TABLE OF CONTENTS

Progress through
Steel Construction 1. 1
Welded
Part One
Systematic Design of Weldments 1 2 .
1. 3 DESIGN APPROACH
Problem Definition
Designer ' s Guide to

Welded Steel Construction 1.4

Redesigning by Means of
Equivalent Sections 1. 5

2. 1
Loads and Their Evaluation
Properties of Materials 2. 2

Properties of Sections 2 .3 Part Two

Analysis of Tension 2 .4 LOAD AND STRESS

Analysis of Compression 2. 5 ANALYSIS
Analysis of Bending 2 .6
Analysis of Combined Stresses 2 .7
Strength of Curved Beams 2 .8
Deflection by Bending 2. 9

Shear Deflection in Beams 2 . 10

Deflection of Curved Beams 2 . 11

Buckling of Plates 2 . 12

Designing for Impact Loads 3. 1

Part Three
Designing for Fatigue Loads 3 . 2
SPECIAL DESIGN
Designing for Improved CONDITIONS
Vibration Control 3 .3
3. 4
Dimensional Stability
Matching 3.5
Elastic
Designing for Torsional Loading 3. 6
 How to Design Machine Bases 4 .1

How to Design Flat Tables 4 .2

Part Four How to Brace or Stiffen a Member 4 .3

STATIONARY -MEMBER How Design Steel Frames

to 4 4 .
Columns, Legs

and
DESIGN Feet 4 .5
Flat Containers Cylinders and Shells .6

,
4

of
Design Container
Hangers and Supports

4
7
.
How Design Gear Housings

to

.8
4
Motors and Generators

4
9
.
Design Bearing Supports

10
How

to

4
.
Design Bosses and Pads

11
How

to

4
.
Design Machine Brackets

12
How

to

4
.
Part Five Design Flywheels

to
How

1
.
How Design Pulleys and Sheaves

to
ROTATING MEMBER

2
.
-

DESIGN How Design Steel Rolls

to

5
.4 3.
How Design Large Gears

to

5
Weldability Steel
of

;
.1
Part Six

6
Joint Design

2
16 6.
JOINT DESIGN

"
AND Determining Weld Size

.3
PRODUCTION Estimating Welding Costs

.4
6
of

Control Shrinkage and Distortion

6
5
.
Beam Diagrams and Formulas

7
1
.
Part Seven
Circular Flat Plates

7
2
.
REFERENCE
Torsional Members 7

3
DESIGN FORMULAS .
Frame Diagrams and Formulas 4
7
.

Thin Curved Bars

7
.5

Thin Circular Rings

.6
7

Thin Rings Under Internal Pressure

7
.7

Naperian Natural Log Tables

8
.
1
(

Part Eight
Metric Conversion Factors
8

1
.

MISCELLANEOUS Weights
of

Carbon Steel Bars

1
.
8

TABLES
SAE Steel Numbering System
8

1
.

Welding Processes Chart

8

1
.
 LIST OF SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS

a = angular acceleration ( radians / sec / sec ) ; in u = material' s tensile modulus of resilience

cluded angle of beam curvature (degrees ) ; (in . - lb / in . 3 )
form factor Uu = material ' s ultimate energy resistance
A= perpendicular deflection ( in . ), bending (Ab ) or ( in . -
/ in . )
()
A = lb
perear w = uniformly distributed load (lbs / linear inch )
As
€ = unit strain , elongation or contraction (in . / in . ) x = length of moment arm (curved beam )
Es = elongationines
unit shear strain ( in . / in . ) y = distance of area ' s center of gravity to neutral
v = Poisson ' s ratio ( steel = 0. 3 usually ) axis of entire section ( in .)
w = leg size of fillet weld ( in . ) ; rate of angular
motion about an axis ( radians / sec )
$ = unit angular twist ( radians / linear inch )
E = sum
area total area of cross section

in
=

of of );

-
.?
(
wo
o = normal stress , tensile or compressive (psi ) ; modulus elasticity tension psi

