GENERAL RULES FOR BIOLOGICAL DRAWINGS

1. Drawing and labels are all in PENCIL. A mechanical 2B pencil point is recommended. If you don’t
have a mechanical pencil, sharpen your pencil to a fine tip.

2. All label lines eventually branch horizontally/parallel and are all aligned on the same plane (notice how
each label line ends at the same point). No arrows and no crossing lines! Ensure your label line touches
what you are labelling.

3. Labels in all lowercase letters.

4. Some labels on the drawing will include annotations (short descriptive notes below the label). Not all
labels need annotations but they should be included where applicable.

5. Drawing should accommodate at least 1/2 the size of the page. Best efforts should be made to place all
labels to the right of the drawing (though it is not a penalty to have them on both sides).

6. Use clean, continuous lines of even thickness. Never lift your hand from the paper before completing
the line. For example, the cell membrane around the cell shown should be drawn from one smooth,
continuous movement. However, notice that some of the vacuoles (circular structures) look a bit ‘broken
and jagged’ (this should be avoided!)

7. Absolutely no shading! If denser areas are to be identified, use stippling (dots).

8. There is no need to depict extreme detail in the drawing. For example, an actual cell might have 20
mitochondria, but only two are depicted in this drawing. Remember that the drawing is a faithful
REPRESENTATION of your specimen.

9. Title should be at the base of the drawing and double-underlined. All UPPERCASE.

10. Magnification is included beside title. Calculations should be shown on the opposite page.
HOW TO CALCULATE MAGNIFICATION

You’ll notice that the above drawing has the label lines placed on both sides. This is generally allowed if
there are a large number of labels and annotations to be made, as in this flower.

Let’s say that the drawing (measured using a ruler from bottom to top, from the stalk to the stigma) had a
length of 12.8.cm and the hibiscus specimen had a length of 16.0 cm (using the same measurement from
the stalk to the stigma), we can calculate the magnification of our drawing:

LENGTH OF DRAWING = 12.8 cm

LENGTH OF SPECIMEN = 16.0 cm

MAGNIFICATION = Length of Drawing ÷ Length of Specimen

= 12.8 ÷ 16.0 = 0.8

Note that there is no unit for magnification, so we will write it adjacent to the title as (mag x 0.8).

Calculations for magnification should always be shown in the manner stated above, either below
the drawing or on the page opposite to the drawing on the lab book.
HOW DRAWINGS ARE MARKED FOR SBA (for CSEC)

TOTAL 10 MARKS

3 marks – Lines of drawing show uniform thickness and contain minimal broken segments. The drawing
occupies at least ½ of page and exhibits no shading.

1 mark – Drawing shows faithfulness of reproduction of specimen. (must look similar to specimen)

3 marks – Label lines touch their corresponding parts, are drawn with a ruler (never free-hand) and are
parallel to each other, ending on the same plane.

1 mark – Annotations are included where necessary.

1 mark – Magnification is calculated and written beside title.

1 mark – Title is given under drawing and underlined or double-underlined.

INTERPRETING GRAPHS AND CONSTRUCTING TABLES
Ensure the following when constructing a table:

1. The table is neatly enclosed. Responding variables (y-axis) are always on the right columns.
2. All units are stated in the headings, if any. Do not repeat units below heading.
3. Decimal places are consistent, e.g. Don’t use 2 d.p. for one reading 1 d.p. for another.
4. A title is placed above the table. Ensure it efficiently describes the data represented.
e.g. Table showing Population Count of Frogs and Snakes from 2001 – 2005.

Observe the graph below and construct a table replicating its data.

Construct a table using SIX of the points below.

WHAT IS AN ECOSYSTEM?

An ecosystem is defined as A SYSTEM OF LIVING AND NON-LIVING FACTORS THAT

INTERACT WITH EACH OTHER.

An ecosystem is a combination of two factors:

Factor Description Examples

BIOTIC All organisms that either produce their own Plants, bacteria, animals
food or consume other organisms for food.

