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Ship Streeses
Ship Streeses
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
DEFINITIONS:
HOGGING
When the peak of a wave is amidships, causing the hull to bend so the
ends of the keel are lower than the middle. The opposite of sagging.
SAGGING:
PANTING:
The pulsation in and out of the bow and stern plating as the ship
alternately rises and plunges deep into the water
POUNDING:
Pounding, as a boat will do in short seas when the bow lifts clear of the
water then comes crashing down. The term is local to English ports on
the North Sea.
RACKING:
In a seaway as a ship rolls from one side to the other the different areas
of the ship have motion which are dependent on the nature of the subject
area. The accelerations are thus not similar due to the various masses of
the different sections (although joined together). These accelerations on
the ships structure are liable to cause distortion in the transverse
section. The greatest effect is under light ship conditions.
Local Stresses
Panting
Such local loads may be the machinery (Main engine) in the engine room
or the loading of concentrated ore in the holds.
xvi. Panting beams – athwartships members in the forepart introduced
to reduce the in & out tendency of the shell plating, caused by
varying water pressure on the bow.
xvii. Panting stringers – internal horizontal plates secured to the shell
plating and braced athwartships by the panting beams.
xviii. Sheer strake – the continuous row of shell plates on a level with
the uppermost continuous deck.
i. Panting stress
Beam
knee
Beams
Bulkheads
Decks
Floors
Frames
Long'
girders
Pillars
Shell
plating
SOME MORE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
a. Panting stress
i. Tiers of panting beams are fitted forward of the
collision bulkhead below the lowest deck. These are
similar to deck beam and are connected to frames by
beam knees, but are only fitted at alternative frames.
Tiers of beams are spaced 2 meters apart vertically
and supported by wash plates or pillars.
ii. Panting stringers, similar to deck stringers, are laid on
each tier of beams.
iii. To stiffen the joint between each beam and the inner
edge of the stringer, the plate edge may be shaped or
gussets fitted.
iv. At intermediate frame without beams, the stringer is
support by a beam knee of half its depth.
v. At fore ends, the stringers are joined by flat plate
called “Breasthooks”.
b. Pounding stress is resisted by strong cellular double bottom.
For a large cargo vessel, longitudinally framed bottom is
used.
i. The outer bottom plating covering the flat of the
bottom must be thickened.
ii. The connections of the shell and inner bottom girder-
work are made stronger
iii. Plate floors are fitted at alternate frames
iv. Longitudinal are stronger than normal
v. Side girders are no more than 2.1 meters apart.
xii. Draw a sketch showing the contact between a steel hatch cover
and the hatch coaming indicating how watertightness is
achieved.
a. Not pass through deep tank, double bottom tanks and oil
fuel bunkers
b. Bilge pipes are fitted with non-return valve to avoid hold
flooding
c. Suction are usually placed at the aft end of each hold since
ship normally trim by the stern and water can be collected at
the aft end of the bilges
d. Separate pipelines to each bilge since:
xvi. Sketch a transverse section through a cargo vessel showing and
naming the structural members which resist: Racking stresses
and Water pressure.
xvii. List and briefly describe the main drawings and plans available
on board ship.
xix. Sketch and list out the various part of a general dry container.
Describe the various types of container, their sizes, and their
usage. State the precautions that should be observed on
Container Stowage before and after operations in a cellular
container ship.
When a section such as a beam is carrying a load there is a tendency for some parts to be
pushed upwards and for other parts to move downwards, this tendency is termed
Shearing.
The Shear force at a point or station is the vertical force at that point. The shear force at a
station may also defined as being the total load on either the left hand side or the right
hand side of the station; load being defined as the difference between the down and the
upward forces, or for a ship the weight would be the downward force and the buoyancy
would be the upward thrust or force.
The longitudinal stresses imposed by the weight and buoyancy distribution may give rise
to longitudinal shearing stresses. The maximum shearing stress occurs at the neutral axis
and a minimum at the deck and keel. Vertical shearing stresses may also occur.
Bending Moment
The beam, which we have been considering, would also have a tendency to bend and the
bending moment measures this tendency.
Its size depends upon the amount of the load as well as how the load is placed together
with the method of support.
Bending moments are calculated in the same way as ordinary moments that is
multiplying force by distance, and so they are expressed in weight – length units.
As with the calculation of shear force the bending moment at a station is obtained by
considering moments either to the left or to the right of the station.
Hogging – When a beam is loaded or other wise is subjected to external forces such that
the beam bends with the ends curving downwards it is termed as hogging stress.
For a ship improper loading as well as in a seaway when riding the crest of a wave the
unsupported ends of the ship would have a tendency similar to the beam above.
Sagging – In this case the beam is loaded or other wise subjected to external forces
making the beam bend in such a way that the ends curve upwards, this is termed as
sagging.
Similar with a ship if improper loaded or when riding the trough of a wave – with crests
at both ends then the ship is termed to be sagging.
For Hogging the ship ends to curve downwards would mean that the weight/ load
amidships is much less than at the end holds/ tanks.
For Sagging the ship would have been loaded in such a manner that a greater percentage
of the load is around the midship area.
In a seaway the hogging and the sagging stresses are amplified when riding the crests and
falling into the troughs. Thus especially for large ships there are two conditions in the
stability software – Sea Condition and Harbour condition.
A ship loaded while set in the harbour condition may allow loading with hogging/
sagging stresses reaching a high level, when this state of loading is transferred to a Sea
condition in the software the results would be catastrophic since now the wave motions
have also been incorporated.
Hogging and sagging cause compressive and tensile stresses on the ship beam – notably
on the deck and the keel structure.
Let us assume an area of 1sq.m. then this area of water up to a depth of 1 m below the
surface would have a volume of 1sq.m. x 1m = 1cbm and the weight of this volume
would be 1cbm x density of the water = 1MT (assuming that it is FW) or 1000kgf,
therefore the pressure exerted by this mass would be 1000kgf/sq.m.
Similarly if now the depth of measurement is increased to 3m then the volume of this
area subtending up to the 3m mark would be 1sq.m x 3 = 3cbm and the weight of the
water would be 3MT or 3000kgf and the pressure exerted would be 3000kgf/sq.m.
If now the liquid had not been FW but any other then the weight would be found by
multiplying the volume by the density of the liquid. And thus the pressure exerted would
be found.
If we now increase the area of the square of water plane would it make a difference in the
pressure?
Let us consider a area of 2000sq.m then the volume of this water at a depth of 1 m would
be 2000cbm and the weight would be 2000MT (consider FW) and the pressure exerted
would be 2000,000kgf/ 2000sq.m which would give us again 1000kgf/sqm, thus the
pressure is independent of the area of the water plane.
Thrust however is different, thrust is taken to be the total weight of the liquid over an
area. Thus for the previous example the thrust would be 2000 tonnes.
Thus the thrust is given by: the area of the water plane x pressure head x density of the
liquid.
Thrust always acts at right angles to the immersed surface and for any depth the thrust in
any of the directions is the same. The pressure head which is used in the above
calculation of thrust is the depth of the geometrical centre of the area below the surface of
the liquid.
For a ship the thrust on the ship side changes as the depth increases, however the bottom
is affected uniformly for a set depth.
Centre of pressure of an area is the point on the area where the thrust could be considered
to act. It is taken that the centre of pressure is at 2/3rds the depth below the surface for
ordinary vertical bulkheads and at half the depth in the case of collision bulkheads.