HET301 OPTICAL NETWORKS DESIGN AND TRANSPORT - Lecture Notes PDF

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OPTICAL NETWORKS DESIGN AND TRANSPORT

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Fibre Optics (Optical Fibre) – Definition
Optical fibre consists of thin glass fibres or plastic or any dielectric medium which can
carry light signals from one end to the other. Optical fibre refers to the medium and
the technology which is related, or you can say that it is connected with the
transmission of information in the form of light impulses and this transmission is done
along with a glass or plastic wire or fibre. The wires of fibre optic cable can carry much
more information than any other conventional copper wire. The typical optical fibre
consists of a very narrow strand of glass called the core. Around the core is
a concentric layer of glass called the cladding. Optical fibres make use of light to send
information through the optical medium.
Evolution or History of an Optical Fibre
The optical fibre was first time demonstrated by Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet
in Paris in the early 1840s. They made this by refraction of light. After 12 years, John
Tyndall included a demonstration on it. In 1960, the laser light was first used as a light
source. In 1965, high loss of light discovered. 1n 1970s, the refining of the
manufacturing process is there. Later on in the 1980s, optical fibre technology
becomes the backbone of long-distance telephone networks in network
administration.
THREE ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS AN OPTICAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
1. Light source: In such a system a pulse of light indicates bit 1 and the absence
of light indicates bit 0. Light source can be an LED or a laser beam.
2. Transmission medium: Transmission medium is the ultra-thin fibre of glass.
3. Detector: A detector generates an electrical pulse when the light falls on it.
PRESENTER: ENG GTS. CHAPANDUKA -2022 1

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Structure of Optical Fibre
It has three parts shown in the diagram given below.
1. Core: It is a central tube as shown in the diagram. It is of skinny size and made
up of the optically transparent dielectric medium. It carries the light from the
transmitter to the receiver. The diameter of the core varies from 5um to 100um.
2. Cladding: it is the outer optical material surrounding the core. Its reflective index
is lower than the core. It helps to keep the light within the core as it uses the
phenomena of total internal reflection.
3. Buffer coating: It is the plastic coating which protects the fibre. It is made up of
silicon rubber. The diameter of the fibre after the coating is 250-300um.
A typical core diameter is 62.5 microns .Typically cladding has a diameter of 125
microns. 100 microwatts power (roughly) a light emitting diode can couple into an
optical fibre. Coating the cladding is a protective coating consisting of plastic, it is
called the Jacket.
The loss in signal power as light travels down the fibre is called attenuation. An
important characteristic of fibre optics is refraction. Refraction is the characteristic of
a material to either pass or reflect light. When light passes through a medium, it
“bends” as it passes from one medium to the other. An example of this is when we
look into a pond of water If the angle of incidence is small, the light rays are reflected
and do not pass into the water.
If the angle of incident is great, light passes through the media but is bent or refracted.
Optical fibres work on the principle that the core refracts the light and the cladding
reflects the light. The core refracts the light and guides the light along its path. The
cladding reflects any light back into the core and stops light from escaping through it

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– it bounds the medium! Fast data transmission rate is an advantage to using fibre
optics data transmission.
Bunch of fibre optic cables
THE WORKING PRINCIPLE OF AN OPTICAL FIBRE
The working principle of optical fibre cable is the total internal reflection. Total internal
reflection: when a ray of light travels from denser medium to rarer medium in a way
such that the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, then the ray reflects
into the same medium. This phenomenon is known as total internal reflection. Using
this phenomenon, the rays in the optical fibre undergo repeated total internal
reflections until it emerges out of the other end of the fibre. It does not depend upon
the shape of the fibre cable, i.e. the cable can be in bent shape.
Principles of Optical Fibre Communications
The electromagnetic energy travels through it in the form of light. The light propagation, along
a waveguide can be described in terms of a set of guided electromagnetic waves, called
as m odes of the waveguide.
Working Principle
A fundamental optical parameter one should have an idea about, while studying fibre optics
is Refractive index . By definition, “The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to that in matter
is the index of refraction n of the material.” It is represented as −

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𝒄
n=
𝒗
Where,
c = the speed of light in free space = 3 × 108 m/s
v = the speed of light in di-electric or non-conducting material
Generally, for a travelling light ray, reflection takes place when n2 < n1 . The bent of light ray
at the interface is the result of difference in the speed of light in two materials that have
different refractive indices. The relationship between these angles at the interface can be
termed as Snell’s law . It is represented as –
n 1 sinϕ 1 = n 2 sinϕ 2
Where,
 ϕ 1 the angle of incidence

 ϕ 2 is the refracted angle
 n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of two materials
For an optically dense material, if the reflection takes place within the same material, then
such a phenomenon is called as internal reflection. The incident angle and refracted angle are
shown in the following figure.

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If the angle of incidence ϕ1 is much larger, then the refracted angle ϕ2 at a point becomes
Π/2 . Further refraction is not possible beyond this point. Hence, such a point is called
as Critical angle ϕ c . When the incident angle ϕ1 is greater than the critical angle, the
condition for total internal reflection is satisfied.
The following figure shows these terms clearly.
A light ray, if passed into a glass, at such condition, it is totally reflected back into the glass
with no light escaping from the surface of the glass.
Parts of a Fibre
The most commonly used optical fibre is single solid di-electric cylinder of radius a and index
of refraction n1. The following figure explains the parts of an optical fibre.

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This cylinder is known as the Core of the fibre. A solid di-electric material surrounds the core,
which is called as Cladding. Cladding has a refractive index n2 which is less than n1.
Cladding helps in −
 Reducing scattering losses.
 Adds mechanical strength to the fibre.
 Protects the core from absorbing unwanted surface contaminants.
Types of Optical Fibres

Depending upon the material composition of the core, there are two types of fibres used
commonly. They are −
 Step-index fibre − The refractive index of the core is uniform throughout and undergoes
an abrupt change (or step) at the cladding boundary.
 Graded-index fibre − The core refractive index is made to vary as a function of the
radial distance from the centre of the fibre.
Both of these are further divided into −

 Single-m ode fibre − These are excited with laser.
 M ulti-m ode fibre − These are excited with LED.
Single Mode Fibre (SMF)

As its name suggests, in single-mode fibre, only one mode can propagate through
the fibre. In this, the diameter of the small core is 5um, and the diameter of cladding
is 70um. Also, the difference between the refractive indexes of core and cladding is
minimal. There is no dispersion of light in the single-mode fibre. You can also say that

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there is no degradation of the signal when the light is traveling through the fibre.
The various characteristics of Single mode fibre are:

The diameter of glass core in single mode fibre is very small ranging from 8 to
10 microns.
In this mode, light can propagate only in a straight line, without bouncing.
Fibre glass has lower density (index of refraction) that creates a critical angle
close enough to 90° such that the beam propagates in a straight line.
In this case, propagation of different beams is almost identical and delays are
negligible. The beams arrive at destination together and can be recombined
with little distortion to the signal.
Single mode fibres are more expensive and are widely used for long distance
communication.
These types of fibres can transmit data at 50 Gbps for 100 kilometres without
amplification.
It makes use of a laser light source. In this, light pulses are generated by the
injection laser diodes (ILD).
The light is passed through the laser diode in this mode of fibre.
Multimode Fibre (MMF)

In multimode fibre, multiple beams travel in the core in different paths.
In multimode fibre, the diameter of core is about 50 microns.
In this, the diameter of the core is 40um and diameter of cladding is 70um.
Due to multi-mode dispersion, there is degradation of signal in this.
The relative refractive index difference in multi-mode fibre is more significant
than the single-mode fibre.
Multi-mode fibre is not suitable for the long-distance communication because
of large dispersion and attenuation of the signal.
It can support less bandwidth as comparative to single-mode fibre. • In this,
the data rate is up to 1 Gbps.
Multi-mode fibres are further categorized into Step index fibres and Graded
index fibres.

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Step Index Optical Fibre

 Density of core remains constant from the centre to the edges.
 A beam of light moves in a straight line in this medium until it reaches the
interface of core and the cladding.
 At this interface, the angle of ray is changed due to the change in density.
 In this mode, some beams travel in a straight line through the core and reaches
destination without reflection or refraction.
 The beams that strike the interface of core and cladding at and angle smaller
than critical angle penetrate the cladding and are lost.
 The beams striking at angle greater than critical angle are reflected back in core
and form total internal reflection.
 In this fibre, a ray with smaller angle of incidence requires more bounces thus
will take more time to reach the destination whereas the ray with high angle of
incidence will require less number of bounces and will reach the destination in
lesser time.
 In this, the refractive index of the core and the cladding is constant.
 In this, the light rays propagate in the form of meridiognal rays or in zigzag
manner.
 In this, the rays cross the fibre axis whenever the reflection is made at the core-
cladding interface.
Graded Index Optical Fibre

 A graded index fibre has different densities at the core and at the edges.
Density is highest at the centre of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest
at the edge.
 Because of this difference in densities, different beams refract at different
angles into a curve.
 Only the horizontal beams move in a straight line due to constant density at the
centre.
 In graded-index fibre, the core has non-uniform refractive index and the
cladding has uniform refractive index. The refractive index of the core
decreases gradually from the centre of the core to the core-cladding interface.
 In this, the light rays propagate in the form of skew rays or in helical manner.

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 In this, the rays don’t cross the fibre axis whenever the reflection is mad at the
core-cladding interface.

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OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES
1. Describe the working of Photo Diode:
A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to

produce electric current. Sometimes it is also called as photo-detector, a light
detector, and photo-sensor.
A photodiode is one type of light detector, used to convert the light into
current or voltage based on the mode of operation of the device.
Types of Photo diodes:The types of the photodiodes can be classified based on
its construction and functions as follows.
• PN Photodiode
• Schottky Photo Diode
• PIN Photodiode
• Avalanche Photodiode
Special Features of Photo diode:
•
is low.
• The response is wide spectral
• Rugged mechanically
• Light weight and compact
• Long life
PN Photo Diode:
Prinicple:
Photoelecric effect is the basic principle of photo diode (ie) The light is incident on
a reverse biased PN junction diode to produce photo current.
Working of Photodiode:

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The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes
the diode, it makes a couple of an electron-hole. This mechanism is also called as
the inner photoelectric effect. If the absorption arises in the depletion region
junction, then the carriers are removed from the junction by the inbuilt electric field
of the depletion region. Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and
electrons move toward the cathode, and a photocurrent will be generated. The
entire current through the diode is the sum of the absence of light and the
photocurrent. So the absent current must be reduced to maximize the sensitivity
of the device.
Modes of Operation
The operating modes of the photodiode include three modes, namely Photovoltaic
mode, Photoconductive mode and avalanche diode mode
Photovoltaic Mode: This mode is also known as zero bias mode, in which a voltage
is produced by the lightened photodiode. It gives a very small dynamic range &
non-linear necessity of the voltage formed.
Photoconductive Mode: The photodiode used in this photoconductive mode is
more usually reverse biased. The reverse voltage application will increase the
depletion layer’s width, which in turn decreases the response time & the junction
capacitance. This mode is too fast and displays electronic noise

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Avalanche Diode Mode: Avalanche diodes operate in a high reverse bias
condition, which permits multiplication of an avalanche breakdown to each photo-
produced electron-hole pair. This outcome in an internal gain in the photodiode,
which slowly increases the device response.
Applications of Photodiode
• The applications of photodiodes involve in similar applications of

photodetectors like charge-coupled devices, photoconductors, and
photomultiplier tubes.
• These diodes are used in consumer electronics devices like smoke
detectors, compact disc players, and televisions and remote controls in VCRs.
• In other consumer devices like clock radios, camera light meters, and
street lights, photoconductors are more frequently used rather than
photodiodes.
• Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the intensity
of light in science & industry. Generally, they have an enhanced, more linear
response than photoconductors.
• Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like
instruments to analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography and also
used in blood gas monitors.
• These diodes are much faster & more complex than normal PN junction
diodes and hence are frequently used for lighting regulation and in optical
communications.
2. Write a note on Solar cell:
Solar cell also called photovoltaic cell, any device that directly converts the
energy of light into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect.
The overwhelming majority of solar cells are fabricated from silicon—with

increasing efficiency and lowering cost as the materials range from amorphous
(noncrystalline) to polycrystalline to crystalline (single crystal) silicon forms.

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Solar Cell Structure and Operation

Light enters the device through an optical coating, or antireflection layer, that
minimizes the loss of light by reflection; it effectively traps the light falling on the
solar cell by promoting its transmission to the energy-conversion layers below.
The antireflection layer is typically an oxide of silicon, tantalum, or titanium that is
formed on the cell surface by spin-coating or a vacuum deposition technique.
The three energy-conversion layers below the antireflection layer are the top
junction layer, the absorber layer, which constitutes the core of the device, and the
back junction layer.
Two additional electrical contact layers are needed to carry the electric
current out to an external load and back into the cell, thus completing an electric
circuit.
The electrical contact layer on the face of the cell where light enters is generally
present in some grid pattern and is composed of a good conductor such as a
metal.
Since metal blocks light, the grid lines are as thin and widely spaced as is possible
without impairing collection of the current produced by the cell. The back electrical
contact layer has no such diametrically opposed restrictions.
It need simply function as an electrical contact and thus covers the entire back
surface of the cell structure.

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When light falls on a solar cell, electrons in the absorber layer are excited from a
lowerenergy “ground state,” in which they are bound to specific atoms in the solid,
to a higher
“excited state,” in which they can move through the solid.
In the absence of the junction-forming layers, these “free” electrons are in random
motion, and so there can be no oriented direct current.
The addition of junction-forming layers, however, induces a built-in electric field

that produces the photovoltaic effect. In effect, the electric field gives a collective
motion to the electrons that flow past the electrical contact layers into an external
circuit where they can do useful work.
3. What is LED? Explain the principle, construction and working of LED.
LED:
The lighting emitting diode is a p-n junction diode. It is a specially doped
diode and made up of a special type of semiconductors. When the light emits in
the forward biased, then it is called as a light emitting diode.
Working Principle of LED:
The working principle of the Light emitting diode is based on the quantum
theory. The quantum theory says that when the electron comes down from the
higher energy level to the lower energy level then, the energy emits from the
photon. The photon energy is equal to the energy gap between these two energy
levels. If the PN-junction diode is in the forward biased, then the current flows
through the diode.

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When the diode is forward biased, then the electrons & holes are moving fast
across the junction and they are combining constantly, removing one another out.
Soon after the electrons are moving from the n-type to the p-type silicon, it
combines with the holes, then it disappears. Hence it makes the complete atom &
more stable and it gives the little burst of energy in the form of a tiny packet or
photon of light.
The above diagram shows how the light emitting diode works and the step by step
process of the diagram.
• From the diagram, we can observe that the N-type silicon is in red color
and it contains the electrons, they are indicated by the black circles.
• The P- type silicon is in the blue color and it contains holes, they are
indicated by the white circles.
• The power supply across the p-n junction makes the diode forward
biased and pushing the electrons from n-type to p-type. Pushing the holes
in the opposite direction.
• Electron and holes at the junction are combined.
• The photons are given off as the electrons and holes are recombined.

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• The flow of current in the semiconductors is caused by the both flow of
holes in the opposite direction of current and flow of electrons in the
direction of the current. Hence there will be recombination due to the flow
of these charge carriers.
• The recombination indicates that the electrons in the conduction band
jump down to the valence band. When the electrons jump from one band
to another band the electrons will emit the electromagnetic energy in the
form of photons and the photon energy is equal to the forbidden energy
gap.
Applications of Light Emitting Diodes
There are many applications of the LED and some of them are explained below.
• LED is used as a bulb in the homes and industries
• The light emitting diodes are used in the motorcycles and cars
• These are used in the mobile phones to display the message
• At the traffic light signals led’s are used Advantages of LED’s
• The cost of LED’s is less and they are tiny. By using the LED’s the
electricity is controlled.
• The intensity of the LED differs with the help of the microcontroller.

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4. Write a note on Organic Light Emitting Diode:
An organic light-emitting diode (OLED) is a light-emitting diode (LED) in which the

emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound that emits light in
response to an electric current. This organic layer is situated between two
electrodes; typically, at least one of these electrodes is transparent.
Uses:
OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such as television screens,
computer monitors, portable systems such as smartphones, handheld game
consoles and PDAs. A major area of research is the development of white OLED
devices for use in solid-state lighting applications.
A typical OLED is composed of a layer of organic materials situated between two

electrodes, the anode and cathode, all deposited on a substrate.
The organic molecules are electrically conductive as a result of delocalization of

pi electrons caused by conjugation over part or the entire molecule.
These materials have conductivity levels ranging from insulators to conductors,

and are therefore considered organic semiconductors.
The highest occupied and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals (HOMO and
LUMO) of organic semiconductors are analogous to the valence and conduction
bands of inorganic semiconductors.