ABIOTIC The physical features of the environment, Water, sunlight, pH, salinity,
which will affect the types of numbers of the turbidity, climate
species populations living in the ecosystem.

Other definitions
Observe the diagram of the food chain:

 A POPULATION is a group of one  An organism’s role in its environment is

species within a particular habitat, e.g. the
group of snakes make up a population. Two
plants may be separate species and thus
comprise two populations.
 A COMMUNITY is all the populations of
different species in a particular habitat,
e.g. the grasses, grasshoppers, frogs, snakes
and hawks all comprise a community.
called its NICHE. This includes its
behaviour, interactions, how it meets its
needs for food and shelter and how it
reproduces. If too many organisms or
species occupy the same niche, there will be
COMPETITION.
 The place where an organism lives is its
HABITAT. In this case, the habitat is a
grassland. Habitats may be classified as
TERRESTRIAL or AQUATIC.
FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
A food chain represents THE FEEDING SEQUENCE OF ORGANISMS TO TRANSFER ENERGY.
There are three main categories of organisms in the food chain, stated below:

Category Description

AUTOTROPHS Organisms that produce food by photosynthesis. They use sunlight to convert
(producers) materials such as oxygen and water into nutrients.

HETEROTROPHS Organisms that eat other organisms to gain their food. These obtain energy
(consumers) from other organisms on which they feed.

DECOMPOSERS Organisms that obtain nutrition by breaking down the dead remains of other
organisms and absorbing nutrients, releasing CO2 as a result.
Examples include: Bacteria and fungi

NOTE: Decomposers are not to be confused with CARRION FEEDERS, which are organisms such as
vultures, and DETRITIVORES, like earthworms that seek and consume already-dead organisms.

ENERGY TRANSFER IN A FOOD CHAIN

Energy moves from organism to organism in a food chain. While materials may be recycled, energy is
described as a unidirectional flow, as it cannot be directly returned to an organism or the Sun.
Each stage in the food chain is known as a
TROPHIC level. Energy decreases through
each successive trophic level. For example, the
deer will never get 100% of the energy from the
plants they eat. They only get about 10%
because the other 90% energy is used for the
plants’ life processes (such as growth,
excretion and reproduction).
Imagine the solar energy the plants get is 100%.
This means the plant uses 90% and can only
pass on 10% to the deer. Similarly, when the
tiger eats the deer, it only has 1% of the total
energy and must compensate by EATING
MORE OFTEN OR METABOLIZING MORE
SLOWLY.

NOTE: Most food chains are limited to four to six trophic level links because:
THERE WOULD BE TOO LITTLE ENERGY AVAILABLE TO SUSTAIN LIFE ON
HIGHER TROPHIC LEVELS.

SOIL

Soil is described as an important ABIOTIC factor in an ecosystem, as it can affect the lives of plants and
thus affect the trophic levels above it because:

1. It can provide a suitable HABITAT for organisms such as earthworms and insects. A soil habitat
is known as EDAPHIC.

2. It can retain WATER and MINERALS for plant growth and development.

3. It helps provide ANCHORAGE for plants, preventing them from being uprooted.

The top layer of most soils is called HUMUS, which is comprised of the natural decay of materials such
as leaves and animal matter that have accumulated. It is the most fertile layer.

SOIL WATER RETENTION

In soil water retention experiments, a fixed mass of soil sample is placed in filter paper folded over a
funnel. A recorded amount of water is then poured into the sample. After a certain amount of time, the
water drains through the soil and into a measuring cylinder below.

NOTE: A fertile mixture of humus, sand and clay is called a LOAM.

FOOD WEBS
A food web is a combination of several food chains within a habitat or ecosystem.
Identify a(n):
- Autotroph: ALGAE
- Herbivore: TADPOLE
- Carnivore: FROG
- Omnivore: SMALL FISH
- Tertiary Consumer: KINGFISHER
- Predator/Prey: FROG AND SNAIL

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

Category Description

PYRAMID OF Represents the number of a certain species at each trophic level in a habitat.
NUMBERS Usually, the shape of the pyramid will be broad at the base and narrow at the top.
However, there are cases where the base is the narrowest. For example, there may be
MANY producers (broad base) or just one (e.g. the only producer might be one tree).

