledgement
This study is supported by Research Resettlement Fund for the New Faculty of Seoul National
University. We owe particular thanks to participating tutors for their support in implementing
the course under study.

Conflict of interest

There is no potential conflict of interest related to this study.

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