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Working of LED:
During operation, a voltage is applied across the OLED such that the anode is
positive with respect to the cathode.
Anodes are picked based upon the quality of their optical transparency, electrical
conductivity, and chemical stability.
A current of electrons flows through the device from cathode to anode, as

electrons are injected into the LUMO of the organic layer at the cathode and
withdrawn from the HOMO at the anode.
This latter process may also be described as the injection of electron holes into
the HOMO. Electrostatic forces bring the electrons and the holes towards each
other and they recombine forming an exciton, a bound state of the electron and
hole.
This happens closer to the emissive layer, because in organic semiconductors

holes are generally more mobile than electrons. The decay of this excited state
results in a relaxation of the energy levels of the electron, accompanied by
emission of radiation whose frequency is in the visible region.
The frequency of this radiation depends on the band gap of the material, in this
case the difference in energy between the HOMO and LUMO.

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5. Describe semiconductor LASER
diode Principle:
When a PN junction diode is forward biased, the electrons from the n region and
holes from the p region recombine with each other at the junction. During
recombination process, light is released from certain specified direct band gap
semiconductors.
Construction:
This laser consists of five layers as shown in the figure. A layer of Ga-As p –
type (3rd layer) will act as the active region. This layer is sand witched between
two layers having wider band gap viz GaAlAs-p – type (2nd layer) and GaAlAs-n-
type (4th layer).
The end faces of the junctions of 3rd and 4th layer are well polished and parallel
to each other. They act as an optical resonator.
Working:
When the PN junction is forward biased, the electrons and holes are
injected into the junction region. The region around the junction contains large
amount of electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band.

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Thus the population inversion is achieved. At this stage, some of the injected
charge carriers recombines and produce radiation in the form of light.
When the forward biased voltage is increased, more and more light photons are
emitted and the light intensity is more. These photons can trigger a chain of
stimulated recombination’s resulting in the release of photons in phase.
The photons moving at the plane of the junction travels back and forth by reflection
between two sides and grow its strength. A coherent beam of laser having wavelength
nearly 8000 A o emerge out from the junction region.
Characteristics:Advantages:
1. It produces continuous wave output.
2. The power output is very high.
Disadvantages:
1. It is very difficult to grow different layers of PN junction.
2. The cost is very high.

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Applications:
1.This type of laser is mostly used in optical applications
2. It is widely used in computers, especially on CD-ROMs.

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THE NEED FOR OPTOELECTRONIC INTEGRATED

CIRCUITS
Photonic Integrated Circuit
Definition
An integrated circuit is chip containing electronic components that form a functional circuit,
such as those embedded inside your smart phone, computer, and other electronic
devices; a photonic integrated circuit (PIC) is a chip that contains photonic components,
which are components that work with light (photons).
In an electronic chip, electron flux passes through electrical components such as resistors,
inductors, transistors, and capacitors; in a photonic chip, photons pass through optical
components such as waveguides (equivalent to a resistor or electrical wire), lasers
(equivalent to transistors), polarizers, and phase shifters.
How does a photonic integrated circuit work and what problem does it solve?
PICs use a laser source to inject light that drives the components, similar to turning on a
switch to inject electricity that drives electronic components. Using light instead of
electricity, integrated photonic technology provides a solution to the limitations of
electronics like integration and heat generation, taking devices to the next level, the so-
called “more than Moore” concept to increase capacity and speed of data transmission.
PICs offer advantages such as miniaturization, higher speed, low thermal effects, large
integration capacity, and compatibility with existing processing flows that allow for high
yield, volume manufacturing, and lower prices. Applications for integrated photonics are
broad – from data communications and sensing to the automotive industry and the field
of astronomy.
What industries and applications would PICs be good for?

One of the key application fields for PICs is data communications, followed by sensing
(for agriculture and autonomous driving, for example), and biomedical applications such
as lab-on-a-chip devices, as well as applications in the defense and aerospace industries
and the field of astronomy. Improvements and additional applications for PICs continue
to emerge as designers take on additional technological challenges for which integrated

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photonics may be useful and for which feasibility studies can determine whether it holds
the promise of a solution. Services for such studies are provided by PIC consortia, design
houses, and even some universities around the world.
What is the significance of developing PICs now?

With electronic integrated circuits arriving at the end of their integration capacity, PICs
have the potential to be the preferred technology for data communications (inter- and
intra-datacenter communications), LiDAR solutions for autonomous driving, sensing for
aerospace and aeronautics, and untold future applications in a new technological era.
How do you develop and m odel a PIC?

A proper design and PIC process flow can be complex. Specific steps will vary depending
on the application and foundry, but the basic steps are:
 Identify your idea or requirement
 Perform a feasibility study of your application
 Design (considering PIC testing and packaging from the beginning):
o Device level (optical, thermal, and material simulations)
o Circuit level (virtual lab to test performance)
o System level (PIC connected to a communications link)
o Layout level (generate the design intent)
o Verification (DRC and LVS for manufacturing compliance and high yield
assurance)
o GDS (check generated mask and replace black/white boxes if needed)
 Process flow
o Simulation of each process step
 Fabrication
 Testing
o Wafer level
o Chip level
 Packaging
III-V Compound semiconductors versus silicon photonics.

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COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS
A compound semiconductor is composed of chemical elements belonging to two or more
different groups in the periodic table, e.g., III–V. Compound semiconductors have unique
material properties, such as direct energy bandgap, high breakdown electric fields, and
high electron mobility, compared to silicon, enabling photonic, high-speed, and high-
power device technologies. Electrons in compound semiconductors move much faster
than those in silicon, enabling processing that is more than 100 times faster.
Silicon semiconductors made possible today’s electronics industry; compound
semiconductors will drive the next wave of advances, from 5G to robotics, more efficient
renewable energy, and autonomous vehicles. They can operate at lower voltage, emit
and sense light, generate microwaves, and are magnetically sensitive and resistant to
heat. They consume only a fraction of the energy that current materials consume to store,
route, transmit, and detect data.
Compound semiconductors will underpin the Internet of Things by virtue of their greater
power efficiency (for battery-powered devices) and optical properties (in sensors for new
imaging techniques implemented in connected cars, healthcare, and industrial
applications.)
What are Compound Semiconductors?
Compound semiconductors are the next generation of semiconductors. They operate

much faster than silicon and have a host of other properties that will support emerging

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technologies that require ultra-high performance along with sensing and other
capabilities.
What are compound semiconductors?

First let’s go back a step and consider what a semiconductor is. It’s a generic term for
a substance, usually a solid chemical element, that can conduct current, but only
partly. The conductivity of a semiconductor lies between that of an insulator (like
rubber or glass), which has virtually no conductivity, and a conductor (such as copper
or aluminium), which has near full conductivity. The specific properties of the
semiconductor can be altered through the introduction of impurities, known as
dopants, into the structure of the crystal.
Because a semiconductor can only conduct current under certain conditions, it is a

good medium for the control of electrical current. As such, semiconductors are now
essential components of most integrated circuits (ICs).
Only a few of the 92 elements can be used for semiconductors, and silicon is by far
the most common as it is readily available and has lots of commercial applications.
As its name implies, a compound semiconductor is a semiconductor made from two

or more elements. The range of possible combinations is broad and can form binary
(two elements), ternary (three) and quaternary (four) alloys. Common elements used
for compound semiconductors include gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium nitride (GaN),
indium phosphide (InP), zinc sulphide (ZnS), zinc selenide (ZnSe), silicon carbide
(SiC) and silicon germanium (SiGe).
How long have they been around?

Semiconductors themselves began to be used extensively from the 1950s and it
wasn’t long before research into compound semiconductors began. Sumitomo Electric
launched a semiconductor research programme in 1956 but it wasn’t until 1970 that
the company established a semiconductor development section. In 2003 the company
succeeded in developing a gallium nitride substrate and began mass production – the
first in the world.

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There are a number of reasons why it took so long to develop compound

semiconductors for commercial use: the difficulty in growing compound crystals, the
high number of defects in the crystals, the greater fragility of the crystals and the high
cost of making them, relative to silicon.
While the cost of manufacturing compound semiconductors has come down, it is still
far higher than the production of silicon semiconductors. However, the properties of
the crystals mean they can do things that aren’t possible with silicon, so justifying the
cost.
What can compound semiconductors do?

Electrons in compound semiconductors move much faster than electrons in silicon,
enabling high-speed processing that’s over 100 times faster than silicon. Furthermore,
compound semiconductors operate at lower voltage, can emit and sense light,
generate microwaves and are magnetically sensitive and resistant to heat. They can
store, route, transmit and detect data at a fraction of the energy used by current
solutions.
They therefore have a wide range of use cases that improve performance for current
applications that use silicon-based semiconductors and will open up a vast spectrum
of applications that silicon-based semiconductors can’t support.
Compound semiconductors are already used in power amplifiers for smartphones and
other wireless devices, light sources for DVDs and Blu-rays, LEDs, solar batteries, and
solar cells

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What does all this have to do with 5G?
A lot! Just as silicon semiconductors revolutionised and made possible the electronics
industry, compound semiconductors will revolutionise technology and enable a wide
range of developments, from 5G to robotics, more efficient renewable energy and
autonomous vehicles. Compound semiconductors will underpin the Internet of Things
(IoT), which itself will not be possible without 5G.
Compound semiconductors have numerous properties that will benefit the IoT. Key
among them is the greater power efficiency that will be essential for battery-powered
devices and the optical properties that enable them to be used in sensors that will
deliver new imaging techniques for connected cars, healthcare and much, much more.
Silicon Photonics
Definition
Silicon photonics (SiPh) is a material platform from which photonic integrated

circuits (PICs) can be made. It uses silicon on insulator (SOI) wafers as the
semiconductor substrate material and most of the standard CMOS manufacturing
processes can be applied.

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Advantages and challenges of silicon photonics
PICs enable, extend, and increase data transmission. PICs may consume less power
and generate less heat than conventional electronic circuits, offering the promise of
energy-efficient bandwidth scaling. SiPh is compatible with CMOS (electronic)
fabrication, which allows SiPh PICs to be manufactured using established foundry
infrastructure. Given the physics of photonics, older CMOS nodes can be perfectly
suitable to pattern and fabricate the photonic devices and circuits.
Waveguides, the interconnects between photonic devices in the circuit, are made from
a silicon core and come in different style: like a rib or strip and have the oxide from the
SOI substrate as bottom cladding and air or another layer of silicon oxide as top
cladding. The light is transported in these waveguides and given the material
properties of the silicon only infrared signals can be transported without significant
losses. Nowadays, silicon photonics PIC processes often include additional
waveguides build from silicon nitride as the core material, this opens the ability to carry
wavelengths over a wider range, including visible light.
Light sources (lasers, the “power supply” of photonic circuits and systems) are today
impossible to manufacture in silicon due to the indirect bandgap of the material (a
horizontal shift between the valence and conduction band of the material). For light to
be generated, a material needs to have a direct bandgap. Therefore, other materials
with a direct bandgap (III-V materials), such as Indium Phosphide (InP), are most
commonly used to create semiconductor lasers for the wavelengths used in tele and
datacom (1550 and 1310nm). Various techniques exist to integrate III-V materials and
or complete lasers in the SiPh wafer (chip) to drive the photonic components within
the photonic circuit.
How do photonic and electronic circuits complement each other?
PICs cannot do without “normal” or Electronic ICs to form a complete solution serving
an application. In an optical pluggable transceiver, one needs the circuitry to drive the
modulator and amplify the signals from the photo-detector, and additional digital
electronics signal processing is often required. Silicon photonics fabrication processes
can vary from one foundry to another and include electrical devices. If that is the case

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we speak about monolithic silicon photonics, allowing designers to design both

electrical and optical functions in one and the same chip, instead of designing two (or
more) chips that need to be combined in a package. As always with product
development, decision making about what technology to select for a particular
application comes with cost, performance, time to market considerations and
partnering early with a potential foundry and packaging provider will help making the
right trade-off analysis.
SiPh is increasingly used in optical datacom, sensing, biomedical, automotive,

astronomy, aerospace, AR/VR and AI applications. An example of an automotive
application is integrated LiDAR chips for autonomous vehicles.
Synopsys supports the industry by providing a unique and complete end-to-end design
solution for silicon photonics, covering electronics and photonics. Synopsys is working
closely with all major foundries to support the development of silicon photonics
manufacturing, PDKs and tool enablement.

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Silicon photonics
Silicon photonics is the study and application of photonic systems which use silicon as
an optical medium. The silicon is usually patterned with sub-micrometre precision,
into microphotonic components. These operate in the infrared, most commonly at the
1.55 micrometre wavelength used by most fibreoptic telecommunication systems. The
silicon typically lies on top of a layer of silica in what (by analogy with a similar
construction in microelectronics) is known as silicon on insulator (SOI ).
Silicon photonics 300 mm wafer
Silicon photonic devices can be made using existing semiconductor

fabrication techniques, and because silicon is already used as the substrate for
most integrated circuits, it is possible to create hybrid devices in which
the optical and electronic components are integrated onto a single microchip.
Consequently, silicon photonics is being actively researched by many electronics
manufacturers including IBM and Intel, as well as by academic research groups, as a
means for keeping on track with Moore's Law, by using optical interconnects to provide
faster data transfer both between and within microchips.
The propagation of light through silicon devices is governed by a range of nonlinear

optical phenomena including the Kerr effect, the Raman effect, two-photon
absorption and interactions between photons and free charge carriers.[10] The
presence of nonlinearity is of fundamental importance, as it enables light to interact
with light, thus permitting applications such as wavelength conversion and all-optical
signal routing, in addition to the passive transmission of light.

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Silicon waveguides are also of great academic interest, due to their unique guiding
properties, they can be used for communications, interconnects, biosensors, and they
offer the possibility to support exotic nonlinear optical phenomena such as soliton
propagation.
Optical communications
In a typical optical link, data is first transferred from the electrical to the optical domain
using an electro-optic modulator or a directly modulated laser. An electro-optic
modulator can vary the intensity and/or the phase of the optical carrier. In silicon
photonics, a common technique to achieve modulation is to vary the density of free
charge carriers. Variations of electron and hole densities change the real and the
imaginary part of the refractive index of silicon as described by the empirical equations
of Soref and Bennett. Modulators can consist of both forward-biased PIN diodes, which
generally generate large phase-shifts but suffer of lower speeds, as well as of reverse-
biased PN junctions. A prototype optical interconnect with micro-ring modulators
integrated with germanium detectors has been demonstrated. Non-resonant
modulators, such as Mach-Zehnder interferometers, have typical dimensions in the
millimeter range and are usually used in telecom or datacom applications. Resonant
devices, such as ring-resonators, can have dimensions of few tens of micrometers
only, occupying therefore much smaller areas. In 2013, researchers demonstrated a
resonant depletion modulator that can be fabricated using standard Silicon-on-
Insulator Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (SOI CMOS) manufacturing
processes. A similar device has been demonstrated as well in bulk CMOS rather than
in SOI.
On the receiver side, the optical signal is typically converted back to the electrical
domain using a semiconductor photodetector. The semiconductor used for carrier
generation has usually a band-gap smaller than the photon energy, and the most
common choice is pure germanium. Most detectors utilize a PN junction for carrier
extraction, however, detectors based on metal–semiconductor
junctions (with germanium as the semiconductor) have been integrated into silicon
waveguides as well. More recently, silicon-germanium avalanche

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photodiodes capable of operating at 40 Gbit/s have been fabricated. Complete

transceivers have been commercialized in the form of active optical cables.
Optical communications are conveniently classified by the reach, or length, of their

links. The majority of silicon photonic communications have so far been limited to
telecom and datacom applications, where the reach is of several kilometers or several
meters respectively.
Silicon photonics, however, is expected to play a significant role in computercom as

well, where optical links have a reach in the centimeter to meter range. In fact,
progress in computer technology (and the continuation of Moore's Law) is becoming
increasingly dependent on faster data transfer between and within microchips Optical
interconnects may provide a way forward, and silicon photonics may prove particularly
useful, once integrated on the standard silicon chips.In 2006, Intel Senior Vice
President - and future CEO - Pat Gelsinger stated that, "Today, optics is a niche
technology. Tomorrow, it's the mainstream of every chip that we build
The first microprocessor with optical input/output (I/O) was demonstrated in December
2015 using an approach known as "zero-change" CMOS photonics. This first
demonstration was based on a 45 nm SOI node, and the bi-directional chip-to-chip
link was operated at a rate of 2×2.5 Gbit/s. The total energy consumption of the link
was calculated to be of 16 pJ/b and was dominated by the contribution of the off-chip
laser.
Some researchers believe an on-chip laser source is required. Others think that it
should remain off-chip because of thermal problems (the quantum efficiency
decreases with temperature, and computer chips are generally hot) and because of
CMOS-compatibility issues. One such device is the hybrid silicon laser, in which the
silicon is bonded to a different semiconductor (such as indium phosphide) as the lasing
medium.[39] Other devices include all-silicon Raman laser or an all-silicon Brillouin
lasers wherein silicon serves as the lasing medium.
In 2012, IBM announced that it had achieved optical components at the 90 nanometer
scale that can be manufactured using standard techniques and incorporated into
conventional chips. In September 2013, Intel announced technology to transmit data

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at speeds of 100 gigabits per second along a cable approximately five millimeters in
diameter for connecting servers inside data centers. Conventional PCI -E data cables
carry data at up to eight gigabits per second, while networking cables reach 40 Gbit/s.
The latest version of the USB standard tops out at ten Gbit/s. The technology does not
directly replace existing cables in that it requires a separate circuit board to
interconvert electrical and optical signals. Its advanced speed offers the potential of
reducing the number of cables that connect blades on a rack and even of separating
processor, storage and memory into separate blades to allow more efficient cooling
and dynamic configuration.
Graphene photodetectors have the potential to surpass germanium devices in several

important aspects, although they remain about one order of magnitude behind current
generation capacity, despite rapid improvement. Graphene devices can work at very
high frequencies, and could in principle reach higher bandwidths. Graphene can
absorb a broader range of wavelengths than germanium. That property could be
exploited to transmit more data streams simultaneously in the same beam of light.
Unlike germanium detectors, graphene photodetectors do not require applied voltage,
which could reduce energy needs. Finally, graphene detectors in principle permit a
simpler and less expensive on-chip integration. However, graphene does not strongly
absorb light. Pairing a silicon waveguide with a graphene sheet better routes light and
maximizes interaction. The first such device was demonstrated in 2011. Manufacturing
such devices using conventional manufacturing techniques has not been
demonstrated.
Optical routers and signal processors
Another application of silicon photonics is in signal routers for optical communication.