PYRAMID OF Represents the total amount of food available in each trophic level at any one
BIOMASS time. In the following food chain: Grass  Rabbit  Fox: There is a higher mass of
grass than rabbits, so enough food can be available for the rabbits. Same with the
rabbits and foxes.

PYRAMID OF Represents the amount of energy retained at each trophic level, with only 10%
ENERGY being transferred to each successive level. The shape is the same as the pyramid of
biomass.
ORGANISM RELATIONSHIPS
Predation
When one animal hunts and eats another animal, the hunter is known as the PREDATOR while the
hunted is known as the PREY. In such a relationship, the number of predators is almost always less than
the number of prey. A typical population size for a predator-prey relationship is depicted below.

Section What is happening

A Predator pop. high because prey pop.
is high
B Prey pop. decreases because predator
pop. is too high; food is depleted.
C Prey is allowed to reproduce since
predator pop. is low. Predator pop.
then increases once again.

Predators and prey are usually adapted to their roles. Predators will have certain characteristics such as
sharp teeth or the ability to engage their prey with stealth, while prey will be able to burrow, hide or run
away, or employ certain mechanics as CAMOUFLAGE to hide from predators.

Biological controls
In some cases, ecologists prefer to use a predator in order to control a pest population. This is usually
preferable to using agricultural chemicals. There are advantages and disadvantages to this.

Advantages of Biological Controls Disadvantages of Biological Controls

Targets a specific pest. Can result in disruptions in the food web if the
control becomes a predator.

Does not result in air and land pollution, such Takes a long time to work properly, unlike using
as pesticides. chemical control.
 Is a long-term solution and less manual Research is expensive.
labour is required in the long run.

Symbiotic Relationships

Symbiosis refers to RELATIONSHIPS WHERE AT LEAST ONE ORGANISM BENEFITS.

There are THREE main relationships in an ecosystem that can be classified as symbiotic:

Relationship Description Examples

PARASITISM One organism is

Ticks feed on mammals’
harmed while the
blood. They benefit by
other benefits.
obtaining nutrients while the
mammal is harmed. Other
examples include lice,
mosquitoes and tapeworms.

COMMENSALISM One organism benefits

Remora fish attach to
and the other is
sharks and use them for
neither harmed nor
transport to obtain food.
benefits.
The remora benefits but
the shark is unaffected.
MUTUALISM Both organisms
benefit from the
relationship.

Oxpeckers eat ticks off

Bacteria that live in root
the zebra. They benefit by
nodules fix nitrogen for
getting food. The zebra
the plant. The bacteria
benefits by the parasitic
benefit by getting a place
ticks being removed.
to live.

How are parasitic relationships different from predator/prey relationships?

Predator-prey relationships involve the prey being hunted, killed and eaten by the predator. Parasitic
relationships do not involve the parasite killing the host, but harming and feeding off of them.
ECOLOGICAL STUDIES AND SAMPLING METHODS

Quadrats

It is difficult to survey all the different
organisms in an area, so various sampling
methods are done to assess the biotic factors of a
chosen area. Ecological studies are done to:
 determine population counts over time
 research species relationships
 assess damages from a disaster/disease
Most small ecological studies are carried out
using a QUADRAT. A quadrat is a square frame
with a fixed dimension, commonly 1m each
side. Within this frame is usually a series of
wires or strings forming a grid, which can be
labelled for further studies. The quadrat can be
used in two ways:

1. TRANSECT - A straight path is chosen and the quadrat is laid out in intervals along that track,
with the species being counted each time. Transects are especially useful for merging habitats
(ECOTONES), such as when a shoreline merges into a dense woodland. A transect can also be
useful in larger tree areas, because quadrats may too small for these.

2. RANDOM - The quadrat is tossed from a certain point in various directions. Eyes are closed to
prevent bias. Or the quadrat is laid down on random locations on the survey site. Sometimes these
sites can be decided by random numbers for coordinates.

