4 IMPORTANT INPUT/OUTPUT FUNCTIONS OF A POLITICAL SYSTEM

According to Almond, the input functions are performed by non-

government sub-systems, by the society and the general environment while
the output functions are performed by the government.
Though the input functions can be from the general environment, they must
pass through a process of conversion into output functions. Inputs and
outputs are feedback to each other.
1. POLITICAL SOCIALISATION AND RECRUITMENT
Political Socialisation, according to Almond, is the process of
induction into the political culture, which leads to the
development of a set of attitudes among the members of the
system. The process of political socialisation brings change in
the patterns of political culture.

To quote Almond, “All political systems tend to perpetuate their

cultures and structures through which the young pass, though
the process continues through adult life. These structures
include the family, the church, the school, the work group,
voluntary associations, and media of communication, political
parties, and government institutions.” Political Socialisation can
be either manifest, or latent. “It is manifest when it involves the
direct communication of information, values or feelings towards
political objects.

2. INTEREST ARTICULATION
Interest articulation is “concerned with the formulation and
expression of interest claims and demands for political action.”
In the words of Almond, “It is the process by which individuals
and groups make demands upon the political decision makers
that we call interest articulation.

It is the first functional step in the political conversion process.”

Since it occurs at the boundary of the political system, the
structures which perform this function determine the character
of the boundary between politics and society.

Almond identifies four main interest articulation structures.

These are:
a. Institutional interest groups
b. Non-associational interest groups
c. Anomic interest groups
d. Associational groups

Institutional Interest Groups include legislatures, political

executives, bureaucrats, armies, churches and the like. Non-
associational Groups include kinship and lineage groups, ethnic,
regional, religious, status and class groups.

These often perform the articulation function intermittently and

informally. Anomic Groups spontaneous break through into the
political system from the society, e.g., riots, demonstrations and
the like. Although anomic groups articulate interests, they may
end up by transferring power (recruitment) changing the
constitution (rule-making) and freeing political prisoners (rule
application).

Associational interest groups include specialised structures

like trade unions, business organisations, professional, civic,
educational associations and the like.

They are formed to represent explicitly the interest of a group,

to formulate procedures for expressing demands and
channeling them to the other political structures parties,
legislatures, bureaucrats.

In every Political system, Interest Articulation is particularly

important because it marks the boundary between the society
and the political system. Groups operate in Society and give rise
 to the process of creating inputs for the Political System. If
groups within the society do not find open channels though
which to express their interests and needs, their demands are
likely to remain unsatisfied. The resultant dissatisfaction can
erupt into violence or may require suppression by the elite. It is
through interest articulation, that the conflicts inherent in the
political culture and the social structure become evident. The
manner of expression can serve either to intensify the conflict
or to reconcile or mitigate it.

3. INTEREST AGGREGATION
It is the third important input function. Interest Aggregation is
achieved “either by the formulation of general policies in which
articulates interests may be combined, accommodated and
compromised or by the recruitment of political personnel who
are more or less committed to a particular pattern or policy.”

Political parties constitute the main instrument of interest

aggregation. Almond has also classified the party system on the
basis of (1) organisation (they could be authoritative, dominant,
non-authoritative, competitive two-party and competitive multi-
party), and (2) style (they could be secular-pragmatic-
bargaining, absolute-value-oriented or ideological,
particularistic or traditional).

Interest Aggregation, thus, refers to the more inclusive levels of

the combinatory process. “Pressure groups and parties in a
developed modern system have distinctive and regulative
functions, the first for articulation, the second for aggregation.

In some systems, however, the aggregation function may be

performed by the legislature, the bureaucracy, the media of
communication, and the interest groups especially of the
general or civic type as well as by the political parties.
4. POLITICAL COMMUNICATION
Political communication is the fourth input function. All
functions, of course, are performed by means of
communication. Almond has compared political communication
with the circulation of blood which he describes as the medium
through which other functions in the political system are
performed.

To quote him, “It is not the blood but what it contains that
nourishes the system. The blood is the neutral medium carrying
claims, protests and demands through the veins to the heart,
and from the heart through the arteries flow the outputs of
rules, regulations and adjudications in response to the claims
and demands.”

Political Communication determines the flow of information

between the society and the political system. Political
communications involve exchanges among all political
structures and political roles, communications run in the whole
of Political System and all its functions are characterised by it.

Almond holds that it is important that “in modern systems some

media of communication have developed a vocational ethic of
neutral or objective communication and perform their functions
separately from the other political functions.

Political Systems with homogeneous political cultures and

autonomous and differentiated structures of interest
articulation and aggregation (e.g., U.K. and U.S.A.) have, to the
greatest extent, developed autonomous and differentiated
media of communication.”
It can communicate “the articulation of interests emanating
from political parties, legislatures and bureaucracies which
themselves can correct the actions of interest groups.
 3 IMPORTANT OUTPUT FUNCTIONS OF A POLITICAL SYSTEM
(ACCORDING TO ALMOND)

Almond’s description of the three output functions of the Political System

is as follows:

1. RULE-MAKING
Political system makes authoritative and binding rules; laws and
decision. These emerge out of each political system and are binding
on all structures and people. “The rule-making process is present in
some form or the other in all systems.