Construction can be greatly simplified by fabricating the optical and electronic parts on
the same chip, rather than having them spread across multiple components. A wider
aim is all-optical signal processing, whereby tasks which are conventionally performed
by manipulating signals in electronic form are done directly in optical form. An
important example is all-optical switching, whereby the routing of optical signals is
directly controlled by other optical signals. Another example is all-optical wavelength
conversion.

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In 2013, a startup company named "Compass-EOS", based in California and in Israel,

was the first to present a commercial silicon-to-photonics router
Long range telecommunications using silicon photonics
Silicon microphotonics can potentially increase the Internet's bandwidth capacity by

providing micro-scale, ultra low power devices. Furthermore, the power consumption
of datacenters may be significantly reduced if this is successfully achieved.
Researchers at Sandia, Kotura, NTT, Fujitsu and various academic institutes have
been attempting to prove this functionality. A 2010 paper reported on a prototype
80 km, 12.5 Gbit/s transmission using microring silicon devices.
Physical properties
Optical guiding and dispersion tailoring
Silicon is transparent to infrared light with wavelengths above about 1.1

micrometres. Silicon also has a very high refractive index, of about 3.5. The tight
optical confinement provided by this high index allows for microscopic optical
waveguides, which may have cross-sectional dimensions of only a few
hundred nanometers. Single mode propagation can be achieved, thus (like single-
mode optical fiber) eliminating the problem of modal dispersion.
The strong dielectric boundary effects that result from this tight confinement
substantially alter the optical dispersion relation. By selecting the waveguide
geometry, it is possible to tailor the dispersion to have desired properties, which is of
crucial importance to applications requiring ultrashort pulses. In particular, the group
velocity dispersion (that is, the extent to which group velocity varies with wavelength)
can be closely controlled. In bulk silicon at 1.55 micrometres, the group velocity
dispersion (GVD) is normal in that pulses with longer wavelengths travel with higher
group velocity than those with shorter wavelength. By selecting a suitable waveguide
geometry, however, it is possible to reverse this, and achieve anomalous GVD, in
which pulses with shorter wavelengths travel faster. Anomalous dispersion is
significant, as it is a prerequisite for soliton propagation, and modulational instability.

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In order for the silicon photonic components to remain optically independent from the
bulk silicon of the wafer on which they are fabricated, it is necessary to have a layer
of intervening material. This is usually silica, which has a much lower refractive index
(of about 1.44 in the wavelength region of interest), and thus light at the silicon-silica
interface will (like light at the silicon-air interface) undergo total internal reflection, and
remain in the silicon. This construct is known as silicon on insulator. It is named after
the technology of silicon on insulator in electronics, whereby components are built
upon a layer of insulator in order to reduce parasitic capacitance and so improve
performance.
Kerr nonlinearity
Silicon has a focusing Kerr nonlinearity, in that the refractive index increases with
optical intensity. This effect is not especially strong in bulk silicon, but it can be greatly
enhanced by using a silicon waveguide to concentrate light into a very small cross-
sectional area. This allows nonlinear optical effects to be seen at low powers. The
nonlinearity can be enhanced further by using a slot waveguide, in which the high
refractive index of the silicon is used to confine light into a central region filled with a
strongly nonlinear polymer.
Kerr nonlinearity underlies a wide variety of optical phenomena. One example is four
wave mixing, which has been applied in silicon to realise optical parametric
amplification, parametric wavelength conversion, and frequency comb generation.,
Kerr nonlinearity can also cause modulational instability, in which it reinforces

deviations from an optical waveform, leading to the generation of spectral-sidebands
and the eventual breakup of the waveform into a train of pulses. Another example (as
described below) is soliton propagation.

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Two-photon absorption
Silicon exhibits two-photon absorption (TPA), in which a pair of photons can act to
excite an electron-hole pair.This process is related to the Kerr effect, and by analogy
with complex refractive index, can be thought of as the imaginary-part of
a complex Kerr nonlinearity. At the 1.55 micrometre telecommunication wavelength,
this imaginary part is approximately 10% of the real part.
The influence of TPA is highly disruptive, as it both wastes light, and generates
unwanted heat. It can be mitigated, however, either by switching to longer wavelengths
(at which the TPA to Kerr ratio drops), or by using slot waveguides (in which the
internal nonlinear material has a lower TPA to Kerr ratio). Alternatively, the energy lost
through TPA can be partially recovered (as is described below) by extracting it from
the generated charge carrier.
Free charge carrier interactions
The free charge carriers within silicon can both absorb photons and change its
refractive index.This is particularly significant at high intensities and for long durations,
due to the carrier concentration being built up by TPA. The influence of free charge
carriers is often (but not always) unwanted, and various means have been proposed
to remove them. One such scheme is to implant the silicon with helium in order to
enhance carrier recombination. A suitable choice of geometry can also be used to
reduce the carrier lifetime. Rib waveguides (in which the waveguides consist of thicker
regions in a wider layer of silicon) enhance both the carrier recombination at the silica-
silicon interface and the diffusion of carriers from the waveguide core
A more advanced scheme for carrier removal is to integrate the waveguide into
the intrinsic region of a PIN diode, which is reverse biased so that the carriers are
attracted away from the waveguide core. A more sophisticated scheme still, is to use
the diode as part of a circuit in which voltage and current are out of phase, thus
allowing power to be extracted from the waveguide. The source of this power is the
light lost to two photon absorption, and so by recovering some of it, the net loss (and
the rate at which heat is generated) can be reduced.

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As is mentioned above, free charge carrier effects can also be used constructively, in
order to modulate the light.
Second-order nonlinearity
Second-order nonlinearities cannot exist in bulk silicon because of the centro-

symmetry of its crystalline structure. By applying strain however, the inversion
symmetry of silicon can be broken. This can be obtained for example by depositing
a silicon nitride layer on a thin silicon film. Second-order nonlinear phenomena can be
exploited for optical modulation, spontaneous parametric down-
conversion, parametric amplification, ultra-fast optical signal processing and mid-
infrared generation. Efficient nonlinear conversion however requires phase
matching between the optical waves involved. Second-order nonlinear waveguides
based on strained silicon can achieve phase matching by dispersion-engineering. So
far, however, experimental demonstrations are based only on designs which are
not phase matched. It has been shown that phase matching can be obtained as well
in silicon double slot waveguides coated with a highly nonlinear organic cladding and
in periodically strained silicon waveguides.
The Raman effect
Silicon exhibits the Raman effect, in which a photon is exchanged for a photon with a
slightly different energy, corresponding to an excitation or a relaxation of the material.
Silicon's Raman transition is dominated by a single, very narrow frequency peak,
which is problematic for broadband phenomena such as Raman amplification, but is
beneficial for narrowband devices such as Raman lasers. Early studies of Raman
amplification and Raman lasers started at UCLA which led to demonstration of net
gain Silicon Raman amplifiers and silicon pulsed Raman laser with fibre-resonator
(Optics express 2004). Consequently, all-silicon Raman lasers have been fabricated
in 2005.

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The Brillouin effect
In the Raman effect, photons are red- or blue-shifted by optical phonons with a
frequency of about 15 THz. However, silicon waveguides also support acoustic
phonon excitations. The interaction of these acoustic phonons with light is
called Brillouin scattering. The frequencies and mode shapes of these acoustic
phonons are dependent on the geometry and size of the silicon waveguides, making
it possible to produce strong Brillouin scattering at frequencies ranging from a few MHz
to tens of GHz. Stimulated Brillouin scattering has been used to make narrowband
optical amplifiers as well as all-silicon Brillouin lasers. The interaction between photons
and acoustic phonons is also studied in the field of cavity optomechanics, although 3D
optical cavities are not necessary to observe the interaction. For instance, besides in
silicon waveguides the opto-mechanical coupling has also been demonstrated in fibers
and in chalcogenide waveguides.

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Optical Fibre Communications

The communication system of fibre optics is well understood by studying the parts and
sections of it.
The m ajor elem ents of an optical fibre communication system are shown in the following
figure.
 The basic components are light signal transmitter, the optical fibre, and the photo
detecting receiver.
 The additional elements such as fibre and cable splicers and connectors , regenerators ,
beam splitters , and optical amplifiers are employed to improve the performance of the
communication system.
Functional Advantages
The functional advantages of optical fibres are −
 The transmission bandwidth of the fibre optic cables is higher than the metal cables.
 The amount of data transmission is higher in fibre optic cables.
 The power loss is very low and hence helpful in long-distance transmissions.
 Fibre optic cables provide high security and cannot be tapped.
 Fibre optic cables are the most secure way for data transmission.

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 Fibre optic cables are immune to electromagnetic interference.

 These are not affected by electrical noise.
Physical Advantages
The physical advantages of fibre optic cables are −
 The capacity of these cables is much higher than copper wire cables.
 Though the capacity is higher, the size of the cable doesn’t increase like it does in
copper wire cabling system.
 The space occupied by these cables is much less.
 The weight of these FOC cables is much lighter than the copper ones.
 Since these cables are di-electric, no spark hazards are present.
 These cables are more corrosion resistant than copper cables, as they are bent easily
and are flexible.
 The raw material for the manufacture of fibre optic cables is glass, which is cheaper
than copper.
 Fibre optic cables last longer than copper cables.
Advantages of Optical Fibre

 Noise resistance: It is immune to electromagnetic interference and crosstalk and
external light, the only possible interference, is blocked from the channel by the
outer jacket.
 Less signal Attenuation: It has transmission distance significantly greater than

that of other guided media.
 Higher bandwidth: Currently, data rates and bandwidth utilization over fibre optic
cable are limited not by the medium but by the signal generation and reception
technology even though it offers a large bandwidth compared to other media.
Larger bandwidth offers larger capacity and faster transmission rate.
 High security: Using fibre optic cables prevents the emanation of radiation and
therefore, radiation-containing signal becomes difficult to tap. This makes fibre
cable secure against signal leakage and interference.

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 Free from electrical problems: It does not require electrical ground loop
preventing it from short circuit as light waves are being used the carrier of data
signal. It is also safe in combustible areas (no arching) and offers immunity to
lightning and electrical discharges.
 Less number of repeaters: A repeater used to strengthen a signal is always

required during the Course of signal transmission. Compared to copper media,
it requires less number of repeaters.
 Physical structure: It has small size, lightweight, flexibility, high strength,

potential high temperature operation and no electrical hazard when cut or
damaged.
Advantages of Optical Fibre

1. They are not affected by electrical and magnetic interference as the data travel in
form of light.
2. Optical fibre offers higher bandwidth than twisted pair or coaxial cable.
3. Optical fibres are thin, lighter in weight and small in size as compared to other wired
Medias. It is easier to group several optical fibres in one bundle.
4. Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials as compared to copper. Hence can
be laid in different environments.
5. In optical fibres, attenuation (loss of signal) is very low. Therefore these fibres can
run several kilometres without amplification.
6. Fibres do not leak light and are quite difficult to tap. So they provide security against
potential wiretappers.
7. There is no cross-talk problem in optical fibres.
8. They are highly suitable for environments where speed is needed with full
accuracy.
9: Photons in fibre do not affect one another (as they have no charge) and are not
affected by stray photons outside the fibre. But when electrons move in a wire
they affect each other and are themselves affected by electrons outside the wire.

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10. The size (diameter) of the optical fibres is very small (it is comparable to the
diameter of human hair). Therefore a large number of optical fibres can fit into a
cable of small diameter.
11. The material used for the manufacturing of optical fibres is “silica glass”. This
material is easily available. So the optical fibres cost lower than the cables with
metallic conductors.
12. As the light rays have a very high frequency in the GHz range, the bandwidth of
the optical fibre is extremely large. This allows transmission of more number of
channels. Therefore the information carrying capacity of an optical fibre is much
higher than that of a co-axial cable
Disadvantages of Optical Fibre

.
Fibre optics cables are fragile i.e. more easily broken than wires.
Being fragile, optical fibres need to be put deep into the land. This causes a lot
of installation cost. Also the interface used for these fibres are expensive.
Optical fibres are unidirectional for two-way communication, two fibres are
required.
It is a newer technology and requires skilled people to administer and maintain
them.
There is requirement of highly skilled staff for the maintenance of the cable.
So, the maintenance cost of the optical fibre system is high.
It accepts uni-polar codes only.
There is requirement of precise and costly instruments for the optical fibre.
Jointing of fibre and splicing is a time consuming process.
It seems to be costly if it is underutilized, i.e. if we don’t make use of optical
fibre cable for long time after doing installations.
Only point-to-point working is possible in optical fibre.
Disadvantages of Optical Fibre

 Cost-The cost of optical fibre is a trade-off between capacity and cost. At higher
transmission capacity, it is cheaper than copper. At lower transmission capacity,

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it is more expensive. As this transmission medium becomes more popular and

in demand, economies of scale will decrease the cost of installation and profits
will increase.
 Installation/Maintenance -It is difficult to splice. Special equipment and expertise
are required to splice and instal the cables.
 Fragility-It has limited physical arc of cable, if it is bent too much it will break.
Physical vibration will show up as signal noise.
Disadvantages
Although fibre optics offer many advantages, they have the following drawbacks −
 Though fibre optic cables last longer, the installation cost is high.
 The number of repeaters are to be increased with distance.
 They are fragile if not enclosed in a plastic sheath. Hence, more protection is needed
than copper ones.
Characteristics of Optical Fibre Cables:

Fibre optic cables have the following characteristics:
1. Fibre optic cabling can provide extremely high bandwidths in the range from 100
mbps to 2 gigabits because light has a much higher frequency than electricity.
2. The number of nodes which a fibre optic can support does not depend on its length
but on the hub or hubs that connect cables together.
3. Fibre optic cable has much lower attenuation and can carry signal to longer
distances without using amplifiers and repeaters in between.
4. Fibre optic cable is not affected by EMI effects and can be used in areas where
high voltages are passing by.
5. The cost of fibre optic cable is more compared to twisted pair and co-axial.
6. The installation of fibre optic cables is difficult and tedious.

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Applications of Optical Fibre

It has a wider range of applications as it can be used in almost all fields. The fields in
which fibre optic cable is used are listed below:
Medical applications:
In medical field, it is used as a laser beam for surgery.
It is used in endoscopy so that the doctors can see inside the body through the
small hole.
It is used as a imaging tool like X-ray imaging.
It is used as light guide.
It is also used for various tests like MRI scans.
It is used in biomedical research and microscopy.
Telecommunication field:
In this, the optical fibre cable is used for transmitting and receiving.• It has
improved the sound quality in voice communications as it make use of light for
transmission of data.
It is also resistant to electronic noise. So, it removes disturbance in the
telephonic conversations also.
We can have a direct connection between with no echoes by using fibre optic
cable Networking.
We can connect servers and users in a variety of network settings by making
the use of fibre optic cable.
It increases the speed, quality and accuracy of transmission of data.
Networking between computers has become easier and faster by using fibre
optic cables.
Defense/government field:
Optical systems offers more security for defense purposes as comparative to
traditional metal-based systems.
Fibre optic cables are not sensitive to electrical interference. So, leakage of
information is less possible in it.
It is also used in other areas like air-crafts, submarines, SONAR, hydrophones
for seismic and other underwater applications.