After performing the survey with the quadrats, the species are counted and tallied. Certain factors can be
accounted for in the studied area:

Factor Description

SPECIES DENSITY Measured by counting the number of times a chosen species occurs within the
quadrats and calculating the average number per unit area .

SPECIES FREQUENCY Measured by counting how many times the species was recorded in the
quadrats, e.g. a species that has occurred 2 times in 10 quadrats has a 20%
frequency of occurrence.

COVER Measured by estimating the area each species covers in the entire quadrat,
e.g. if a quadrat measures 1m2 in area and a shrub takes up 0.5m2 of the
quadrat, it has taken up 50% cover.
EXAMPLE QUESTION:

Ten quadrats of 1m2 are randomly placed along the same vegetation. X’s are recorded where the species is
present. The results are recorded as follows:

Species No. of Recorded Species by Quadrat Number

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Plant A 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2
Plant B 1 1 2 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
Plant C 0 2 3 6 0 0 16 0 2 1

(i) State the frequency of Plant B. = 60%

(ii) Calculate the species density of Plant C. Number = 2 + 3 + 6 + 16 + 2 + 1 = 30

Density = 30 / 10m2 = 3 species per m2
22m2
(iii) Suggest TWO reasons why none of the species was found at quadrat 5.
The soil could have been infertile or too sandy. No water available. There could have been
some human construction, such as concrete.
OTHER SAMPLE COLLECTION METHODS

1. SWEEP NET - where a net is swung from side to side along a transect. The contents of the net are then emptied
into a container and counted. Dip nets can also be used to obtain organisms from water sources, such as ponds.

2. PITFALL TRAP - A jar is buried in a patch of soil with

a wire mesh above it to catch small insects. The top of the
jar is kept at ground level. In the jar would be alcohol to
kill and preserve the organisms that fall in. Sometimes a
light bulb is placed because insects have a negative
response to light and move away from it and into the pit.

3. POOTER JAR - A device in which insects or

invertebrates can be actively collected in a jar by sucking Above: Pitfall trap. Below: Pooter jar
through a tube at one end.

4. MARK, RELEASE, RECAPTURE - A small no. of

mobile organisms in a region is captured, marked and
released back into their habitat. A sample is then later
recaptured, which is then observed for previously
marked organisms and counted.
POPULATION GROWTH

The diagram below shows a typical growth curve for a stable population in an ecosystem.

The growth rate will decelerate, stop or decrease due to a number of factors:

Category Description

OVERCOMPETITION Population may be too large and unvaried and resources such as food, water
and shelter are limited.

INVASIVE SPECIES A new predator migrated into the habitat and reduces the population of many
organisms, e.g. lionfish in Caribbean marine habitats

ECOLOGICAL Natural disasters or human intervention and activity can disrupt the natural
DISRUPTION habitats of organisms, displacing them.

DISEASE If the population has little variation, a disease can wipe out a large subset of
them.

HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH

Why has the human population climbed so much in

The last century?

- Discovery of vaccines
- Discovery of antibiotics
- Awareness of communicable diseases
- Greater food availability and shelter
- Medical technology, such as X-rays and MRI’s

17
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

DEFINITION: Photosynthesis is the process whereby light energy is absorbed by

CHLOROPHYLL and transformed into chemical energy used in the synthesis of
carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is released during the process. Water
and carbon dioxide are the raw materials for photosynthesis.

Carbon dioxide + Water  Glucose + Oxygen + ATP

6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2 + ATP

NOTE: While photosynthesis only occurs at daytime, respiration must occur all the time.

There are TWO main stages to photosynthesis:

Stage What happens

LIGHT-DEPENDENT Light energy is captured by chlorophyll in the chloroplast and then

converted into a usable energy called ATP. Light energy causes
PHOTOLYSIS, which splits water molecules into HYDROGEN
and OXYGEN (released as a biproduct)

LIGHT-INDEPENDENT The HYDROGEN produced in photolysis is used to REDUCE

carbon dioxide to glucose. The ATP required for this process
comes from the light-dependent stage. Enzymes also help speed up
the reactions.