,
=

)
(
strength (psi ) shear psi
Car
modulus elasticity

in
shear stress (psi) ; shear strength (psi)
= = = =

)
(
T = tangential modulus elasticity psi

of

)
(
0 = angle of twist ( radians ; 1 radian = 57. 3 degrees ) ;
kinetic energy
angle of rotation ( radians ); any specified angle potential energy
Gaan

total force lbs radial force lbs

;
= =

)
(
)
(
of
moment inertia

in
(

)
."
section beyond plane where stress polar moment of inertia
of

area
). is

in
=

= =
a

."
)
(
load fatigue
or

plate
of

desired applied length ratio minimum maximum

to
of
in
in

;
?
.
(

/ (

)
or

acceleration deceleration min sec any specified constant

H
of ft

ft
's ,
(

)
/
of

or
length span between
of

width section distance area center member

in

in

ft
=

=
;

;
b

(
.)

.)
of on
gravity supports
of

reference axis
to

to in

in
).
(

(
.)

distance from neutral axis extreme fiber effective length column of

=

= =
C

bending moment lbs

in

in
.-
(
.)

)
depth applied bending moment lbs
of

of

section moment arm force

in

in
=

= = = =
d

.) (
.)

-
.
(

)
service cycles
of

distance number
in

in
;
(
.)

of (

eccentricity applied load total axial concentrated load lbs

in

SEZAGA
=

;
e

of (

)
).

strain moment arm force ef shear center

in

in
;

;
(
.)

(
.)

reaction lbs torsional resistance mem

of
fective width
in

;
(
.)

force per linear inch hori

of

weld lbs ber

in
in
=

;
(

.)
/
f

.
(

zontal shear force lbs vectorial re section modulus

in
in

= =

=
;

.3

1
c
(

/
(

.)
(

)
/

torque twisting moment

or
of

sultant force lbs allowable strength lbs

in
in

-
.
(

)
(

.)
/

weld lbs stored energy

in

= =

>
).
/
(

gravity 386 vertical

sec
of

acceleration shear load lbs shear reaction

;

;
=
g

)
.4
/
"

?
(

height height fall velocity volume

of

;
=

;
h

amplification factor lbs weight total width

or

any specified constant total load lbs

W

in
);

);
=
= =

(
.)
m k

mass
ref
of

distance section neutral axis from

=
n

's

of

erence axis number units series

in

in
;
(
.)

internal pressure psi gravity

of

center
= =

= = =
p

.G
C

.
(
of )

radius radius gyration HP horsepower

of (in
;
r

.
.)

length curved beam segment neutral axis

in
= =

N
A
s

.
.
(
( .)

revolutions per minute

of

thickness section time min time RPM

in

=
;

;
(
.)

.)
t

interval sec
(

)
 -

SECTION 1 .1

Progress Through Welded Steel Construction

WELDED STEEL DESIGN has advanced far beyond offer outstanding opportunities to improve machine
the weldment shown in Figure 1 . Weldments like this performance and reduce manufacturing costs .
left much to be desired in appearance and cost .
Machine Performance
Use of modern design and fabricating techniques 1 . Greater rigidity and strength increases
would transform the dated weldment of Figure 1 into speed of operation , output and accuracy .
a modern - looking , low - cost weldment . ( A compa
rable , but modern weldment is shown in Fig . 2 .) 2 . Machine can operate under increased loads .
Mechanical flame - cutting equipment now produces 3. Machine can withstand larger overloads .
smooth - cut edges on heavy plate . Many of the
lighter component sections are sheared . 4 . Machine can withstand shock loads .
5 . Machine stays in alignment without depending
Automatic welding and modern electrodes for
onfoundation because of the inherent rigidity of
manual welding , along with positioning equipment,
produce welds of superior appearance and quality at welded steel .
high speeds.
Heavy press brakes and bending rolls are used to
form many of the corners and flanges, so that design
is not limited to the welding together of flat plates . :2
43

Combining forming and welding results in low cost,

smooth edges , and clean over - all appearance . In fact ,
the appearance standards for modern weldments
have so far influenced design that it is difficult
to determine simply from external appearance
whether or not a machine is a casting or weldment .
Weldments , however , are different and must be
designed differently . Copying a casting or bolted
fabrication either in appearance or in shape is a
costly mistake . Weldments require different ma
terials , different design ideas , different production
techniques . Weldesign is a complete system for
creating machinery components , but as with any
other system for creating machinery , the design
must be made specifically for the system to be used 20
in order to obtain maximum economy, which is the
ultimate criterion of acceptance . All systems are
acceptable for meeting practically any requirement
of rigidity , strength , vibration , fatigue, impact or
appearance . The best system for any given piece of
machinery is that which produces maximum per
formance at the least cost .
It is the purpose of this book to aid designers ,
when considering the use of Weldesign for machin
ery , to achieve maximum output from this modern
system for producing better machines for less cost . OVERALL WIDTH