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Data storage:
• It is used for faster transfer of data.
• It does not allow the leakage of data. So, data is transmitted and received safely by
making use of fibre optic cables.
Broadcast/CAV:
• Broadcast or cable companies make use of optical fibre for wiring internet, video or
in many other applications for faster transfer of data.
• The speed of transferring the data is very high in fibre optic cable as compare to the
other cables. They are cheaper also. That’s why the use of fibre optic has grown day
by day.
Industrial/commercial:
• In this field, it is often used as a sensory device.
• It is also used in wiring, where there is problem of electromagnetic interference.
• It is used in those areas where it is difficult to reach by man. In those areas, we
make use of fibre optics for imaging.
• It is also used in plumbing for the inspection of sewer lines.
Space applications:
• It is highly used in aerospace applications.
• It offers the ideal solution for the transmission and receiving of data. It handles our
problems up to a large extent.
Mining applications:
• We make use of fibre optical cables in underground mines
• Fibre optic cable establishes a network which offers a reliable, high-speed, low-
latency, intrinsically safe, interference-proof, flexible communications. It is done so
that we can evolve underground mine communication systems.
• Optical fibre cable can handle the convergence of data over long distances.
Spectroscopy:
• We make use of optical fire bundles so that we can transmit light from a
spectrometer. We transmit this light to a substance which we cannot place inside the
spectrometer. We do this to analyse the composition of the substance. A
spectrometer analyses the substance by bouncing the light.
• So by using optical fibre, we can analyse those substances which are too large to
fit inside the spectrometer.

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Automotive industry:
• Fibre optic cables are widely used as a purpose for lighting, in the interior parts of
the vehicles.
• They can transmit signals between the different parts of vehicles at lightning speed.
Lighting and decorations:
• We can make use of fibre optics in the field of decorations also. This is growing day
by day.
• It provides an easy and economical solution to those projects which offers lighting
and decorations. It seems to be attractive also.
• Due to this, they are widely used in the decorative areas.
Applications of Fibre Optics

The optical fibres have many applications. Some of them are as follows −
 Used in telephone systems
 Used in sub-marine cable networks
 Used in data link for computer networks, CATV Systems
 Used in CCTV surveillance cameras
 Used for connecting fire, police, and other emergency services.
 Used in hospitals, schools, and traffic management systems.
 They have many industrial uses and also used for in heavy duty constructions.

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What is a Fibre Distributed Data

Interface (FDDI)? – Definition
FDDI stands for Fibre Distributed Data Interface. It is a high-speed, high-bandwidth

network based on optical transmissions. It is most often used as a network backbone,
for connecting high-end computers (mainframes, minicomputers, and peripherals),
and for LANs connecting high-performance engineering, graphics, and other
workstations that demand a rapid transfer of large amounts of data. It can transport
data at a rate of 100 Megabits per second and can support up to 500 stations on a
single network. FDDI was designed to run through fibre cables, transmitting light
pulses to convey information between stations, but it can also run on copper using
electrical signals. It is relatively expensive to implement, although the mixing of fibre-
optic with copper cabling can hold down the cost.
FDDI is highly reliable because FDDI networks consist of two counter-rotating rings.
A secondary ring provides an alternate data path in the event a fault occurring on the
primary ring. FDDI stations incorporate this secondary ring into the data path to route
traffic around the fault. FDDI based on a ring topology with token passing. It is an
advanced technology, in the form of the token ring over optical fibre. FDDI developed
for two primary reasons: to support and help extend the capabilities of older LANs,
such as Ethernet and Token Ring, and to provide a reliable infrastructure for
businesses, moving even mission-critical applications to networks.
History of FDDI
FDDI is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) networking standard, and

ANSI began working on the FDDI -Standard in 1982. The FDDI specification released
in 1986. ANSI chose the ring as network topology for FDDI. The most critical elements
of FDDI were defined in 1989 (as ANSI X3T9.5) and parts have been adopted by the
ISO (International Standards Organizations) as well. FDDI also considered as a
successor of IEEE 802.5 standards (token ring). FDDI has higher capacity than token
rings.

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Although FDDI is not really a WAN technology (its ring are limited to a maximum
length of 100 kilometres or 62 miles), the ground it can cover does make it suitable
for use as a backbone, connecting a number of smaller LANs, and it can provide the
core of a network as extensive as a Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). In that sense,
FDDI is more than LAN but less than WAN. Also, because FDDI
transfers information extremely quickly (l00 Mbps), it is often used to connect high-
end devices such as mainframes, minicomputers, and peripherals, or to connect high-
performance devices within a LAN.
FDDI Features
FDDI is an efficient network topology, regarding fault-tolerance and integrated

network management functions. With its deterministic access methods, FDDI
guarantees high aggregated throughput rates, even in large and high traffic networks.
FDDI can be added easily to existing network topologies (such as Ethernet and Token
Ring) as a strong backbone to eliminate severe network bottlenecks in existing LANs.
FDDI offers the following features:
• High transmission rates (100 Mbps) and bandwidth• Real throughput rate (20
stations expected) of approx. 95 Mbps• Large extensions (max. 100 km)• Great node-
to-node distance (2km using multimode fibre, 40 km using single mode fibre)•

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Available for both fibre and copper media• Easier to maintain• Compatible to
standards-based components and various operating systems.
Cabling Requirement
Optical fibre is the transmission medium of FDDI networks-but copper media also can
be used for standard office connections offering the same transmission rates. In
contrast to copper media, fibre provides the best possible protection against physical
network tapping and offers immunity to electromagnetic interference. As its name
indicates, FDDI developed around the idea of using optical fibre cable. It is, in fact,
the type of cable used, especially when the high-speed transmission needed over
relatively long distances (2000 to 10,000 meters, or roughly 1 to 6 miles). However,
over shorter distances (about 100 meters, or 330 feet), FDDI can also be
implemented on less expensive copper cable.
In all, FDDI supports four different types o f cable:
 Multimode fibre optic cable: This type of cable can be used over a maximum
of 2000 meters and uses LED as a light source.
 Single mode fibre optic cable: This can be used over a maximum of
10,000metres or more and uses lasers as a light source. Single mode cable is
thinner at the core than multimode, but it provides higher bandwidth because
of the way the light impulse travels through the cable.
 Unshielded twisted-pair copper wiring: This cable contains eight wires, and as
the next category, can be used over distances up to 30 meters.
 Shielded twisted-pair copper wiring: This is a shielded cable that contains two
pairs of twisted wires, with each pair also shielded.

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What is Synchronous Optical Networking

(SONET)?
SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) is a physical level standard, proposal by

Bellcore (Bell Communications Research) in the mid-80s for transmission through an
optical fibre. SONET is a technique of transport between two nodes, which defines
the interface adopted for the NNI (Network Node Interface). Standardized by the ANSI
and recommended worldwide by the CCITT, SONET can be thought of as a physical
network for a global communication system in the same way that a twisted pair LAN
can see as the communication system of a corporate network. It is a potentially global
network, built on fibre optic cable, with standardized data transmission speeds and
recognized worldwide. SONET eliminates limits between telephone companies
worldwide.
SONET defines the transmission of synchronous and

asynchronous information (time-sensitive data such as real-time video). With
SONET, telecommunications companies can provide their customers with fast
networks that are initially metropolitan scale (MAN) and that at some point can
become global in scope, since SONET makes possible the connection of the
equipment of telecommunications companies worldwide. The transmission rates of
digital signals have been different according to the countries, which has prevented
the development of global transmission systems. For example, DS-1 defines 1,544
Mbps in the United States, while E1, its European counterpart, defines 2,048 Mbps.
SONET defines its unique digital hierarchy with OC (optical carrier) levels.
SONET defines the fibre-optic network for the transport of the signals, and the
different wide area network (WAN) technologies, such as the Multimegabit Data
Switching Service (SMDS) and the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), work on
here. These technologies are cell transmission, not frames (frames) of variable
length; therefore, they are easily adaptable to the possible transmission speeds in
SONET networks.

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SONET describes the composition of a synchronous frame transmitted every 125

microseconds. The length of this field depends on the speed of the interface. Its
various values are listed in table depending on the speed of the optical medium, or
OC (Optical Carrier).
A very important feature of SONET is more reliable communication in the event of

breakage or failure of one of its components. SONET found in metropolises have a
loop topology. Two paths are thus available to go from one point to another, in
particular of the user at the operator’s core network. SONET allows changing this
path in 50 ms. During a break in communication in one direction of the loop, the
reconfiguration can be done in a time resulting in a barely detectable break for two
people talking to each other. This ability of reconfiguration is a key strength of SONET
/SDH structures.
Current SONET transport networks employ different topologies to meet the objectives
of network simplicity, cost containment, bandwidth efficiency and maintenance over
time. For example, an optical hub configuration can be used to eliminate the need for
expensive and complicated configuration with back-to-back network elements.
Similarly, a self-repairing ring network can be developed to ensure continuous service
through geographically dispersed and redundant roads.

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Implementation of LAN Using Fibre-Optic

Cable
Due its outstanding performance characteristics, fibre-optic cable is also used in

LANs. FDDI (Fibre Distributed Data Interface) is the current LAN standard (IEEE and
ANSI) for such a network. FDDI can be extended to the desktop, either directly or
through the use of twisted pair in a CDDI application.
1. FDDI is the standard (ANSIX3T9-5; IEEE 802.2) for a fibre optic, token-
passing ring LAN
2. High bandwidth – 100 Mbps with full duplex interfaces
3. Excellent error performance in the range of 10 -14
4. Fibre is capable of transmitting data over very long distances
5. Separation for multimode fibre can be as much as 1.2 miles (2 kilometres),
37.2 miles (62 kilometres) over single mode fibre
6. Excellent security
7. The maximum frame size is 4500B capable of accommodating the native
frame sizes of all standard LAN networks
8. High costs of acquisition, deployment, and reconfiguration
9. Fibre also is very fragile; therefore it must be protected carefully.
The fragility of the fibre is a deterrent to the application of FDDI, as well. The FDDI
specifications provide for a dual counter-rotating ring, which provides a measure of
redundancy. If the primary ring fails, a Dual Attached Station (DAS) or Dual Attached
Concentrator (DAC) can still communicate with any other device by transmitting in
the opposite direction through the secondary ring, which typically is collocated in the
same cable sheath as the primary ring.

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Fibre Optic Extensions
Fibre is very flexible in nature and provides less attenuation and good immunity to
noise. Optical fibre with fibre modem is used to extend a LAN beyond its limit.
The concept of fibre modem to extend an Ethernet connection
A fibre modem is inserted between AUI and fibre optic cable /at both the segments of
Ethernet. This AUI connection may come directly from computer or transceiver
depending upon the type of wiring being used. Fibre modems perform the conversion
AUI signal to digital representation and light pulses, which can be sent along the fibre
optic cable and vice versa. This mechanism can operate effectively for several
kilometres. They are used widely to connect computers located in different
buildings.

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OPTICAL NETWORKING
Definition
Optical networking is the use of light to transmit data over fibre cables at light speed, making
it ideal for low-latency middle-mile connections covering great distances.
The fibre cables in an optical network are made of a core surrounded by a glass cladding,
which keeps light within the cable. Without optical networks, connections to distant data
centres or other sources of data wouldn’t be as fast as they are today. The internet’s global
reach relies on optical networking to ensure a user in the United States can access a server
in Japan as fast as physics allows.
Optical networking is also used for connections in large-scale data centres. However, this
article will focus more on the technology supporting long-haul connections.
Some basic vocabulary for fibre optic networking includes: cables, fibre, core, and cladding.
 Cables : bundles of optical fibres
 Fibre: what light travels through, similar to a wire but made of a core surrounded by
cladding
 Core: the innermost layer of the fibre that contains the light, typically made of glass
 Cladding: material wrapped around the core, made of glass or plastic of a different
density
The cladding keeps the light from escaping the fibre. Light is sent into the fibre core at an
angle of 42 degrees or less. When the light hits the cladding, it is reflected off of the cladding
so it remains in the core. This is called total internal reflection. The method for turning binary
code from electric signals into light signals is fairly direct. The light source will send a pulse to
indicate a one, while the lack of a light pulse indicates a zero.
Optical networking is a means of communication that uses signals encoded in light to

transmit information in various types of telecommunications networks. These include
limited range local-area networks (LAN) or wide-area networks (WAN), which cross
metropolitan and regional areas as well as long-distance national, international and
transoceanic networks. It is a form of optical communication that relies on optical
amplifiers, lasers or LEDs and wave division multiplexing (WDM) to transmit large
quantities of data, generally across fibre-optic cables. Because it is capable of

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achieving extremely high bandwidth, it is an enabling technology for

the Internet and telecommunication networks that transmit the vast majority of all
human and machine-to-machine information.
Fibre-optic network
The most common fibre-optic networks are communication networks, mesh
networks or ring networks commonly used in metropolitan, regional, national and
international systems. Another variant of fibre-optic networks is the passive optical
network, which uses unpowered optical splitters to link one fibre to multiple premises
for last mile applications.
Free-space optical networks

Free-space optical networks use many of the same principles as a fibre-optic network
but transmit their signals across open space without the use of fibre. Several
planned satellite constellations such as SpaceX's Starlink intended for global internet
provisioning will use wireless laser communication to establish optical mesh networks
between satellites in outer space.
Airborne optical networks between high-altitude platforms are planned as part
of Google's Project Loon and Facebook Aquila with the same technology.
Free-space optical networks can also be used to set up temporary terrestrial networks
e.g. to link LANs on a campus.
Components
Components of a fibre-optical networking system include:
 Fibre. Multi-mode or single-mode.
 Laser or LED light source.
 Multiplexer/demultiplexer, also called mux/demux, filter, or prism. These can
include Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer (OADM) and Reconfigurable Optical
Add/Drop Multiplexer (ROADM).
 Optical switch, to direct light between ports without an optical-electrical-optical
conversion

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 Optical splitter, to send a signal down different fibre paths.

 Circulator, to tie in other components, such as an OADM.
 Optical amplifier.
 Wave division multiplexer.
Transmission Medium
At its inception, the telecommunications network relied on copper to carry information.
But the bandwidth of copper is limited by its physical characteristics—as the frequency
of the signal increases to carry more data, more of the signal's energy is lost as heat.
Additionally, electrical signals can interfere with each other when the wires are spaced
too close together, a problem known as crosstalk. In 1940, the first communication
system relied on coaxial cable that operated at 3 MHz and could carry 300 telephone
conversations or one television channel. By 1975, the most advanced coaxial system
had a bit rate of 274 Mbit/s, but such high-frequency systems require a repeater
approximately every kilometer to strengthen the signal, making such a network
expensive to operate.
It was clear that light waves could have much higher bit rates without crosstalk. In
1957, Gordon Gould first described the design of the optical amplifier and the laser that
was demonstrated in 1960 by Theodore Maiman. The laser is a source for light waves,
but a medium was needed to carry the light through a network. In 1960, glass fibres
were in use to transmit light into the body for medical imaging, but they had high optical
loss—light was absorbed as it passed through the glass at a rate of 1 decibel per
meter, a phenomenon known as attenuation. In 1964, Charles Kao showed that to
transmit data for long distances, a glass fibre would need loss no greater than 20 dB
per kilometer. A breakthrough came in 1970, when Donald B. Keck, Robert D. Maurer,
and Peter C. Schultz of Corning Incorporated designed a glass fibre, made of fused
silica, with a loss of only 16 dB/km. Their fibre was able to carry 65,000 times more
information than copper.
The first fibre-optic system for live telephone traffic was in 1977 in Long Beach, Calif.,
by General Telephone and Electronics, with a data rate of 6 Mbit/s. Early systems
used infrared light at a wavelength of 800 nm, and could transmit at up to 45 Mbit/s
with repeaters approximately 10 km apart. By the early 1980s, lasers and detectors

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that operated at 1300 nm, where the optical loss is 1 dB/km, had been introduced. By
1987, they were operating at 1.7 Gbit/s with repeater spacing of about 50 km.
Optical Amplification
The capacity of fibre optic networks has increased in part due to improvements in
components, such as optical amplifiers and optical filters that can separate light waves
into frequencies with less than 50 GHz difference, fitting more channels into a fibre.
The erbium-doped optical amplifier (EDFA) was developed by David Payne at
the University of Southampton in 1986 using atoms of the rare earth erbium that are
distributed through a length of optical fibre. A pump laser excites the atoms, which
emit light, thus boosting the optical signal. As the paradigm shift in network design
proceeded, a broad range of amplifiers emerged because most optical communication
systems used optical fibre amplifiers. Erbium-doped amplifiers were the most
commonly used means of supporting dense wavelength division multiplexing systems.
In fact, EDFAs were so prevalent that, as WDM became the technology of choice in
the optical networks, the erbium amplifier became "the optical amplifier of choice for
WDM applications. Today, EDFAs and hybrid optical amplifiers are considered the
most important components of wave division multiplexing systems and networks.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Using optical amplifiers, the capacity of fibres to carry information was dramatically
increased with the introduction of wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) in the early
1990s. AT&T's Bell Labs developed a WDM process in which a prism splits light into
different wavelengths, which could travel through a fibre simultaneously. The peak
wavelength of each beam is spaced far enough apart that the beams are
distinguishable from each another, creating multiple channels within a single fibre. The
earliest WDM systems had only two or four channels—AT&T, for example, deployed
an oceanic 4-channel long-haul system in 1995. The erbium-doped amplifiers on
which they depend, however, did not amplify signals uniformly across their spectral
gain region. During signal regeneration, slight discrepancies in various frequencies
introduced an intolerable level of noise, making WDM with greater than 4 channels
impractical for high-capacity fibre communications.