18
TESTING FOR STARCH

1. The simplest carbohydrate is GLUCOSE. It is used for RESPIRATION.

2. If glucose is formed faster than it is used up, the excess is converted to STARCH for
storage. It can occur even in the roots or underground storage organs. To test for
starch, we add IODINE and experience a BLUE-BLACK colour change.

3. In darkness, when photosynthesis stops, enzymes in the leaves change starch to

SUCROSE, which is transported to other parts of the plant. To destarch or remove starch
from the leaves, one can put the plants in darkness for about two days.

4. Why destarch before an experiment? This is because starch is an indicator in a leaf that
photosynthesis has already taken place. To correctly test to see if plants can experience
photosynthesis under certain conditions, one should get rid of this already-formed starch
before the experiment takes place, or results would be inaccurate.

Outline for experiment

Why do plants need glucose?

1. The glucose is used for RESPIRATION or the release of energy.
2. It is used to form STARCH and PROTEINS for storage and for the synthesis of new
protoplasm. They may be converted to SUCROSE at night.
3. It is used to produce CELLULOSE for cell walls.
4. It is used to form FRUITS and FOOD STORES IN SEEDS.

Remember there are several requirements for photosynthesis. If ONE of these were absent,
photosynthesis will not occur and glucose will not be produced. Thus, no starch will be stored.
These factors that are required are called LIMITING FACTORS and they include:
Light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, temperature, water availability.

19
Effects of Light Intensity on Photosynthesis
The rate of photosynthesis increases as
light intensity increases, since higher
light intensity excites more electrons.
However, at a certain point all of the
available electrons are excited, and the
maximum rate is reached. This means the
rate will stay constant even when light
intensity is increased past this point.

In the experiment to the left, an aquatic plant

named ELODEA is used. When undergoing
photosynthesis, it releases OXYGEN as a
biproduct, seen as rising bubbles gathering
at the top of the inverted test tube.

As light intensity increases, the NO. OF

OXYGEN BUBBLES will also increase
because photosynthesis occurred at a faster
rate. However, past a certain light intensity,
the oxygen level will be the same
throughout

Necessity of Carbon Dioxide on Photosynthesis

The necessity of carbon dioxide can be

tested by placing the plant or some of its
leaves in POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE (KOH).

This removes the CO2 from the sample.

Since plants require CO2 to form glucose, an
iodine test will come up negative for the
leaves or plant exposed to KOH (potassium
hydroxide).

20
BALANCED DIET
A balanced diet can be defined as A DIET THAT CONTAINS ALL THE REQUIRED NUTRIENTS IN
THE CORRECT PROPORTIONS.
When nutrients are lacking or in excess, this is termed MALNUTRITION This could lead to
nutritional deficiency diseases, or if in excess, could result in physiological diseases such as
DIABETES, HYPERTENSION and CORONARY HEART DISEASE.

Uses of water:
1. Acts as a SOLVENT to absorb, dissolve and
transport materials in the body.
2. To produce SWEAT to regulate body
temperature.
3. To produce URINE, to excrete urea and
excess water.
4. Allows new PROTOPLASM to be
synthesised in cells.

MACRONUTRIENTS

NUTRIENT FUNCTION SOURCES EXTRA NOTES

CARBOHYDRATES Provides energy Simple: Syrups, Carbohydrates are made of

for respiration. candies, fruits carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. They are stored as
STARCH in plants and
Complex: Rice, GLYCOGEN in animals.
bread, potatoes Simplest form is GLUCOSE.

PROTEINS Used for growth Meat, eggs, red Proteins are made of
and cell repair. beans nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, etc.
They are broken down into
AMINO ACIDS.