WHAT TO EXPECT WITH STEEL Fig . Weldments like this , while accept
1

Steel weldments , efficiently designed to use the able when built , have given way to modern
excellent physical properties of the base material , styled weldments as shown in Figure 2 .
 .
1 1– 2 / Design Approach

Fig . 2 The clean - line

styling of today ' s ma
chines is an attribute of
modern design concepts
as to the efficient use of
steel and of arc welding .

6 . Flexibility in design to solve vibration Other Qualities of Steel

problems.
1. Available in abundant and reliable supply and
7 . No breakage through mishandling in shipment
at low cost .
and use .
2. Procurable in all shapes and sizes , measured
8. Welded steel is not porous and will not leak . from thousandths of an inch to hundreds of feet.
Manufacturing Operations 3 . Low weight for a given rigidity, when mem
1 . Low capital investment and overhead operat ber is properly designed .
ing cost .
4 . High degree of design flexibility

2 . No pattern cost, repair , storage , insurance , 5 . Unlimited processing flexibility ; can be

maintenance or handling . worked by every known process .
3 . Small floor space required . . Unlimited combinations of size and shape ,
6

4 . Weldments require little or no clean - up . Can when fabricated by arc welding .

be painted right out of the weld shop . 7. Can be fabricated by --
5.
Reduction in machining costs because more Manual shielded -arc welding
parts of the machine will be accurately joined into Brazing
the weldment , rather than separately machined and Automatic submerged -arc welding
bolted together . Gas welding
6 . Manufacturing procedure easy to change for Automatic inert -arc welding
special designs . Resistance welding
Semi- or full - automatic vapor - shielded arc
7. of welding and fabricating
Operation shop
welding
flexible to meet general product redesign .
8 . Can be cut by - -
8 . Small lead time; plant can get into production
of new design in less time . Band saw Flame cutting
Hack saw Shearing
Low Material Cost for Premium Properties
Friction saw Punching or die blanking
1. Strength
9 . Can be formed by - -
2 . Rigidity Bending Forming
3 . Uniformity Stamping Drawing
Spinning Forging
4. Freedom from gross porosity , shrinkage Rolling Roll - bending
cracks , etc . Swaging Roll - forming
5 . Ductility
10 . Well -designed steel weldments eliminate
These five qualities of steel apply equally to many multiple machining operations , but all metal
well designed and executed welded joints in steel . removal processes are applicable when required .