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To address this limitation, Optelecom, Inc. and General Instruments Corp. developed
components to increase fibre bandwidth with far more channels. Optelecom and its
head of Light Optics, engineer David Huber and Kevin Kimberlin co-founded Ciena
Corp in 1992 to design and commercialize optical telecommunications systems, the
objective being an expansion in the capacity of cable systems to 50,000 channels.
Ciena developed the dual-stage optical amplifier capable of transmitting data at
uniform gain on multiple wavelengths, and with that, in June 1996, introduced the first
commercial dense WDM system. That 16-channel system, with a total capacity of 40
Gbit/s, was deployed on the Sprint network, the world's largest carrier of internet traffic
at the time. This first application of all-optical amplification in public networks was seen
by analysts as a harbinger of a permanent change in network design for which Sprint
and Ciena would receive much of the credit. Advanced optical communication experts
cite the introduction of WDM as the real start of optical networking.
Capacity
The density of light paths from WDM was the key to the massive expansion of fibre
optic capacity that enabled the growth of the Internet in the 1990s. Since the 1990s,
the channel count and capacity of dense WDM systems has increased substantially,
with commercial systems able to transmit close to 1 Tbit/s of traffic at 100 Gbit/s on
each wavelength. In 2010, researchers at AT&T reported an experimental system with
640 channels operating at 107 Gbit/s, for a total transmission of 64 Tbit/s. In 2018,
Telstra of Australia deployed a live system that enables the transmission of 30.4 Tbit/s
per fibre pair over 61.5 GHz spectrum, equal to 1.2 million 4K Ultra HD videos being
streamed simultaneously. As a result of this ability to transport large traffic volumes,
WDM has become the common basis of nearly every global communication network
and thus, a foundation of the Internet today. Demand for bandwidth is driven primarily
by Internet Protocol (IP) traffic from video services, telemedicine, social networking,
mobile phone use and cloud-based computing. At the same time, machine-to-
machine, IoT and scientific community traffic require support for the large-scale
exchange of data files. According to the Cisco Visual Networking Index, global IP traffic
will be more than 150,700 Gbits per second in 2022. Of that, video content will equal
82% of all IP traffic, all transmitted by optical networking.

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Standards and protocols

Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH) have evolved as the most commonly used protocols for optical networks.
The Optical Transport Network (OTN) protocol was developed by the International
Telecommunication Union as a successor and allows interoperability across the
network as described by Recommendation G.709. Both protocols allow for delivery of
a variety of protocols such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM), Ethernet, TCP/IP and others.
Transceivers
Data transmission in an optical network starts and ends at transceivers. These are the
lasers that receive electrical signals and turn them into light that is sent over the fibre.
At the other end of the connection, the transceiver will detect the light and turn it into
electrical signals for the last mile transmission.
Transceivers can be tuned to achieve different per-wavelength line rates. This may be
done to achieve transmission distances with an acceptable degree of signal
degradation. For example, even through a transceiver might be capable of 400 Gb/s
per wavelength, it may be turned down to 100 Gb/s to achieve the acquired distances.
While this reduces its total bandwidth capacity per fibre pair, it also enables the signal
to be carried efficiently over a greater overall distance.
Data can travel more reliably on 100 Gb/s connections because with less light traveling
through the fibre, there is less of a chance that the light will hit an imperfection in the
fibre and become distorted.
Since fibre connections are man-made, there are always going to be slight
imperfections, like kinks in the fibres that cause changes in the light. The longer the
distance, the greater the chance of encountering imperfections.
Amplifiers in an Optical Network

Amplifiers are helpful for longer distance transmission to limit signal degradation. An amplifier
will receive the optical signal and increase the strength of the signal and multiply it through
various means. Different types of amplifiers use different techniques.
The types of amplifiers include:
 Semiconductor optical amplifiers
 Fibre Raman

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 Brillouin
 Rare earth doped fibre amplifiers
When data must go over an extreme transmission distance, repeaters may be necessary.
Before a signal begins to degrade, it will be received and broadcasted by the repeater.
Repeaters are less expensive than amplifiers.
Transceivers, amplifiers, and repeaters are placed throughout a cable’s length in order to keep
the signal strength up and reduce the chance for signal degradation.
Multiplexers
Multiplexers in an optical network maximize and optimize how light travels through the fibre.
Also called a muxer, the device gathers data streams together so they can be sent over a
single fibre. This happens before the data begins traveling to its destination. With wavelength
division multiplexing (WDM), multiple data streams can share a single fibre because different
wavelengths of light do not inherently disrupt others. Essentially, different colours of light are
all streaming through the line carrying different information. There is a chance of the
wavelengths overlapping if there is enough distortion of the light in transit. WDM is similar
to network slicing in 5G networks where one connection can be divided up by software to
assign different amounts of networking resources to different types of traffic.
When light reaches its destination, a demultiplexer, or demuxer, will separate the different data
streams of light so they can go to the specific correct endpoint. For example, video
conferencing data will be separated and sent to the recipients at the other end of the call
instead of to a storage device.
Muxers and demuxers are typically together in one box because the light is traveling both
ways. When WDM is used, sending and receiving information can happen over one fibre.
Levels of Bandwidth for Optical Networks
In the world of optical networking, there is a limit to the maximum bandwidth a fibre can
provide. This limit is called Shannon’s limit and it specifically refers to the maximum rate at
which data can be transmitted before errors — like additional bits being sent over the fibre —
are introduced.
The range of bandwidths a transceiver is capable of delivering when using a single wavelength
of light over a single fibre goes from 100 Gb/s to 800 Gb/s. When using multiple wavelengths,
such as with WDM, the amount of data being carried increases, which means an application’s
data can be sent faster. Think of it as having more lanes on a highway, but the speed limit not
changing. More cars are able to be on the road, so when there is more traffic, there isn’t a
traffic jam. The same is applicable to when more data is able to travel over the fibre, which is
the definition of increased bandwidth.

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Optical networks are the infrastructure of choice to send data quickly over very long distances,
such as transoceanic lines. As was mentioned above, the longer light travels through a fibre,
the greater the chance of it being degraded by imperfections in the fibre. Other
ways degradation can occur include the age of the fibre, temperature variations over the
connection, component variance, polarization-dependent loss, polarization mode dispersion,
and non-linearity impairments.
A consequence of degradation is having a wavelength distort into a different wavelength that
the transceiver won’t recognize appropriately.
To help protect the signal, peak line rates can be sacrificed to improve signal stability. In other
words, the data will not be granted the maximum amount of bandwidth and speed possible so
that the receiving device can still read the data. The way the tradeoff works is that less data is
sent over the fibre, so when an imperfection is hit, it has less of an impact.
As well, the data in a signal can be broken into multiple channels; this way, dead channels
can be added between signals that act as a buffer.
Optical Networking: Key Takeaways

1. Optical networking transmits data at the speed of light over glass and plastic fibres
smaller than a human hair.
2. Binary code is expressed by a pulse of light indicating a one, or no pulse, indicating a
zero.
3. Transceivers generate and receive optical signals; amplifiers increase signal strength;
repeaters maintain signal clarity; and multiplexers and demultiplexers maximize and
optimize the light passing through the fibre.
4. Bandwidth in an optical network ranges from 100 Gb/s to 800 Gb/s where performance
can be sacrificed for a more stable signal.

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Passive Optical Network

A passive optical network (PON) is a fibre-optic telecommunications technology for
delivering broadband network access to end-customers. Its architecture implements
a point-to-multipoint topology in which a single optical fibre serves multiple endpoints
by using unpowered (passive) fibre optic splitters to divide the fibre bandwidth among
the endpoints. Passive optical networks are often referred to as the last mile between
an Internet service provider (ISP) and its customers.]
A passive optical network consists of an optical line terminal (OLT) at the service
provider's central office (hub) and a number of optical network units (ONUs) or optical

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network terminals (ONTs), near end users. A PON reduces the amount of fibre and
central office equipment required compared with point-to-point architectures. A
passive optical network is a form of fibre-optic access network.
In most cases, downstream signals are broadcast to all premises sharing multiple
fibres. Encryption can prevent eavesdropping.
Upstream signals are combined using a multiple access protocol, usually time-division
multiple access (TDMA).
History
Passive optical networks were first proposed by British Telecommunications in 1987.
Two major standard groups, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) and the Telecommunication Standardization Sector of
the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-T), develop standards along with a
number of other industry organizations.
The Society of Cable Telecommunications Engineers (SCTE) also specified radio
frequency over glass for carrying signals over a passive optical network.
FSAN and ITU
Starting in 1995, work on fibre to the home architectures was done by the Full Service
Access Network (FSAN) working group, formed by major telecommunications service
providers and system vendors. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) did
further work, and standardized on two generations of PON. The older ITU-
T G.983 standard was based on Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), and has
therefore been referred to as APON (ATM PON). Further improvements to the original
APON standard – as well as the gradual falling out of favor of ATM as a protocol – led
to the full, final version of ITU-T G.983 being referred to more often as broadband
PON, or BPON. A typical APON/BPON provides 622 megabits per second (Mbit/s)
(OC-12) of downstream bandwidth and 155 Mbit/s (OC-3) of upstream traffic, although
the standard accommodates higher rates.
The ITU-T G.984 Gigabit-capable Passive Optical Networks (GPON, G-PON)
standard represented an increase, compared to BPON, in both the total bandwidth
and bandwidth efficiency through the use of larger, variable-length packets. Again, the
standards permit several choices of bit rate, but the industry has converged on 2.488
gigabits per second (Gbit/s) of downstream bandwidth, and 1.244 Gbit/s of upstream

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bandwidth. GPON Encapsulation Method (GEM) allows very efficient packaging of

user traffic with frame segmentation.
By mid-2008, Verizon had installed over 800,000 lines. British Telecom, BSNL, Saudi
Telecom Company, Etisalat, and AT&T were in advanced trials in Britain, India, Saudi
Arabia, the UAE, and the US, respectively. GPON networks have now been deployed
in numerous networks across the globe, and the trends indicate higher growth in
GPON than other PON technologies.
G.987 defined 10G-PON with 10 Gbit/s downstream and 2.5 Gbit/s upstream – framing
is "G-PON like" and designed to coexist with GPON devices on the same network.
Network elements
A PON takes advantage of wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), using one
wavelength for downstream traffic and another for upstream traffic on a single mode
fibre (ITU-T G.652). BPON, EPON, GEPON, and GPON have the same basic
wavelength plan and use the 1490 nanometer (nm) wavelength for downstream traffic
and 1310 nm wavelength for upstream traffic. 1550 nm is reserved for optional overlay
services, typically RF (analog) video.
As with bit rate, the standards describe several optical power budgets, most common
is 28 dB of loss budget for both BPON and GPON, but products have been announced
using less expensive optics as well. 28 dB corresponds to about 20 km with a 32-way
split. Forward error correction (FEC) may provide for another 2–3 dB of loss budget
on GPON systems. As optics improve, the 28 dB budget will likely increase. Although
both the GPON and EPON protocols permit large split ratios (up to 128 subscribers
for GPON, up to 32,768 for EPON), in practice most PONs are deployed with a split
ratio of 1:32 or smaller.
A PON consists of a central office node, called an optical line terminal (OLT), one or
more user nodes, called optical network units (ONUs) or optical network terminals
(ONTs), and the fibres and splitters between them, called the optical distribution
network (ODN).
An OLT provides the interface between a PON and a service provider's core network.
These typically include:
 IP traffic over Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, or 10 Gigabit Ethernet;

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 Standard TDM interfaces such as SDH/SONET;

 ATM UNI at 155–622 Mbit/s.
The ONT or ONU terminates the PON and presents the native service interfaces to
the user. These services can include voice (plain old telephone service (POTS) or
voice over IP (VoIP)), data (typically Ethernet or V.35), video, and/or telemetry (TTL,
ECL, RS530, etc.) Often the ONU functions are separated into two parts:
 The ONU, which terminates the PON and presents a converged interface—such
as DSL, coaxial cable, or multiservice Ethernet—toward the user;
 Network termination equipment (NTE), which receives the converged interface and
outputs native service interfaces to the user, such as Ethernet and POTS.
A PON is a shared network, in that the OLT sends a single stream of downstream
traffic that is seen by all ONUs. Each ONU reads the content of only those packets
that are addressed to it. Encryption is used to prevent eavesdropping on downstream
traffic.
Passive optical components
The drivers behind the modern passive optical network are high reliability, low cost,
and passive functionality.
Single-mode, passive optical components include branching devices such as
Wavelength-Division Multiplexer/Demultiplexers (WDMs), isolators, circulators, and
filters. These components are used in interoffice, loop feeder, Fibre In The
Loop (FITL), Hybrid Fibre-Coaxial Cable (HFC), Synchronous Optical
Network (SONET), and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) systems; and other
telecommunications networks employing optical communications systems that utilize
Optical Fibre Amplifiers (OFAs) and Dense Wavelength-Division Multiplexer (DWDM)
systems. Proposed requirements for these components were published in 2010
by Telcordia Technologies.
The broad variety of passive optical components applications include multichannel
transmission, distribution, optical taps for monitoring, pump combiners for fibre
amplifiers, bit-rate limiters, optical connects, route diversity, polarization diversity,
interferometers, and coherent communication.
WDMs are optical components in which power is split or combined based on the
wavelength composition of the optical signal. Dense Wavelength-Division
Multiplexers (DWDMs) are optical components that split power over at least four

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wavelengths. Wavelength insensitive couplers are passive optical components in

which power is split or combined independently of the wavelength composition of the
optical signal. A given component may combine and divide optical signals
simultaneously, as in bidirectional (duplex) transmission over a single fibre. Passive
optical components are data format transparent, combining and dividing optical power
in some predetermined ratio (coupling ratio) regardless of the information content of
the signals. WDMs can be thought of as wavelength splitters and combiners.
Wavelength insensitive couplers can be thought of as power splitters and combiners.
An optical isolator is a two-port passive component that allows light (in a given
wavelength range) to pass through with low attenuation in one direction, while isolating
(providing a high attenuation for) light propagating in the reverse direction. Isolators
are used as both integral and in-line components in laser diode modules and optical
amplifiers, and to reduce noise caused by multi-path reflection in high-bitrate and
analog transmission systems.
An optical circulator operates in a similar way to an optical isolator, except that the
reverse propagating lightwave is directed to a third port for output, instead of being
lost. An optical circulator can be used for bidirectional transmission, as a type of
branching component that distributes (and isolates) optical power among fibres, based
on the direction of the lightwave propagation.
A fibre optic filter is a component with two or more ports that provides wavelength
sensitive loss, isolation and/or return loss. Fibre optic filters are in-line, wavelength
selective, components that allow a specific range of wavelengths to pass through (or
reflect) with low attenuation for classification of filter types.
Ethernet Passive Optical Network (EPON)
When the frames transmitted on the PON are Ethernet, EPON talking. The features
of this network are identical to those of the other PON: distribution throughout the
network, where only the station specified in the Ethernet frame can retrieve
the information conveyed. The standardization of EPON technology is performed by
the IEEE 802.3ah group. This group has several objectives, including that of

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introducing Ethernet in the local loop under the name of EFM (Ethernet in the First
Mile). The objective was to replace the ATM technology, very expensive to implement
on a multipoint technology, the Ethernet technology.
In the EPON technology, the frame from the OLT (Optical Line Termination) is
broadcast to all the ONU (optical network unit) (64 maximum). The network head is
connected to an ISP to allow the transmission of IP packets encapsulated in Ethernet
frames. Figure shows an architecture of EPON loop.
The UN recognizes its address gets the Ethernet frame, the size of which can reach
a length of 1518 bytes. In the uplink direction, the Ethernet frames are transmitted in
a TDM technology (Time Division Multiplexing) solution used in conventional
Ethernet, CSMA/CD, being unsuited to EPON speeds. Multiplexing in the downward
direction is exerted on the fixed length slots so that the Ethernet frames are to be
divided into segments of constant length, with the exception of the last part, which
can be less than the length of the slot.
Synchronization is essential so that there is no collision between the slots. This
synchronization occurs every 2 ms, corresponding to the length of the physical frame
that contains all the slots of the UN.
The physical level uses two or three wavelengths. With two wavelengths, it is possible
to use the uplink and downlink channels. The network length in this case reached
twenty kilometres with 32 stars passive. With three wavelengths, it is possible to add
a downlink channel for broadcast television channels.
The quality of service can be obtained by introducing a priority using dedicated to
Ethernet, a zone indicating the priority of the frame.