LIPIDS (fats and oils) Helps store energy Olive oil, potato ‘Good’ fats are termed
for warmth and chips, butter, unsaturated (e.g. avocadoes)
insulation. avocadoes while ‘bad’ is saturated (e.g.
pizza, cake)

21
MAIN VITAMINS AND MINERALS

VITAMIN FUNCTION SOURCES DEFICIENCY DEFICIENCY

DISEASE SYMPTOMS

A Promotes eyesight Carrots, butter, NIGHT Inability to see in dim

in dim light. Helps fish oils, green light.
maintain skin and leafy vegetables BLINDNESS
soft tissue.

B Helps with Bran, cereals BERI-BERI Fatigue, fainting.

respiration.

C Helps with Oranges, SCURVY Sensitive, bleeding

repairing linings tomatoes, bell gums.
and tissues in the peppers, guavas
body.

D Helps absorb Dairy products, RICKETS Bones bend or break

calcium for bone tuna, salmon, easily.
development. sunlight exposure

CALCIUM Helps with bone Dairy products Same as above. Same as above.
and teeth
development.

IRON Helps produce Liver, spinach, ANAEMIA Reduced production of

haemoglobin for beetroot haemoglobin in red
blood cells, fatigue,
red blood cell fainting.
production.

The following two minerals are especially important in plants:

NUTRIENT FUNCTION EXTRA NOTES

NITROGEN For growth of shoots Usable in the nitrate form in the plant. Without it,
and leaves. plants have stunted growth and small leaves.

MAGNESIUM For chlorophyll Without it, plants’ leaves turn yellow and eventually
production. wither. This is called chlorosis.

22
FOOD TESTS

NUTRIENT REAGANT / PROCEDURE COLOUR CHANGE

Reducing Sugar Place food sample in a boiling tube with

Blue  Green  Brick Red
(Glucose) BENEDICT’S SOLUTION and place in a
heated water bath until colour changes.

Non-reducing Place food sample in a boiling tube with

Blue  Green  Brick Red
sugar (Sucrose) HCl and boil for 1 minute. Neutralize HCl
with sodium carbonate. Then heat wwith
BENEDICT’S SOLUTION.

Orange-yellow  Blue-black
Starch Add a few drops of IODINE SOLUTION.

A translucent stain appears.

SPOT TEST: Rub food sample against a
thin piece of paper.
Lipid/Fats
A cloudy white emulsion if fat
EMULSION TEST: Mix sample with
is present.
ethanol and water and shake vigorously.

Protein BIURET TEST: Add copper sulphate and

Blue  Purple/Violet
sodium hydroxide to food sample and mix.

23
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS – STRUCTURE OF A FLOWER
Most plants can reproduce sexually AND asexually. But some can only reproduce sexually and others can
only reproduce asexually. To recap, sexual reproduction involves the fusion of special cells called
GAMETES. In flowering plants, sexual reproduction takes place in the flowers, which are the plants'
reproductive organs.
Sepals – Sepals are modified leaves
which enclose and protect the other
parts of the flower in the bud stage. All
the sepals together make up the
CALYX. They also help hold the flower
upright.

Petals – Petals are modified leaves and

are usually brightly coloured in insect-
pollinated flowers. All the petals
combined form the COROLLA. Petals
attract insects as well as act as a landing
platform for them.

FLOWER REPRODUCTIVE PARTS

Section Comprised of Notes

STAMEN Anther Produces pollen grain, containing male gametes.

Filament Holds the anther in place.

PISTIL Stigma Usually allows pollen to stick to it.

Style Holds the stigma in place. Leads to ovary.

Ovary Contains ovules, containing the egg cell.

24
POLLINATION

Flowering plants reproduce sexually by producing seeds. The seeds are formed from structures in the
flowers. The male sex cells of plants are inside POLLEN GRAINS. The egg cell is the female sex cell
and is found in the OVULES. When these two sex cells fuse, they form a ZYGOTE. But first:
Plants must transfer the pollen grains from an ANTHER to a STIGMA. This is called
POLLINATION. It usually occurs between flowers on diferent plants of the same species.

 Pollination between two different flowering plants of same species is called CROSS-
POLLINATION.
 Pollination within the same flowering plant is called SELF-POLLINATION.