Systematic
1 . WHAT THE DESIGNER NEEDS
The engineer who is assigned to design a welded
steel base or frame faces many questions related to
its planning and layout, how to select the most effi
cient type of section , how to quickly determine the
dimensions of this section , whether stiffeners
should be used , their size and where they should be
placed . These and many other practical questions
must be answered if he is to intelligently develop
an efficient design , taking full advantage of welded
steel construction .
At one time , the practical approach to design
ing for steel appeared to be that of designing
empirically from past experience . This is easy ;
but unfortunately , the rule - of -thumb selection of
configurations and sections almost invariably re
sults in machine members that “ look heavy enough , "
but actually are too heavy . This means higher
material costs , higher fabricating costs , and more
welding than necessary .
Fortunately , this practice has been
carded , and today ' s machine designs usually are
based on mathematical calculations . New methods
of determining forces and their effects allow de
signers to determine sections according to these
calculations . This results in more efficient de
signs and more efficient use of the many excellent
properties of steel .
This handbook offers a sound basis for math
ematical analysis and solution of machine design
problems related to frames , bases , and other weld
ed steel members . The methods presented here
will help by simplifying the use of stress analysis
and the complicated , time - consuming design form
ulas that must be used .
This of the text suggests a logical
section
approach designing with steel . The relationship
to
of basic design formulas are also reviewed so
that they can be used most effectively .
2 . SELECT THE DESIGN APPROACH
( 1) A part at a time
(2 ) The whole machine
Advantages of Designing part at
a a
Changeover to weldments can be gradual for
managements who are hesitant about going into
SECTION 1 2.
Design of Weldments
immediate full -scale production by welding . Some
advantages of gradual conversion are the lower
rate of capitalization and facility change .
For companies having their own foundry , grad
ual conversion to steel weldments allows them to
slowly curtail the production of castings . Thus ,
there needn ' t be any abrupt obsolescence of pre
sent facilities . . . or people . The indoctrination of
designers and production men into welded construc
tion will be self generating , with confidence growing
with experience .
Welded steel parts can be used not only in
newly built machines , but also as replacement
parts for older machines already in the field . This
may permit a substantial reduction in pattern in
ventory for low - activity parts .
Advantages of Designing the Whole Machine as a
Completely New Model
With this approach the previous design does not
any way restrict the designer . Since casting
largely dis in
limitations can be ignored , it is often possible to
reduce the number of pieces making up the machine
member , thus cutting down the amount of welding
and over - all assembly time .
In many cases , a single weldment can replace
several castings , resulting in a better design at
lower cost . Less machining is required to facil
itate assembly when several pieces are joined to
gether as a single weldment .
The total effect is a better opportunity to im
prove appearance and performance , and to reduce
weight and cost . These structural improvements
can be packaged with an updated power drive system
and modern control system to make up a more
saleable and more profitable product .
3 . SELECTING A BASIS FOR DESIGN
( 1) Previous design
(2 ) Loading only
Design Based on a Previous Design
Following a previous design has advantages and
disadvantages . It is advantageous in that the old
Time
design has performed satisfactorily and offers a
safe starting point for the new design . Usually ,
the previous design has been gradually refined
 . -
1 2 2 / Design Approach

through the years until it now represents a good If the steel weldment ' s design is based on a
design functionally . It is disadvantageous in that prior design, the equivalent - rigidity relationships
it channels one ' s thinking in terms of the previous are used . If a new design is based directly on cal
design and blocks any creative thinking toward de culated loading , the design formulas for rigidity
veloping an entirely new concept in solving the are used .
basic problem . Also , any faults in the previous
design tend to be perpetuated . Designing for No Load

The tables of equivalent sections (see Sect . 1 . 5 ) Some parts can be classed as “ no load ” . These
are members expected to serve with practically no
or companion nomographs are used for both strength
and rigidity when the design is based on the previous load and have no specific strength or rigidity re
quirements . Typical no - load designs are gear
design .
guards , covers for access holes , splash and dust
Design Based on Loading Only shields , etc . Such members occasionally present
dicastonaty present
moblem , but medo
a noise problem the solution to this problem
A design on loading allows the de
based only
signer to creative ability to the fullest
use his is not rigidity , nor does it affect the basic design .
extent . There are no preconceived notions from a Noise will be discussed in Sect. 3. 3 on Vibration
previous design to hinder him . It is true that an Control .
extra effort is required to determine the value and
type of load in some cases. It is also necessary to 5 . DESIGN FORMULAS
decide on some value of stress allowable in a
Three factors are always present design
strength design ) or deflection allowable ( in a ri formula . These are :
in a

gidity design ) .
Design 1 . Load
formulas are used for both strength and
rigidity when the design is based on loading only . 2 . Member
3 . Stress and strain
4 . SELECT DESIGN CRITERION
All three of these have a relationship with each
(1 ) Strength only other in any given formula , depending on the type of
load . If any two of these three terms are known , the
(2 ) addition , rigidity
third may be found . Therefore , all problems of
In

(3 ) No load design will be essentially one of the following :