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Optical Transport Networking :
What is OTN?
OTN—or Optical Transport Network—is a telecommunications industry standard

protocol— defined in various ITU Recommendations, such as G.709 and G.798—that
provides an efficient way to transport, switch, and multiplex different services onto
high-capacity wavelengths across the optical network. Today, network providers rely
on OTN-enabled technology in their optical networks to gain benefits that include
increased resiliency, simplified operations, enhanced Service-Level Agreements
(SLA), extended reach with Forward Error Correction (FEC), and the ability to
efficiently maximize wavelength fill as well as guaranteed end-to-end service delivery.
OTN is commonly called a ‘digital
wrapper’ as it wraps each client/service
transparently into a container for
transport across optical networks,
preserving the client’s native structure,
timing information, and management
information. The enhanced multiplexing
capability of OTN allows different traffic
types, including IP, Ethernet, storage,
digital video, and SONET/SDH, to be carried over an OTN framing structure—a key
reason for the adoption of OTN.
Since its inception in 2001, OTN has continued to evolve beyond a simple
SONET/SDH wrapper. In fact, OTN has been optimized to support Ethernet—today’s
most popular client service—from 1GE to 400GE. OTN-enabled technology often
underpins next-generation optical networks with its ability to support flexible packet
technologies that include new Ethernet interfaces, Multi-Protocol Label Switching
(MPLS), Segment Routing, and Time Sensitive Networking (TSN) to name a few. To
date, OTN technology has been extensively deployed in networks across the globe,

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with increasing scope across a wide spectrum of applications. Hundreds of thousands

of OTN ports have been deployed and are carrying mission-critical traffic from the
edge into the metro and core of the network, as well as in submarine applications.
 What is Optical Transport Network (OTN)?
The ITU's Optical Transport Network (OTN), as defined by recommendation G.709,

provides a network-wide framework that adds SONET/SDH-like features to WDM
equipment (also known as Wavelength Switched Optical Network equipment, or
WSON equipment). It creates a transparent, hierarchical network designed for use on
both WDM/WSON devices and TDM devices. Two switching layers are formed (TDM
and WSON) and functions of transport, multiplexing, routing, management,
supervision, and survivability are defined.
Carriers are continually looking for ways to reduce CAPEX/OPEX in their networks
while simultaneously addressing dramatic shifts in traffic type. The promise of the
Optical Transport Network (OTN) is designed to address these issues by delivering a
transparent framework to efficiently carry diverse traffic types. Defined by
recommendation G.709, the OTN creates a transparent, hierarchical network
designed for use on both WDM/WSON and TDM devices. Two switching layers are
formed (TDM and WSON) and functions of transport, multiplexing, routing,
management, supervision, and survivability are defined.
The OTN control plane, which is based on GMPLS, automates many of these
functions, with corresponding operational benefits relative to a statically provisioned
OTN network.

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How does G.709 OTN work?

At a basic level, G.709 OTN defines a frame format that "wraps" data packets, in a
format quite similar to that of a SONET frame. There are six distinct layers to this
format.
 OPU: Optical Channel Payload Unit. This contains the encapsulated client data,
and a header describing the type of that data. It is analogous to the ‘Path’ layer
in SONET/SDH.
 ODU: Optical Data Unit. This level adds optical path-level monitoring, alarm
indication signals and automatic protection switching. It performs similar
functions to the ‘Line Overhead’ in SONET/SDH.
 OTU: Optical Transport Unit. This represents a physical optical port (such as
OTU2, 10Gbps), and adds performance monitoring (for the optical layer) and
the FEC (Forward Error Correction). It is similar to the ‘Section Overhead’ in
SONET/SDH.
 OCh: Optical Channel. This represents an end-to-end optical path.
 OMS: Optical Multiplex Section. This deals with fixed wavelength DWDM
(Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing) between OADMs (Optical Add Drop
Multiplexer).
 OTS: Optical Transport Section. This deals with fixed wavelength DWDM
between relays.
The G.709 OTN Control Plane
The G.709 OTN control plane extends GMPLS signaling to automate many of its
functions, with corresponding operational benefits relative to a statically provisioned
OTN network.

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 The control plane automatically calculates an optimal path for each client
connection when the connection is established.
 It can also automatically calculate a path for a diversely routed protecting
connection, on which resources can either be held in reserve or pre-empted
when required.
 When resources are added to or removed from the network, the control plane
can automatically recalculate optimal routes for all existing connections to make
best use of the newly available resources.

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VIDEO
OTN information structureThe OTN wrapper is made up of several components in a

hierarchy as depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1: OTN Information Structure

The Optical Transport Module (OTM) is the information structure transported across
the optical interface. It has two parts: a digital structure and an optical structure. The
Optical Channel Payload Unit (OPU) contains the payload frames. The payload area
of the OPU structure is comprised of end-user services such as IP, Ethernet, or any
other protocol. The OPU overhead is associated with the mapping of client data into
the payload area. The Optical Channel Data Unit (ODU) contains the OPU overhead
and payload area, plus additional overhead such as BIP8, GCC1/2, Tandem
Connection Monitoring (TCM), and so on. The ODU represents the OTN path service
within an OTN network.
Figure 2: The Optical Transport Module (OTM) is the information structure

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The Optical Transport Unit (OTU) contains the ODU overhead and payload, provides
the section-level overhead (such as BIP8), and supports General Communication
Channel (GCC) bytes for overhead communication between network nodes.
INFOGRAPHIC
Optical Transport Network
OTN technology in optical networking

As shown in Figure 3, OTN technology is used in
various ways within an optical network. OTN
mapping or encapsulation is used to provide high-
bandwidth agile photonic connections. For
example, today’s coherent modems leverage OTN
mapping to transport client service(s) over a high-
capacity coherent wave. Transponders that are
widely deployed today use OTN to map a client to
a Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) channel.
OTN is also widely deployed among networks leveraging module-based or central
fabric-based OTN hardware. An OTN muxponder multiplexes lower speed clients
onto a DWDM channel within a hardware module or compact platform, enabling cost-
effective point-to-point connectivity. Muxponders aggregate and groom lower rate
services and are used in compact DCI platforms today to transport multiple
100GE/400GE services. It is important to note that even packet optimized
technologies like 400ZR and OpenZR+ are based on OTN structures that are
optimized for Ethernet only clients.

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DATA SHEET
800G WaveLogic 5 Extreme MOTR Module
Larger networks in the metro and core consisting of many nodes that are
interconnected together can use an OTN centralized fabric, which again multiplexes
(or grooms) lower speed clients onto a DWDM channel. However, it is by way of a
back-plane cross connect or fabric.
This enables highly flexible, scalable and on-demand any-to-any connectivity over the
network. The result is the ability to maximize fibre capacity with efficient utilization of
high-capacity next-generation coherent wavelengths. This solution can also be
coupled with an OTN control plane to deliver increased reliability for enhanced SLA
leveraging flexible protection/restoration options. It is important to note that some
providers are deploying hybrid packet and OTN switching, enabling flexible
deployments with any degree of packet and/or OTN switching.
Key operator benefits. Today, operators gain a competitive edge from the
significant advantages offered by OTN, including improved performance with Forward

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Error Correction (FEC), simplified operations, faster service turn-up,

maximized efficiencies, and differentiated services. Operators can thus leverage next-
gen technologies over a programmable optical infrastructure to quickly respond
to today’s unpredictable bandwidth requirements. Let’s explore some of these
key advantages in more detail.
 Improved performance with FEC. A key advantage of OTN is that it defines an

out-of-band FEC scheme applied to the signal before transmission. FEC
dramatically improves tolerance to network impairments present in high-
capacity transmissions, correcting and detecting errors in the optical link. FEC
is used to significantly increase system margin for a given Bit Error Rate (BER)
and signal power, which allows longer spans in the network. This enables
providers to extend the distance between optical repeaters, which helps reduce
both capital and operational expenses while simplifying the network
topography with the ability to skip amplifier sites.
 Simplified operations and enhanced SLAs. OTN provides service assurance

and faster troubleshooting capabilities that include topology tracing, error
detection, and fault isolation/correlation.
 Built-in real-time latency measurement. Complying with maximum latency

SLAs is an important requirement in many applications. Latency
measurements are native to OTN and can be used to ensure SLA compliance.
 End-to-end service monitoring. OTN includes traffic monitoring solutions native

to the protocol— with features such as TCM—which allows end-to-end service
monitoring across multiple domains as shown in Figure 4.

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Figure 4: End-to-end service monitoring with Tandem Connection Monitoring (TCM)
TCM offers enhanced sub-network operations that define up to six levels of

performance monitoring, enabling improved operations and the ability to efficiently
deliver differentiated SLAs across the sub-network segments.
Faster service turn-up. The decoupling of the client from the DWDM line allows
separation of service turn-up from that of adding capacity to the DWDM network. This
means that new services can be added quickly, simply by selecting available line
capacity between the start and end nodes (A and Z) within the meshed network.
This differs significantly from using a more traditional transponder-based architecture
approach that requires dedicating a new wavelength between two points that need
bandwidth. When the fill levels reach planning thresholds, additional line capacity can
be added as needed. Fast service turn-up is an important competitive differentiator
and is a key building block for enabling a more dynamic, on-demand network that
enables operators to rapidly respond to service requests to meet changing customer
expectations and unpredictable traffic requirements.
Maximize network efficiency. OTN offers the ability to map a flexible range of clients
onto a DWDM wavelength and allows multiple clients to share the same optical
network. This capability allows network providers to run their DWDM links as
efficiently as possible with no stranded bandwidth, thereby maximizing network
efficiencies. The emergence of ODUflex traffic containers enables the highest degree

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of network bandwidth optimization, particularly when transporting sub-

rated Ethernet/packet services. With a packet/OTN centralized fabric that
supports ODUflex containers, providers can precisely adjust the size of the OTN
container in 1.25G increments to more efficiently match the service that is
being transported.
Differentiated service offerings. By combining OTN switching and the L1 (OTN) control
plane, operators can benefit from enhanced programmability, whereby services can
be established, protected, and restored according to specific SLAs and policies.
Having a packet/OTN mesh-based network with ubiquitous OTN switching in
conjunction with a control plane allows for fast restoration of services, as OTN
switches can be rapidly reconfigured—faster than ROADMs.
Future-proof the network. OTN helps future-proof networks from technology changes,
enabling operators to support:
 New line rates: OTN supports rates beyond 100G (B100G) with the new,
flexible nx100G format called OTUCn and FlexO. The OTN switching
capabilities can migrate client services to the new line interfaces. This flexibility
enables transport of both current and future client signals over high-
capacity wavelengths, such as 800G, which requires an OTUC8.
 New technologies: OTN allows the re-use of client cards/ports as new line cards
or modulations are introduced and deployed. This means that existing line
cards can remain in place without the need for new fibre patches.
 New clients: OTN offers built-in support for new client interfaces such as
400GbE and FlexE, where the OTN switching capability can groom the new
client services into a single or group of line interfaces.

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OTN - A Practical View

Visions of optical networking have captured the imagination of researchers and
network planners alike, since the rapid and successful commercialization of WDM. In
the original vision of optical transport networking, a flexible, scalable, and robust
transport network emerges, catering to an expanding variety of client signals with
equally varied service requirements (flexibility, scalability, and survivability coupled
with bit rate and protocol independence).
The promise of a transport infrastructure capable of meeting the burgeoning
bandwidth demands well into this new century, wherein wavelengths replace
timeslots as the medium for providing reliable transfer of high-bandwidth services
across the network, is indeed tantalizing. But what is optical networking? The answ er
varies widely, and in fact has evolved over recent years. Early attempts at optical
networking focussed on an optical transparency and the design of optically
transparent networks on a global scale.
Practical Solution
In the absence of viable "all-optical" solutions more practical solutions for optical
networking accommodate the need for opto-electronics to support optical signal
regeneration, and optical signal performance monitoring. In what is termed all-optical
networking, signals traverse the network entirely in the optical domain, with no form
of opto-electronic processing. This implies that the all signal processing- including -
signal regeneration, routing, and wavelength interchange - takes place entirely in the
optical domain.
Due to limitations of analogue engineering (e.g. limiting factor in a properly designed
digital system is an one accuracy of the conversion of the original analogue message
waveform into digital form) and considering the current state- of- the- art in all-optical
processing technology, the notion of global or even national all optical networks is not
practically attainable.

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In particular, opto-electronic conversion may be required in opto network elements to

prevent the accumulation of transmission impairments - impairments that result from
such factors areas fibre fibre chromatic dispersion and nonlinearities, cascading of
non-ideal flat-gain amplifiers, optical signal crosstalk, and transmission spectrum
narrowing from cascaded non-flat filters. Opto-electronic conversion can also support
wavelength interchange, which is currently a challenging feature to realize in to the
all optical domain.
In short, in the absence of commercially available devices that perform signal

regeneration to mitigate impairment accumulation and support wavelength
conversion in the all-optical domain, some measure of opto-electronic conversion
should be expected in near-term practical optical networking architectures. The
resulting optical network architectures can be characterized by optically transparent
(or all-optical) subnetworks, bounded by feature-enhanced opto-electronics, as
shown in the above figure.

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Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) networks replaced PDH and have several key
advantages.
G.707, G.708, and G.709 ITU recommendations provide the basis for global
networking.
Networks benefit from traffic resilience to minimise traffic loss in the event of
fibre break or equipment failure.
Built-in monitoring technology allows remote configuration and troubleshooting
of network.
Flexible technology allows tributary access at any level.
Future proof technology allows for faster bit rates as technology advances.
European PDH networks could not interface with US networks, SDH networks can
carry both types. The above figure shows how the different PDH networks compare
and which signals can be carried across the SDH network.

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SDH - Network Topologies

A line system is the system to the PDH network topology. Traffic is added and
dropped only at the endpoints of the network. Terminal nodes are used at the end of
the network for adding and dropping the traffic.
Line System
Within any SDH network, it is possible to use a node known as a regenerator. This
node receives the high order SDH signal and retransmits it. No lower order traffic
access is possible from a regenerator and they are only used to cover long distances
between sites, where the distance means that the received power would be too low
to carry traffic.
Ring System
A ring system consists of several add/drop muxes (ADMs) connected in a ring
configuration. Traffic can be accessed at any ADM around the ring and it also possible
for traffic to be dropped at several nodes for broadcast purposes. The ring network
has the benefit of offering traffic resilience, if there is a fibre break traffic is not lost.

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SDH Network Synchronization

While PDH networks were not centrally synchronized, SDH networks are (hence, the
name synchronous digital hierarchy). Somewhere on the operator’s network will be a
primary reference source. This source is distributed around the network either over
the SDH network or over a separate synchronization network.
Each node can switch to backup sources, if the main source becomes unavailable.
Various quality levels are defined and the node will switch the next best quality source
it can find. In cases where the node uses the incoming line timing, the S1 byte in the
MS overhead is used to denote the quality of the source.
The lowest quality source available to a node is generally its internal oscillator. In a
case where a node switches to its own internal clock source, this should be remedied
as soon as possible, as the node may start to generate errors over time.
It is important that the synchronization strategy for a network is planned carefully. If
all the nodes in a network try to synchronize off its neighbour on the same side, you
will get an effect called a timing loop, as shown in the above figure. This network will
quickly start to generate errors as each node tries to synchronize off each other.

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SDH Hierarchy
The following figure shows how the payload is constructed, and it isn’t as scary as it
looks at first.

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OPTICAL NETWORKS – WDM TECHNOLOGY

WDM is a technology that enables various optical signals to be transmitted by
a single fibre. Its principle is essentially the same as Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM). That is, several signals are transmitted using different
carriers, occupying non-overlapping parts of a frequency spectrum. In case of
WDM, the spectrum band used is in the region of 1300 or 1550 nm, which are
two wavelength windows at which optical fibres have very low signal loss.
Initially, each window was used to transmit a single digital signal. With the
advance of optical components, such as Distributed Feedback (DFB) lasers,
Erbium-doped Fibre Amplifiers (EDFAs), and photo-detectors, it was soon
realized that each transmitting window could in fact be used by several optical
signals, each occupying a small traction of the total wavelength window
available.
In fact, the number of optical signals multiplexed within a window is limited only
by the precision of these components. With the current technology, over 100
optical channels can be multiplexed into a single fibre. The technology was
then named dense WDM (DWDM).
WDM in the Long Haul

In 1995, long-haul carriers in the United States started deploying point-to-point WDM
transmission systems to upgrade the capacity of their networks while leveraging their
existing fibre infrastructures. Since then, WDM has also taken the long-haul market
by storm. WDM technology allows to cope with ever-increasing capacity requirements
while postponing the exhaustion of fibre and increasing the flexibility for capacity
upgrade.
The most prevailing driver, however, is the cost advantage of the WDM solution
compared to competing solutions, such as Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) or
enhanced Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) to upgrade the network capacity. The
"open" WDM solution, illustrated in the following figure makes use of transponders in
WDM terminal multiplexers (TMs) and inline optical amplifiers that are shared by
multiple wavelength channels.