Cross-pollination takes place in one of two main ways. Some flowers use the wind to transfer pollen –
they are wind-pollinated flowers. Others use insects to transfer the pollen – they are insect-pollinated
flowers.

CROSS-POLLINATION
Continued in-breeding or self-pollination results in the production of offspring that are weaker and less
adaptable to changes in the environment. Cross-pollination is necessary for species survival.

Feature Insect-Pollinated Wind-Pollinated

Petals Large and colourful Small and dull, or absent

Nectary or Scent Present Mostly absent

Stamens or Stigma Usually short stigmas Usually long filaments

Pollen Production A variable amount Much more than insect-pollinated

25
FERTILIZATION AND DOUBLE FERTILIZATION

Following pollination, the following occurs:

1. The pollen grain grows a tube down through the style to one of the ovules inside the ovary. The
nucleus of the pollen grain passes down the tube.

2. When it reaches the opening to the ovule, the pollen grain nucleus passes into the ovule and fuses
with the egg cell nucleus in the ovule. This is called FERTILIZATION.

An EMBRYO is formed.

3. The fertilized ovule develops into a SEED.

4. The ovary becomes a FRUIT and these may contain several seeds or just one.

Before Fertilization After Fertilization

Ovary Fruit

Ovary wall Pericarp

Ovule Seed

Zygote Embryo

Endosperm nucleus Endosperm

NOTE: It is called double fertilization because another pollen grain nucleus fuses with another
nucleus (called the ENDOSPERM nucleus) to form a food storage for the seed called the
endosperm.

The endosperm mainly contains LIPIDS and PROTEINS (and some sugars). 26
GERMINATION AND DISPERSAL OF SEEDS

A seed contains an embryonic plant and a food

store enclosed in the seed coat or TESTA.

After a period of DORMANCY, the germination

of the seed begins. This is often triggered by the
following factors:

1. Warmth

2. Presence of moisture

3. Presence of oxygen

In a seed, the young root or RADICLE emerges first, followed by the shoot or EPICOTYL (plumule).
These then grow and branch as the young plant develops.

Seeds are displaced a distance away from their parent plants by a various set of mechanisms.

Dispersal Method Brief Description

WIND For light seeds, usually with wing or parachute structures.

ANIMAL Tough-coated seeds that must be broken down through digestion.

WATER Large, hollow, buoyant seeds.

SELF or EXPLOSIVE Heavy seeds that are propelled a short distance by their parents.

27
The COTYLEDONS become a food storage for
plants. They eventually decrease in mass and fall
off when food stores are depleted and the first
“true leaves” appear from the EPICOTYL of the
seedling. When the leaves appear, the plant can
undergo photosynthesis and continue growth.

28
TO SUM UP, use this as a base checklist for revision:

PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF A FLOWER

- Draw flower and be able to label:
Stigma, style, ovary (carpel/pistil/gynoecium)
Anther, filament (stamen/androecium)
Petals, sepals
Pedicel, nectary

- Annotate the function of each, e.g. Petals – Typically large and

bright to attract insect pollinators. Stigma – Accepts pollen for
germination and growth of a pollen tube.

FRUIT AND SEED FORMATION

- Draw a cross-section of a seed and be able to label:
Seed embryo (plumule and radicle) and endosperm
Cotyledons
Seed coat (testa)
Micropyle and hilum (scar)

- Annotate the function of each, e.g. Testa – Protects the seed

from mechanical damage.
- Correlate pre-fertilization and post-fertilization structures
(e.g. ovary wall becomes fruit pericarp; ovule becomes seed,
etc.)
- Express examples and variety of ways in which seeds are dispersed
and adaptations to method, e.g.
Wind (parachute structure, ‘helicopter’-like, wings)
Animal (fruit is edible, seed coat easily digested)
Water (hollow/buoyant; thick protective husk)
Self (light and aerodynamic; parent plant has explosive
mechanism)

29
POPULATION AND COMMUNITY
- Construct a food chain and a food web from a list of organisms.
- Draw a bar graph of population numbers of a community.
- Draw a line graph of population numbers of a single species over
time.
- Be able to decipher trophic levels from a table of organisms by
population number (e.g. higher trophic levels have lower
populations and lower trophic levels have higher populations;
organisms of the same trophic level have similar population
numbers).
- Describe basic methods of gathering population data, e.g.
o quadrats and line transects for static species like plants
o sweep nets, pitfall traps and pooter jars for insects
o hand nets and jars for aquatic organisms
o mark, release, recapture for larger organisms such as snails

- Calculate species frequency and species density.