This choice should be looked at for the complete
machine , and then reviewed as each member is de
signed . In some cases , the machine is basically
designed for strength while portions are designed
for rigidity .
Designing for Strength Only
All designs must have sufficient strength so the
members will not fail by breaking or yielding when
subjected to the normal operating loads or to a
reasonable overload . Strength designs are common
in road machinery , farm implements , motor brack
ets , etc .
If the steel weldment ' s design is based on a prior
casting design , the equivalent - strength relation
ships are used . If a new design is based directly
on calculated loading , the design formulas for
strength are used .
Designing for Rigidity in Addition to Strength
some applications , a design developed for
In
only sufficient strength would produce a section
which might deflect excessively when loaded . The
section must be made still heavier for sufficient
rigidity as well as strength . Rigidity designs are
common in machine tools .
To find the resulting internal stress or strain
1.
caused by an external load on a given member ;
2. To find an external load which may be placed
on a given member for any allowable stress or
strain ; or
3 . To select or design a certain member to
carry a given load within a given allowable stress
or strain .
Amember is useful only when it carries a load .
The load (force )stresses the member , which results
in a strain measured as elongation , contraction , de
flection , or angular twist .
Therefore , every member must be designed to
carry a certain type of load within a certain allow
able stress or within a certain allowable strain .
In designing within these allowables , the design
er should select the most efficient material and the
most efficient section , size and shape . The com
bined properties of the material and properties of
the section determine the ability of the member to
carry a given load .
The components of design formulas related to
each of these factors are charted in Table 1 .
 Systematic Design of Weldments / . -
1 2 3

TABLE 1 - FACTORS IN MACHINE DESIGN FORMULAS

GUIDE TO APPLICATION OF
MACHINE DESIGN FORMULAS

I. LOAD
Application Type Value
a. steady a. tension a. force , pounds
b . impact b . compression b . moment , inch - pounds
c. variable c . bending c . torque , inch - pounds
d . torsion

II . MEMBER
Material Section

a. tensile strength , ou a. area , A

b. compressive strength , 0c b. length , L

shear strength , T c . moment of inertia , I
d . fatigue strength ( stiffness factor in bending )
e. modulus of elasticity d. section modulus , s
(tension ), E . (strength factor in bending )
f . modulus of elasticity e. torsional resistance , R
(shear ) , Es (stiffness factor in twisting )
f. radius of gyration , r

AND
III

STRESS STRAIN
,

tensile stress resulting deformation

,
,
a

a
.
.

elongation or contraction

,
e
compressive stress vertical deflection
Oc
,

A
b

b
. .

. .

shear stress angular twist

,
,

o
c

THE LOAD FACTOR DESIGN THE MEMBER FACTOR DESIGN

IN
IN

7
6

.
.

FORMULAS FORMULAS
The given information about the load not The necessary information about themember
is

is
complete unless the type method application
of

incomplete unless both the property the material

of
,

and the value are fully known and the corresponding property the member sec

of
.

Type tion are known

.
1
.

Property material
of

Tension
1
.

.
a
.

Compression The material used member has certain

in
a

physical properties Allowable loads are deter

b
.

Bending mined by applying safety

of

factor the ultimate

to
c
.

strength tension compression or shear or

in
Torsion
,

strength ,
(

)
,
d

ses the yield strength

.

,,

the material
of

some cases
to
to

the yiel
. .
in
all

Application These values are used strength problems

all strength
in
2
.

elasticity all rigidity

of

The modulus used

is

in

Steady
problems
a
.

Impact
b
.

allowable tensile strength

=
0

Variable
.
c

allowable compressive strength

Oc

Value
3
.

allowable shear strength

=
T

Force pounds
in
,
a
.

modulus elasticity tension

of of

in
=
E

Moment inch ounds

in
,

Es
b
.

elasticity
-p

modulus shear
in
=

Torque inch pounds

in
,
c

-
.
 . -
1 2 4 / Design Approach
Property

of
Notice that the rigidity of ability
member its abilit

its
section a

2
.

(
resist deflection is meer
) in bending
measured by the

is
The shape and size to

of
member cross section

's
product of its modulus of elasticity ( E ) and its

ints
affect its performance This influence measured modulusending

is
All steels have the same

.
by one several properties moment of of inertia ( I ) .

of

of
the section The ment

.
section area the critical property when the load modulus of elasticity ( E ) ; therefore , it is quickly

is
's
axial seen that a high - strength alloy steel will not improve
or
shear
is

.
the stiffness of a member .
area of cross section
=
A

-
unsupported length

of
member
AND STRAIN FACTORS
=

STRESS

IN
L

8
.
section modulus strength factor when mem DESIGN FORMULAS
=

,
S

ber used as
is

a beam

rigidity
of

or
moment inertia stiffness Stress and strain are given the following
=

in
I

factor when member used as

is
beam terms

:
torsional resistance Stress
=
R

1
.
performance member predetermined
of

The is
a

tensile stress

0i
=
by the product the appropriate property
of

of of
the
material and the corresponding property compressive stress

Oc
the

=
section Since the engineer designs for strength shear stress
, .