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The transponder is in essence a 3R opto-electro-optic (O/E/O) converter, that

converts a G.957 standard compliant optical signal into an appropriate wavelength
channel (and vice versa) while repowering, reshaping and retiming the signal
electrically. The SDM solution uses multiple fibre pairs in parallel, each equipped with
SDH regenerators instead of multiple wavelengths sharing the same inline optical
amplifier. Upgrading to higher TDM rates (e.g., from 2.5 Gb/s STM-16 to 10 Gb/s
STM-64) is only a short-lived solution since transmission impairments such as
dispersion do not scale well with increasing TDM rates, especially on standard single-
mode fibre.
A case study has demonstrated that long haul point-to-point WDM systems are clearly
a more cost-effective solution than SDM, even for as low as three channels of STM-
16. The above figure illustrates two link cost comparisons for the initial core of a
transport network consisting of 5000 fibre km with an average distance of 300 kms
between two access cities. Note that the 100 percent cost reference point in the
above figure corresponds to the cost of deploying one STM-16 channel, including
fibre cost. Two conclusions can be derived from the above figure.
As shown in the following figure, if only transmission and regeneration equipment
costs are considered (i.e., SDH regenerators in the SDM case and WDM TMs with
transponders with inline optical amplifiers in the WDM case), the initial link cost of
using WDM technology is more than double that of SDH. However, WDM solution is

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more cost-effective for the deployment of three channels and more in the network,
because of the shared use of the inline optical amplifier.
As shown in the following figure, if in addition to the above consideration, the fibre
cost is also considered, the cost advantage of WDM case becomes even more
evident and is amplified as the number of channels increase. WDM solution is more
cost-effective for the deployment of three channels and more in the network.

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WDM in the Short Haul

Regenerators are not necessary and optical impairments have less impact because
of the limited distances in the short haul networks, hence the benefits of WDM are
less clear than those of SDM or enhanced TDM solutions. However, fibre exhaustion
and low-cost optical components are now driving WDM in the metropolitan area.
The short-haul application is related to the inter-connection of multiple Points of
Presence (POPs) within the same city. Let us consider an example. The following
figure shows that the transport network has at least two POPs per city, where the
customers can interconnect. With dual node interconnection techniques, such as
drop and continue, customer networks can be interconnected with the transport
network via two different POPs.
This results in a very secure architecture that can even survive POP failures without
any traffic impact. Thus, the traffic flow between two POPs in a city consists of not
only traffic that passes through the city, but also of traffic that is terminated in the city
and protected using Drop and Continue. These increased intra-city capacity
requirements have led to the deployment of WDM in the short-haul section of a
transport network.
The main reason WDM is preferred over SDM is because fibres in a city have to be
leased from a third party or a fibre optic network has to be built. Leasing or building
city fibre is not only an expensive process, it is also a less flexible approach to

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upgrade capacity. In a dynamic environment, where traffic distributions and volumes

evolve rapidly, the amount of fibre to be leased or built is hard to predict in advance.
Therefore, using WDM technology has clear flexibility advantages because the
wavelength channels can be activated in a very short time.
Although specific short-haul WDM systems are available in the world, it is

advantageous to use the same type of WDM system for its long-haul network. While
short-haul WDM systems are less expensive than their long-haul counterparts and
due to their low-cost optical components can be used, they lead to a heterogeneous
network, which is not preferred for several reasons. First, using two different systems
leads to an increased operational and management cost. For instance, a
heterogeneous network requires more spare equipment parts than a homogeneous
network. Second, the interworking between two different systems might pose
problems. For instance, a bottleneck can occur because short-haul WDM systems
typically support fewer wavelengths than long-haul WDM systems.
Optical Transport Network Architectures
Optical Transport Networking (OTN), as shown in the following figure, represents a

natural next step in the evolution of transport networking. From a high-level
architectural perspective, one would not expect OTN architectures to differ
significantly from those of SDH. Nevertheless, the fact that SDH involves digital
network engineering and OTN involves analogue network engineering leads to some
significant, if subtle distinctions. Exploring these distinctions leads us to an
understanding of the aspects of OTN that are likely to differ from their SDH
counterparts.
Evolving WDM OTN architectures (including network topologies and survivability

schemes) will closely resemble - if not mirror - those for SDH TDM networks. This
should be surprising, however, since both SDH and OTN are connection-oriented
multiplexed networks. The major differences derive from the form of multiplexing
technology: digital TDM for SDH vs analogue WDM for an OTN.

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The digital vs. analogue distinction has a profound effect on the fundamental
cost/performance trade-offs in many aspects of OTN network and system
design. In particular, the complexities associated with analogue network
engineering and maintenance implications account for the majority of
challenges associated with OTN.
To satisfy the short-term need for capacity gain, WDM point-to-point line
systems will continue to be deployed on a large scale. As the number of
wavelengths and distance between terminals grow, there is an increasing
need to add and/or drop wavelengths at intermediate sites. Hence, flexible
reconfigurable Optical ADMs (OADMs) will become integral elements of WDM
networks.
As more wavelengths are deployed in carrier networks, there will be an
increased need to manage the capacity and hand-off signals between
networks at the optical channel level. In much the same way, DXCs emerged
to manage the capacity at the electrical layer, Optical Cross-Connects (OXCs)
will emerge to manage the capacity at the optical layer.
Initially, the need for optical layer bandwidth management will be the most
acute in the core transport network environment. Here, logical mesh-based

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connectivity will be supported via physical topologies including OADM-based

shared protection rings and OXC-based mesh restoration architectures. The
choice will depend on the service provider's desired degree of bandwidth "over
build" and survivability time scale requirements.
As similar bandwidth management requirements emerge for the metropolitan
inter-office and access environments, OADM ring-based solutions will also be
optimized for these applications: optical shared protection rings for mesh
demands, and optical dedicated protection rings for hubbed demands. Hence,
just as the OA was the technology enabler for the emergence of WDM point-
to-point line systems, OADMs and OXCs will be the enablers for the
emergence of the OTN.
As optical network elements assume the transport layer functionality
traditionally provided by SDH equipment, the optical transport layer will come
to serve as the unifying transport layer capable of supporting both legacy and
converged packet core network signal formats. Of course, service provider
movement to OTN will be predicted on the transfer of "SDH-like" transport
layer functionality to the optical layer, concurrent with the development of a
maintenance philosophy and associated network maintenance features for
emerging optical transport layer.
Survivability is central to the role of optical networking as the unifying transport
infrastructure. As with many other architectural aspects, optical network
survivability will bear a high level resemblance to SDH survivability, since the
network topologies and types of network elements are so similar. Within the
optical layer, survivability mechanisms will continue to offer the fastest
possible recovery from fibre cuts and other physical media faults, as well as
provide efficient and flexible management of protection capacity.
OTN is conceptually analogous to SDH, in that sublayers are defined that
reflect client-server relationships. Since, OTN and SDH are both connection-
oriented multiplexed networks, it should not come as a surprise that the
restoration and protection schemes for both are remarkably similar. The subtle
but important difference is worth repeating: while TDM networking is based on
digital time slot manipulation, OTN/WDM networking is based on analogue
frequency slot or optical channel (wavelength) manipulation. Thus, while we

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may expect similar protection and restoration architectures to be possible with

both technologies, the types of the network failures for which one may need to
account in any particular survivability scheme may be quite different.
Optical Layer Survivability
Telecommunication networks are required to provide reliable uninterrupted service to

their customers. The overall availability requirements are of the order of 99.999 per
cent or higher, which would imply that the network cannot be down for more than 6
min/year on average. As a result, network survivability is a major factor that affects
how these networks are designed and operated. The networks need to be designed
to handle link or fibre cuts as well as equipment faults.
The network may be viewed as consisting of many layers inter-operating with each
other, as shown in the above figure. Different carriers choose different ways of
realizing their networks using different combinations of layering strategies. Incumbent
carriers make use of their large installed base of SDH gear and the extensive
grooming and monitoring capabilities of digital cross-connects.
In contrast, a carrier offering Internet Protocol (IP) based services seek to have a
simplified network infrastructure using IP as the basic transport layer without using
SDH. Carriers that distinguish themselves based on quality (and diversity) of services
(QOS) may use ATM as their transport technology. Underneath these layers is the
emerging optical WDM layer, or the optical layer.

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The optical layer provides light-paths to higher layers, which may be considered as
client layers that make use of the service provided by the optical layer. Light paths
are circuit-switched pipes carrying traffic at fairly high bit rates (e.g., 2.5 Gb/s or 10
Gb/s). These light paths are typically set up to interconnect client-layer equipment,
such as SDH ADMs, IP routers, or ATM switches. Once they are set up, they remain
fairly static over time.
The optical layer consists of Optical Line Terminals (OLTs), Optical ADMs (OADMs),
and Optical Cross-Connects (OXCs) as shown in the following figure. OLTs multiplex
multiple channels into a single fibre or fibre pair. OADMs drop and add small number
of channels from/to an aggregate WDM stream. An OXC, switches and manages
large number of channels in a high-traffic node location.

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We look at the optical layer protection from a services perspective, in terms of the
types of services needed to be provided by the optical layer to the higher layer. We
then compare the different optical layer protection schemes that have been proposed
in terms of their cost and bandwidth efficiency based on the service mix that must be
supported. This is somewhat different, which tend to view optical layer protection as
analogous to SDH layer protection.

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ELEMENTS OF OPTICAL NETWORK
An optical network is basically composed of the following elements:
1. Stations: Stations in an optical network serves as the source and destination of

the information being transmitted and received. Stations are basically those
devices that are used by the users of the network. For example, a computer or
any other telecommunication device.
2. Trunk: A trunk is basically a transmission line i.e., optical fibre cable in order to
transmit the optical signal. A network is composed of one or multiple trunks for
signal transmission over large distance.
3. Node: Node is nothing but acts as a hub for multiple transmission lines inside the
network. In case of a single transmission line, an optical network does not require
nodes, as in this case stations at both the ends can be directly connected to the
fibre cables.
4. Topology: When multiple fibre cables are employed in an optical network, then
these are connected through nodes. But the way in which the multiple nodes are
connected together denotes the topology of the network.
5. Router: A router is basically placed inside an optical network that provides a

suitable path for signal transmission.

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Optical Network Topologies

Topology is the arrangement of multiple optical fibre transmission lines in an optical
network. So, let us now move forward to understand the various topology
configurations:
Bus Topology : In a bus topology, the various nodes are connected through a single
trunk line with the help of optical couplers. This allows a convenient as well as a cost-
effective method to transmit the signal. However, in a bus topology, it is difficult to
determine the faulted node as well as it also takes time to restore the transmitted signal
from that particular node.
Ring Topology: In a ring topology, one single node is joined to its neighbouring node
thereby forming a closed path. So, the transmitted information in the form of light is
sent from one node to another. Also, optical couplers are installed within the network
in order to the couple the transmitted optical signal from one node to another.

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Star Topology: In star connection, the various nodes of the network are connected
together with a single central hub. This central hub can be active or passive network.
This central hub then controls and directs the transmitted optical signal inside the
optical network.

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Mesh Topology : In a mesh topology, an arbitrary connection is formed between the

nodes in the network. This point to point connection can be changed according to the
application. This shows the flexible nature of star topology as in case of failure of one
node, others can be used for signal transmission.
Basically, in mesh connection, failure of any link or node is generated then firstly that
particular failure is detected and then the signal traffic is diverted from failed node to
another link inside the connection.

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Categories of Optical Network

The categories of optical network are based on the area that connects the user of the
network. These are classified as:
 Local Area Network (LAN) : Basically a LAN connection provides the

interconnection of users that are present in localized areas like a building, a
department or an office etc. The example of networking topology of LAN is
Ethernet. As in LAN, users are permitted to share the resources together like
servers etc. These are personally owned by an organization. It is quite
inexpensive.
 Campus network: This network category is formed by the interconnection of

multiple LAN’s. This is basically extended to a large level but is still confined within
a localized area. It is also governed by a single organization. The examples of
campus network are university campus, a government organization, or a medical
centre etc.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): It is also known as a metro network and

covers a greater area than a campus network. It permits the interconnection of
several buildings that are present in different cities. Due to its large operating
area, MAN is controlled by several communication organizations.
 Wide Area Network (WAN): Unlike MAN, a WAN provides interconnection of

users from neighbouring cities as well as cross-country regions. It is employed to
establish communication over a large geographical distance and is controlled and
maintained by some private organizations or telecommunication service
providers.

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Advantages of Optical Network
Using an optical networking system is highly advantageous. The advantages are as

follows:
1. An optical transmission system supports high bandwidth.
2. The transmitted signal can be transmitted to longer distances.
3. This networking system is more flexible than other transmission systems.
So, we can say an optical network provides better signal transmission capability to
longer distances thus is widely used nowadays.
Fibre Optic Link Design
Primary Design Criteria
 Bit Rate (Dispersion Limitation)

 Link length (Attenuation Limitation)
Additional Design Parameters
 Modulation format eg Analogue/digital

 System fidelity: BER, SNR
 Cost: Components, installation, maintenance
 Upgradeability
 Commercial availability

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HOW TO CALCULATE THE FIBRELINK BUDGET?
Design of a fibreoptic system is a balancing act.

As with any system, you need to set criteria for performance and then determine how to
meet those criteria. It’s important to remember that we are talking about a system that is
the sum of its parts. The fibrelink budget is key to a fibreoptic system, it refers to the
amount of loss that a fibrecable plant should have. Below is an explanation on how to
determine fibrelink budget.
There are a number of ways to tackle the problem of determining the link budget for a
particular fibreoptic link system. The easiest and most accurate way is to perform an
Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) trace of the actual fibrelink. This will give you
the actual loss values for all events (connectors, splices and fibreloss) in the link.
In the absence of an actual OTDR trace, there are two alternatives that can be used to
estimate the link budget.
1. Estimate the total link loss across an existing fibreoptic link in the fibrelength
and loss variables are known
2. Estimate the maximum fibredistance if the optical budget and loss variable
are known.
Calculation of a fibreoptic system link budget is based upon a long list of elements.
Following is a list of basic items used to determine general transmission system
performance:
 FibreLoss Factor – Fibreloss generally has the greatest impact on overall system
performance. The fibrestrand manufacturer provides a loss factor in terms of dB per
kilometer. A total fibreloss calculation is made based on the distance x the loss factor.
Distance, in this case, the total length of the fibrecable, not just the map distance.
 Type of fibre– Most single-mode fibre shave a loss factor of between 0.25 (@ 1550nm)
and 0.35 (@ 1310nm) dB/km. Multimode fibre shave a loss factor of about 2.5 (@
850nm) and 0.8 (@ 1300nm) dB/km. The type of fibre used is very
important. Multimode fibres are used with LED transmitters which generally don’t have
enough power to travel more than 1km. Single mode fibresare used with LASER
transmitters like DFB, FP that come in various power outputs for “long reach” or “short
reach” criteria.