In the simpler types of political systems, the structures which are

involved in the making of the rules may be groups of adult males.
These groups preserve traditions. There had always been the
problem of the location of the rule-making power.” In contemporary
time Rule-making is a basic function of the legislative structure.

2. RULE-APPLICATION
It means the enforcement of the rules made by the rule-making
authority in one form or the other. In a modern society, the rules are
executed by officials who need a very high degree of administrative
capacity. Thus, the role and importance of bureaucracy has been
considerably increased.

To Carl Friedrich, bureaucracy is the core of modern government. In

the words of Almond, “In the modern era, most legislation is of a
very general kind; in order that it may be effectively enforced,
administrative officials must work out regulations or regulatory
codes elaborating the policy which has been adopted by the political
branches of the government.”

Usually, the extent to which a general policy is carried out is

dependent upon the interpretations which bureaucrats give to it. “In
the absence of such a central, directing, policy-making agency, the
 trend towards inertia and decentralisation appears to be inevitable,
for in the nature of the case the bureaucratic monster is a technical
instrumental monster.”

3. RULE-ADJUDICATION
Gabriel Almond defines rule-adjudication thus: “The performance of
the adjudication function involves the process of making authoritative
decisions as to whether or not a rule has been transgressed in a given
case.”

According to Easton, the process of adjudication accepts a certain set

of settled or presumed rules. It applies these to the conflict situation
in the society.

Rule-making, Rule Application and Rule Adjudication functions can be

described in a traditional way as legislative, executive and judicial
functions.
 POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS

Political institutions are the organizations in a government that create,

enforce, and apply laws. They often mediate conflict, make (governmental)
policy on the economy and social systems, and otherwise provide
representation for the population.

In general, democratic political regimes are divided into two types:

presidential (headed by a president) and parliamentary (headed by a
parliament). Legislatures built to support the regimes are unicameral (only
one house) or bicameral (two houses—for example, a senate and a house
of representatives or a house of commons and a house of lords).

Party systems can be two-party or multiparty and the parties can be strong
or weak depending on their level of internal cohesion. The political
institutions are those bodies—parties, legislatures, and heads of state—that
make up the whole mechanism of modern governments.

Parties, Trade Unions, and Courts

In addition, political institutions include political party organizations, trade
unions, and the (legal) courts. The term 'political Institutions' may also refer
to the recognized structure of rules and principles within which the above
organizations operate, including such concepts as the right to vote, a
responsible government, and accountability.

Political Institutions, in Brief

Political institutions and systems have a direct impact on the business
environment and activities of a country. For example, a political system that
is straightforward and evolving when it comes to the political participation
of the people and laser-focused on the well-being of its citizens contributes
to positive economic growth in its region.

Every society must have a type of political system so that it may allocate
resources and ongoing procedures appropriately. A political institution sets
the rules in which an orderly society obeys and ultimately decides and
administers the laws for those that do not obey.

Types of Political Systems

The political system consists of both politics and government and involves
the law, economy, culture, and other social concepts.

The most popular political systems that we know of around the world can
be reduced to a few simple core concepts. Many additional types of political
systems are similar in idea or root, but most tend to surround concepts of:

Democracy: A system of government by the whole population or all the

eligible members of a state, typically through elected representatives.
Republic: A state in which supreme power is held by the people and their
elected representatives and that has an elected or nominated president
rather than a monarch.

Monarchy: A form of government in which one person reigns, typically a

king or a queen. The authority, also known as a crown, is typically inherited.
Communism: A system of government in which the state plans and controls
the economy. Often, an authoritarian party holds power and state controls
are imposed.

Dictatorship: A form of government where one person makes the main

rules and decisions with absolute power, disregarding input from others.

The Function of a Political System

In 1960, Gabriel Abraham Almond and James Smoot Coleman gathered
three core functions of a political system, which include:
• To maintain the integration of society by determining norms.
• To adapt and change elements of social, economic, and religious
systems necessary for achieving collective (political) goals.
• To protect the integrity of the political system from outside threats.
In modern-day society in the United States, for example, the main function
of the two core political parties is seen as a way to represent interest
groups and constituents and to create policies while minimizing choices.
Overall, the idea is to make legislative processes easier for people to
understand and engage with.

Political Stability and Veto Players

Every government seeks stability, and without institutions, a democratic
political system simply cannot work. Systems need rules to be able to select
political actors in the nomination process. The leaders must have
fundamental skills about how the political institutions work and there must
be rules about how authoritative decisions are to be made. The institutions
constrain political actors by punishing deviations from institutionally-
prescribed behaviors and rewarding appropriate behavior.

Institutions can resolve collection action dilemmas—for example, all

governments have a collective interest in reducing carbon emissions, but
for individual actors, making a choice for the greater good makes no good
sense from an economic standpoint. So, it must be up to the federal
government to establish enforceable sanctions.

But the main purpose of a political institution is to create and maintain

stability. That purpose is made viable by what American political scientist
George Tsebelis calls "veto players." Tsebelis argues that the number of
veto players—people who must agree on a change before it can go
forward—makes a significant difference in how easily changes are
made.1 Significant departures from the status quo are impossible when
there are too many veto players, with specific ideological distances among
them.

Agenda setters are those veto players who can say "take it or leave it," but
they must make proposals to the other veto players that will be acceptable
to them.