=
T
for rigidity these properties
or

only addition
in

are grouped as follows Strain unit movement inches per linear

is is
:

a
.

(
which usually expressed as over all

an
Strength Rigidity inch

-
as
movement follows
0X

:
tension tension or
X
A
E
A

(
(

or

or
compression elongation contraction tension

,
e
compression
)
Oc

compression
X
A
(

Es

shear shear vertical deflection bending or shear

X
A
T

A
(

,
=
A
ending ending angular twist
01

torsion
E

)
I

=
S
x

,
)

(b
(b

bending
Es
Oc

torsion
R
X

*
S

(
(

LEESBRADNER THE
-

GRANDABO LEESBGADNER
CLEVELAND
DHO
USA

Efficient steel weldments contribute much Castings were dominant earlier version
in
of

profitability
of

modern gear hobber multi spindle gear hobber

to

.
 SECTION .
1 3

Problem Definition

1. THE IMPORTANCE OF PROBLEM DEFINITION In comparing two or more designs , if similar

sections are used and the outside dimensions in
Before applying the various formulas for pro cluding the depth are the same , the values of the
blem solutions , the problem itself must be analyzed section area (A ), the moment of inertia (I) and the
carefully and clearly stated . This is not always ob
section modulus for the stress on the bottom surface
vious , and trying to solve the wrong problem can (S ) will vary as the thickness of the section . This
quickly lead to inefficient designs . relationship does not hold true in the strictest
For example , the brake
of an automobile stops sense , but from a practical standpoint is very close
the wheel from rotating and causes the auto to come and sufficient for most purposes . Notice this re
to rest . However , this analysis of the problem does lationship in the two similar sections of Figure 1.
not indicate what the actual design requirements
are ; and brakes developed from this analysis might - 20 " 20 " -

not operate satisfactorily .

proper approach would be to realize that the
The 1

brake absorbs the kinetic energy of the moving auto .

When the energy absorbed by the brake just equals
the kinetic energy of the moving auto , the auto comes
to rest ( velocity = zero ) . The engineer will now
design a brake to absorb a given amount of energy t = 1 in . t = 1 / 2 in . = 50 %
in a given length of time without overheating , etc . A .
= 38 0 in ? . A .
= 19 5 in ? . = 51 3 % . of property
He has something definite on which to base his de
sign , and it will result in an efficient unit. 1 = 359 7 in 4 . . I .
= 193 8 in 4 = 52 4 %. . / of section
at left
S .
= 50 5 in . S .
= 23 9 in .' = 47 3 % .
The identification and evaluation of load con
ditions essential to maintaining product perform
For

is Fig . 1 sections having the same con

ance while achieving maximum manufacturing
figuration and outside dimensions the

,
economies .

of
section modulus varies the thickness
as

the section
.

LOAD ANALYSIS
2
.

placed
on

When load member stress and

is

,
a

strain result Stress the internal resistance The following problems serve illustrate
is

to

the
to
.

the applied force give

of

Strain the amount importance load analysis

is

of
.

"

"

or deformation caused by de
as

this stress such

,

up

fabricating plant sets automatic welding

an

flection bending elongation tension contrac

A
in
in

Figure with the work moving

on

compression and angular twist head boom

,

,
2
a

tion torsion
in

in
,

on
.

beneath track later date

is
of at

Now
it

it
,

,
a

a
.