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 Transm itter – There is two basic type of transmitters used in fibreoptic systems. LASER
which comes in three varieties: high, medium, and low (long reach, medium reach and
short reach). Overall system design will determine which type is used. LED transmitters
are used with multimode fibres, however, there is a “high power” LED which can be
used with Single-mode fibre. Transmitters are rated in terms of light output at the
connector, such as -5dB. A transmitter is typically referred to as an “emitter”.
 Receiver Sensitivity – The ability of a fibre optic receiver to see a light source. A
receiving device needs a certain minimum amount of received light to function within
specification. Receivers are rated in terms of the required minimum level of received
light such as -27dB. A receiver is also referred to as a “detector”.
 Num ber and type of splices – There are two types of splices. Mechanical, which use a
set of connectors on the ends of the fibres, and fusion, which is a physical direct mating
of the fibre ends. Mechanical splice loss is generally calculated in a range of 0.7 to 1.5
dB per connector. Fusion splices are calculated at between 0.1 and 0.5 dB per splice.
Because of their limited loss factor, fusion splices are preferred.
 M argin – This is an im portant factor. A system can’t be designed based on simply
reaching a receiver with the minimum amount of required light. The light power budget
margin accounts for the aging of the fibre, aging of the transmitter and receiver
components, the addition of devices along the cable path, incidental twisting and
bending of the fibre cable, additional splices to repair cable breaks, etc. Most system
designers will add a loss budget margin of 3dB to 10dB.
The following table includes commonly accepted loss values in these calculations:
Fibre Conne
Wavelengt
FibreType attenuation ctor Splice Loss
h
/ km Loss
0.75
Multimode 850 nm 2.5 dB dB
0.1 dB
50/150μm 1310 nm 0.8 dB 0.75
dB
Multimode
850 nm 3.0dB 0.75
62.5/125μ 0.1 dB
1310 nm 0.7 dB dB
m

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0.75
dB
Single 0.75
1310 nm 0.35 dB 0.1 dB
Mode 9μm dB
Single 0.75
1550 nm 0.22 dB 0.1 dB
Mode 9μm dB
Link Budget = [fibrelength (km) × fibreattenuation per km] + [splice loss × # of

splices]+[connector loss × # of connectors] + [safety margin]
Estim ate Fibre Distance

This calculation will estimate the maximum distance of a particular fibre optic link given
the optical link budget and the number of connectors and splices contained in the link:
Fibre length = ([Optical budget] – [Link Budget]) / [fibre loss/km ] Fibre length
= {[(min. TX PWR) – (RX sensitivity)]- [splice loss × # of splices]- [connector loss × # of
connectors]- [safety margin]}÷ [fibre lost/km]
As always, it is very important to measure and verify the actual link loss values once the
link is established to identify potential performance issues.
Actual maximum distances will be vary depending on:

 Actual optical fibre attenuation per km
 Optical fibre design and age
 Quality of connectors and actual loss per pair
 Quality of splices and actual loss per splice
 The number of splices and connectors in the link

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How to Understand Link Budget and Link Loss in Fibre Optic Network?
If you’re a network engineer once involved in a cable plant installation project, you must
have heard the term Link Budget. People in this area know how important it is to a fibre
optic network cabling. During the design stage of the cabling, link budget is adopted to
predict the amount of light required to ensure an uninterrupted communications link. And
another closely related term is Link Loss Budget. Together they contribute to the proper
operation of a fibre run.
Link Budget, Link Loss and the Margin

Link budget, or power budget, refers to the amount of loss that a data link (transmitter to
receiver) can tolerate in order to operate properly. Sometimes it has both a maximum
value and a minimum value so that the input power at the receiver end is within its
operating range.
Link loss budget is the amount of loss that a cable plant should have. It is calculated by
adding the losses of all the components used in the cable plant to get the estimated end-
to-end loss. Obviously, the link budget and link loss budget are related. A data link will
only operate properly when the link loss is within the link budget of the link.
The difference value between the power budget and the link loss budget is known as link
budget buffer. The buffer value should not be too small, because the margin for error is 3
dB in a fibre link. If the in-between components are fixed, then you can save more margin
by changing the transmitter or receiver on two ends; if the two end devices are fixed, you
can save yourself more margin by changing the fibre optic jumpers and other passive
components.
How to Calculate the Link Budget and Link Loss Before a Cable Plant?
Generally, four main parameters are used to calculate the optical transmission link budget
buffer. They are minimum optical transmitter power, maximum connector insertion loss,
optical fibre cable transmission loss, and maximum optical receiver sensitivity.
Transmitter power and receiver sensitivity are absolute values (e.g. mWatt or dBm,
10*log(mW) = dBm), but connector insertion loss and optical fibre cable transmission loss
are relative values (e.g. % loss). The connector insertion losses comprise the connections
of fibre optical jumpers, transceivers, patch panels, etc. In order to help understand how
to calculate the link budget, here is an example of a typical 2-kilometer multimode link
with 5 connections (2 connectors at each end and 3 connections at patch panels in the

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link) and one splice in the middle. The maximum fibre loss of multimode fibre is 3.5 dB/km
and the maximum acceptable connector insertion loss is 0.75 dB. Typical splice loss for
multimode fibre is 0.3 dB. Therefore, the total maximum link loss is 11.05 dB.
Figure: the link budget and link loss illustration of a typical 2-kilometer multimode fibre
link.
Table 1: calculation of link budget and link loss.
Absolute Values Relative Values
Minimum
transmitter -5 Optical fibre cable
power (Tx) dBm transmission loss 7 dB
Maximum
connector 3.75
insertion loss dB
Maximum Typical
receiver -21 multimode fibre
sensitivity (Rx) dBm splice loss 0.3 dB

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Maximum Maximum link

transceiver link 16 loss along the 11.05
budget dB fibre run dB
Network segment link budget buffer = 4.95 dB
Will the Optical Fibre Cable Type Matter to Link Loss?

Yes. Different fibre cable types have different fibre loss at their working wavelengths.
According to TIA-568-C.0- 2 standards, their maximum values are as below:
Table 2: maximum loss values of multimode fibre and single-mode fibre.
Fibre Type Multimode Single-mode
Wavelength (nm ) 850 1310 1550
Fibre Loss/km (dB) 3.5 0.4 0.3
Insertion Loss (dB) 0.75 0.75 0.75
How to Add More Connections in the link?

If you want to add more connections in the link when the two absolute values are known,
the simplest way is to choose fibre optic jumpers with low insertion loss as much as
possible. Because the connector insertion loss contributes a lot to the total link loss in a
fibre link. You can also use more precise splice machines but it is not as easy as using
lower loss fibre optic jumpers.
How Much Light Is Left at the End of the Line?

The table below shows the amount of loss and the percentage of light remained. 20 dB of
loss equals a loss of optical power in a system of 99%. And 30 dB of loss equals 99.9%
of loss. 30 dB is typically the most loss a communications system can have since 10 -
10 error count cannot be factored with less than 0.1% of light.
Table 3: the amount of loss and the percentage of light remained.

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Summary
Link budget and link loss budget are both vital analysis measures in fibre optic network
design. The link budget is mainly used before the installation, whereas link loss budget is
used before and after the installation. After the cable plant is installed, the calculated loss
values are compared with the test results to ensure the link can operate properly.

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What Is A Fibre Optic Link Budget?
Neglecting your fibre optic link budget can result in costly damage and inconvenient
complications for your business. Primarily, a link budget helps you calculate the
maximum allowable loss between two fibre transceivers. But it also offers insight into
situations where your fibre optics cabling network may have too much power. To
properly calculate your fibre optic link budget it’s important to first understand some
basic concepts associated with the maintenance of fibre optics installation:
1. INSTALLATION LOSS:
Also known as DC loss, this refers to optical losses caused by fibre optics cabling
plant. These losses can be broken down into three categories:
 Transmission Loss – Considered the most important property of an optical fibre,
transmission loss happens when there’s material absorption and linear and nonlinear
light dispersion from impurities in the fibre. Attenuation increase is also attributed to
macro bending and micro bending mechanisms.
For single mode fibre, the average loss is approximately 2.5dB/km @850nm,
0.5dB/km @1300nm and 0.25dB/km @1550nm. Multimode fibre loss is slightly higher.
 Attenuation vs. Wavelength – Since optical wavelength affects loss in fibre optics
cabling, wavelength changes within the light source- or a spectrum of wavelengths in
the source- will result in additional losses. For laser sources on single mode fibre, the
usual loss due to wavelength-dependent attenuation is around 0.1dB/km.
 Splice and Connector Losses – Improper configuration of fibre cores, offset of
fibreson either side of the connector, and the angular misalignment of fibres will all
contribute connector losses. For single mode connectors, the average loss is
approximately 0.3dB; it’s around 0.5dB for multimode connectors. In addition,
mechanical splice and fusion splice each introduce power losses. For mechanical
splices, the average loss is 0.4dB; it’s about 0.1-0.2dB for fusion splices.
2. AC LOSSES
This refers to a wide variety of losses brought on by optical noise sources on the
link: multi-path interference, modal dispersion, chromatic dispersion, mode
hopping, extinction ratio, mode partition noise, timing jitter, and so on.

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WHAT IS THE FIBRE LINK BUDGET?

The fibre link budget is the maximum signal loss allowed in the network and
application. This value is calculated based on the actual network conditions and
the loss specified by international standards. A complete optical fibre link includes
optical fibres, connectors, and fusion splices, so when calculating the maximum
loss of an optical fibre link, all these factors must be taken into account. The optical
energy loss in the optical fibre communication link is composed of the loss of the
optical fibre itself, the loss caused by the connector and the loss caused by the
fusion splice. However, due to the uncertainty of the length of the optical fibre, the
number of splices and the number of splices, the test standard of the optical fibre
link is not fixed like a twisted pair. Therefore, the test standard of each optical fibre
link must be calculated through calculation.
What is the calculation formula for fibre link loss?

Obviously, fibre link loss is the sum of fibre attenuation, connector attenuation,
splice attenuation, and system margin loss:
Optical fibre link attenuation = optical fibre attenuation + connector attenuation +
splice attenuation + system margin
Fibre attenuation = fibre attenuation coefficient (dB/km) × fibre length (km);
Connector attenuation = connector attenuation/piece × number of connectors;

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Attenuation of welding point = attenuation of welding point/piece × number of

welding points;
The system margin includes fibre jumper, fibre optic cable bending and
unpredictable optical attenuation, etc. At least 3dB margin should be left.
The average attenuation of 1310nm wavelength under normal conditions:
Optical fibre attenuation: 0.35dB/Km; optical connector: 0.6dB/piece; welding
point: 0.1dB/piece.
Average attenuation of 1550nm wavelength under normal conditions:
Optical fibre attenuation: 0.2dB/Km; optical connector: 0.35dB/piece; fusion point:
0.05dB/piece.
The picture below is a typical site case:
According to the above formula, the following results can be calculated:

For 1310nm wavelength
Optical fibre link attenuation =
20.5Kmx0.35dB/Km+2x0.6dB+4x0.1dB+3dB=11.78dB;
For 1550nm wavelength:

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Optical fibre link attenuation =

20.5Kmx0.22dB/Km+2x0.35dB+4x0.05dB+3dB=8.41dB;
How to Calculate Fibre Optic Power and Loss Budgets
Remember the differences: a power budget gives you the range of decibel (dB)
loss in the cable plant that a communication system can tolerate, while a loss
budget is an estimate of the loss of a cable plant if properly installed.
Power budget
Consider a typical duplex fibre optic link like this one:
The transmitter output power is coupled into an optical fibre and transmitted over
the cable plant to the receiver. The receiver needs a certain amount of power to
receive data error-free. The difference between the two is the power budget.

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Here are two examples.

Transmit out Receiver in Power
Comm System
dBm dBm Budget dB
Multimode, premises LAN @ 850

-10 dBm -17 dBm 7 dB
nm
Single-mode outside plant long

+3 dBm -20 dBm 23 dB
haul @ 1,310 nm
Remember the output and input powers are absolute optical power expressed in
decibel-milliwatts (dBm), while the difference is relative power and is expressed in
decibels.We’ll use these two examples to calculate the loss budgets of proposed
cable plants for them.
Loss budgets
The loss budget will include estimates of the loss of all components that contribute
to the cable plant loss, generally the fibre, splices and connections. If the link also
includes splitters like a passive optical network, that should also be included.
Multimode, premises LAN

The multimode premises local area network (LAN) described in the table above
has a power budget of 7 dB, so let’s compare the loss budget of a cable plant we
are designing.
 Length of cable plant: 500 meters
 Number of connections: 4 (including the connections on the end)
 Number of splices: 0

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First, we calculate the fibre loss. The typical multimode LAN operates at 850 nm,
where fibre has a loss of 3 dB/km.
Loss of fibre: 500 m = 0.5 km, 0.5 km X 3 dB/km = 1.5 dB
Then the connection loss: 4 connections X 0.5 dB/connection = 2.0 dB
And since we have no splices, that’s 0 dB.
Total loss = 1.5 dB fibre loss + 2.0 dB connection loss + 0 dB splice loss = 3.5 dB
Since the communications equipment has a power budget of 7 dB, we have 3.5
dB margin with the cable plant’s loss budget.
Simple, eh?
But let’s elaborate on the component losses we chose. Fibre loss at 850 nm varies
according to the standard you might use or the specs of the grade of fibre you
might choose. Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) in Arlington, Va.,
sets standards for fibre attenuation at 850 nm as 3.5 dB/km, which is high enough
that the manufacturers who wrote that spec can always meet the standard. But
they are routinely producing fibre with losses under 3 dB/km, which is the spec we
use.
The TIA connection loss spec is a whopping 0.75 dB, much too high for any SC,
LC or ST connector, but it is there to cover the multifibre connectors such as the
MPO. We choose to use 0.5 dB as a reasonable upper limit for connection loss,
although most SC, LC or ST connectors will be better than that.
Note we say “connection loss,” not connector loss, since a single fibre optic
connector has no loss unless it is mated to another connector, which creates a
connection.
And yes, we do count the connectors on each end of the cable plant, because they
will be included in loss tests results since you will connect to them with your test
reference cables.
And finally, for multimode fibre, the loss budget may not be the gating item for
cable plant length. Multimode fibre networks operating at gigabit speeds are
limited by the bandwidth of the fibre grade chosen, so OM3 or OM4 fibre can go
significantly longer distances than OM2. Consult the distance limits for the specific
network to be used to determine the length limit. That consideration, however,
does not affect the cable plant loss budget used for comparison to test results.

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Single-mode outside plant long haul

The single-mode OSP long haul network has a power budget of 23 dB, which
means it can be much longer. Let’s do a loss budget for these specifications:
 Length of cable plant: 25 km
 Number of connections: (just the connections on the end)
 Number of splices: 8
Loss of fibre: 25 km X 0.4 dB/km @ 1310 nm = 10.0 dB
Connection loss: 2 connections X 0.5 dB/connection = 1.0 dB
For splices: 8 X 0.2 dB = 1.6 dB
Our total loss = 10 dB fibre loss + 1.0 dB connection loss + 1.6 dB splice loss =
12.6 dB
The fibre attenuation at 1,310 nm is about 0.4 dB/km, but only 0.2 dB/km at 1,550
nm if we design for longer distances using transmitters at 1550 nm. At 1,550 nm,
our fibre loss would be this:
Loss of fibre: 25 km X 0.2 dB/km @ 1,550 nm = 5.0 dB
Thus, the total loss budget would be 5 dB less or 7.6 dB.
Here is a challenge for you. How long of a distance could this single-mode system
go with its 23 dB loss budget, assuming that you leave a 3 dB margin, e.g., 20 dB
maximum loss. Hint: you need to remember that a splice will be needed about
every 5 km on a long cable plant. (Answer at the end.)
Final reminder
Remember that loss budgets are estimates, not hard and fast numbers. Likewise,
loss tests on the cable plant have uncertainties, so exercise some judgement
when using these numbers.

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Here is the answer to the challenge problem:

The max loss is 20 dB, including fibre, splices and connectors, and the connector
loss is fixed at 1 dB, so we have 19 dB loss budget to use for fibre and spices.
Every 5 km, we have a splice of 0.2 dB, adding a contribution of 0.2 dB per 5 km,
for a contribution to loss of 0.04 dB/km.
Then, including estimated splice loss, at 1,310 nm, the fibre loss is 0.44 dB/km,
and at 1,550 nm it’s 0.24 dB/km.
Then for 1,310 nm, a total of 19 dB / 0.44 dB/km = 43.2 km
For 1,550 nm, 19 dB / 0.4 dB/km = 79.2 km
This is a useful process to know if you are designing networks.

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HET301: 2022

OPTICAL NETWORKS DESIGN AND TRANSPORT

Fibre Optics (Optical Fibre) – Definition

Evolution or History of an Optical Fibre

THREE ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS AN OPTICAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

PRESENTER: ENG GTS. CHAPANDUKA -2022 1

Structure of Optical Fibre

It has three parts shown in the diagram given below.

PRESENTER: ENG GTS. CHAPANDUKA -2022 2

Bunch of fibre optic cables

THE WORKING PRINCIPLE OF AN OPTICAL FIBRE

Principles of Optical Fibre Communications

PRESENTER: ENG GTS. CHAPANDUKA -2022 3

termed as Snell’s law . It is represented as –

 ϕ 1 the angle of incidence

PRESENTER: ENG GTS. CHAPANDUKA -2022 4

The following figure shows these terms clearly.

PRESENTER: ENG GTS. CHAPANDUKA -2022 5

Types of Optical Fibres

Both of these are further divided into −

Single Mode Fibre (SMF)

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The various characteristics of Single mode fibre are:

Multimode Fibre (MMF)

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Step Index Optical Fibre

Graded Index Optical Fibre

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1. Describe the working of Photo Diode:

A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to

Types of Photo diodes:The types of the photodiodes can be classified based on

its construction and functions as follows.

Special Features of Photo diode:

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mode, Photoconductive mode and avalanche diode mode

non-linear necessity of the voltage formed.

Photoconductive Mode: The photodiode used in this photoconductive mode is

capacitance. This mode is too fast and displays electronic noise

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Avalanche Diode Mode: Avalanche diodes operate in a high reverse bias

condition, which permits multiplication of an avalanche breakdown to each photo-

produced electron-hole pair. This outcome in an internal gain in the photodiode,

which slowly increases the device response.

• The applications of photodiodes involve in similar applications of

2. Write a note on Solar cell:

The overwhelming majority of solar cells are fabricated from silicon—with

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Solar Cell Structure and Operation

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The addition of junction-forming layers, however, induces a built-in electric field

3. What is LED? Explain the principle, construction and working of LED.

Working Principle of LED:

through the diode.

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process of the diagram.

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• The flow of current in the semiconductors is caused by the both flow of

holes in the opposite direction of current and flow of electrons in the

of these charge carriers.

• The recombination indicates that the electrons in the conduction band

Applications of Light Emitting Diodes

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