- Describe predator-prey relationships and explain the fluctuation
in population numbers with respect to the predator-prey graph.

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TYPES OF NUTRITION
- Explain the differences between autotrophic, heterotrophic and
saprophytic nutrition.
- Explain energy losses that occur in food chains and webs.
- Describe experiments that test for the effects of light intensity
and carbon dioxide concentrations on photosynthesis.
- Describe a starch test on a variegated leaf.

- Define ‘balanced diet’ and ‘malnutrition’.

- Describe the roles and sources of nutrients in a balanced diet:

o Carbohydrates (simple and complex)

o Proteins
o Lipids (fats and oils)
o Fibre/Roughage
o Water
o Minerals (iron, calcium, phosphorous)
o Vitamins (A, B, C, D, E and K)

- Identify signs of nutritional deficiency (e.g. night blindness,

rickets, scurvy, anaemia).
- Describe an experiment to determine the caloric content of a food
sample (e.g. a peanut)
- Describe food tests that determine the presence and absence of a
nutrient, and note meanings of colour changes:

o Reducing and non-reducing sugars

o Proteins (Biuret test)
o Lipids (grease spot test and emulsion test)
o Starch
o hand nets and jars for aquatic organisms
o mark, release, recapture for larger organisms such as snails

GENERAL NOTES FOR ANSWERING QUESTIONS

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Writing an aim is usually like:
To investigate the relationship between (responding variable) and
(manipulated variable). Examples:

- To investigate the relationship between rate of seed germination and moisture level.
- To investigate the relationship between the pollination rates of bees and petal colour.
- To investigate the relationship between snail populations and water availability.
- To investigate the relationship between plant growth rates in two soil samples, A and B.

Writing a hypothesis is simple; just ensure that your hypothesis

is a statement that accounts for the manipulated and responding
variables and that it is a testable statement, e.g.

- Seeds germinate at a faster rate in higher moisture levels.

- Bees tend to prefer brightly coloured petals to small, dull petals.
- In areas with low water availability, snail populations are lower than in areas with high
water availability.
- Plants grow at a faster rate in Soil A than in Soil B.

Any time readings are being taken for an experiment, a minimum of

5 values should always be recorded.

A control is a set-up that has no changes to the manipulated

variable (e.g. when a potato is placed in still air for an
osmosis experiment instead of water or a solution). The purpose
of the control is to ensure that no other factors (e.g. the room
environment) are causing a significant change in the experiment.

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Precautions are steps taken to minimize error in taking readings
for an experiment, examples:

- Taking multiple readings or performing multiple trials and obtaining an average reading.
- Ensuring that other factors are controlled during the experiment (e.g. ensuring the
experiment is performed in the same room, same temperature, same amount of
substrate, etc.)
- Ensuring that equipment is used safely and appropriately (e.g. reading measuring
cylinders at eye level, below the meniscus; squeezing a dropper and then dipping to
draw a solution in to ensure no air bubbles; ensuring safety goggles and gloves are used,
etc.)

Sources of error are occurrences that cause error that are either
unavoidable or the experimenter did not account for, examples:

- Human error when using a timer (slight delays when starting and stopping a stopwatch).
- Heat losses in experiments when insulation is not properly done.
- Air movements in the room if windows and doors are unable to be closed.
- Not being able to obtain similar samples for trials; e.g. all seeds may be of slightly
different sizes for a germination experiment.

GOOD LUCK!
In Sperwin we trust.

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