The property of the section which indicates how necessary extend the length this boom because
to

well the member serves as for strength the larger tanks being fabricated
of

beam
,
a

.
of

its section modulus The formulas Table

is

defining his problem the engineer recognizes

(S
.
)

that the section moduli for two designs of

In

show simple cantilever beam with concentrated

at as

equivalent strength vary inversely as their allow this

a

Knowing the weight

of

load the outer end the

.

able tensile strengths

automatic welding head with its wire reel and flux
.

is of ,
up

The property allowable vertical deflection

an
of

the section which indicates how he then sets

well beam for rigidity
as

the member serves about under this load Even though there
is
,

1
8
a

.
"

its moment inertia The formulas below show no known horizontal force applied
he

this beam
of

to

of ,
.
of (
I)

that the moments inertia for two designs of assumes this could possibly reach about the
1
4
/

equivalent rigidity vary inversely their moduli some hor

as

vertical force He does this build

to

in
.

elasticity izontal stability

of

.
(
)
.
 . -
1 3 2 / Design Approach

Cross - section of boom

Fig . 2 A long cantilever beam
subjected to little horizontal
cause more movement
The result is a simple box section , deeper than
it is wide. Now , how does this perform ?
When the welding head is mounted onto the end
of the new boom , the boom deflects downward 1 / 8 " ,
and there it will remain for the next 20 years until
it is replaced or moved to another location . During
the operation of the welding head , the fixture may
vibrate slightly , perhaps from being accidentally
bumped by the operator , perhaps from a crane
passing overhead and shaking the building frame
work . At any rate , this boom will probably vibrate
a greater distance horizontally than vertically , be
cause the moment of inertia about the vertical y - y
axis ( Iy ) is much less than that about the hor
carrying a welding head on the unsupported end is
force ; yet actual vibration from service conditions may
in the horizontal direction than the vertical .
izontal x - x axis ( Ix ). If the speed of travel of
welding is not too great, the welding head will
automatically adjust vertically to maintain constant
arc length . There is no such control for horizontal
vibrations .
Perhaps the real design problem here is to
maintain proper stiffness against possible move
ment of the boom , which is greatest in the hor
izontal direction . This might result in a different
section of boom than previously designed . It
would probably look like the original cross - section
( Fig . 2 ) rotated 90° on its longitudinal centerline .
* *

TABLE 1 - FORMULAS FOR EQUIVALENT STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY

For Designs of Equivalent Strength in Bending

and

M = KPL, oS where
M
=

beam constant
=
K

therefore
:

moment
M
=

OS KPL
=

load
=
P

Comparing two designs carry

to

length
of

beam
=
L

the same load

P

bending stress
):
(

=
o

Ki
L2
P2
01

01
S2

K2
Si
=

=
P

section modulus
L
.

=
=

c
S

)
(

I/
for
or

equivalent strength
,

-
01

02
S2
Si
=

For Designs Equivalent Rigidity Bending

of

in

KPL where
EI
-
A

deflection
= =
E A

Comparing two designs modulus elasticity

of

carry the same

to

load with the same deflection tension

P
,

A
(
)

)
L23 :
(
)

Ki K2
of
E2P2

moment
Li Li

Li3 inertia
m

=
K
.

n
P

A
_

=_
..

I
A2

Ei
Iz
for

equivalent rigidity
or
Ei ,

–
Ez
12
I1
=
 Problem Definition / 1 .3 - 3

211
- 1.2 " —

Section WINTTINNIT
property
t = .06 "

1. 4

.
0 44

0. 26

the
Fig . 3 When the distance neutral axis the outer fiber increases faster

to
from

than the resulting moment of inertia the section modulus trength decreases

.
(s
Usually the designer interested much
as
most cases when given section beefed
in
is

is
In

"
up
strength and stiffness as he can economically ob

of
increase its stiffness moment inertia

to

,
,
”

I)
tain Yet the design problem properly de its strength will automatically increase section
if

is
,

(
.

fined certain amount of flexibility may have modulus that the engineer seldom checks the

so
to
,

,
a

S
)
be designed into the member For example some resulting section modulus There are exceptions
,
.

.
parts farm implements must have some flexibility
of

Figure
example stiff

of
the the addition
In

,
4
usage
up
to

stand under constant

inertia stiff

of
.

eners increases the moment

to (B
)

(
the plate

of
For engineer has designed
example simple ness yet the section
an

134

of ;
A
,

(
)
a

flat bar Under load has modulus strength only 67 the plate The

is
beam from

%
it
,
4

2
a

.
(

)
of 1/

.
"

"

deflection He believes this should be reason for this very simple yet quite often

is
0016

is
,
a

, .

.
so "

made stronger he designs formed channel overlooked Section modulus equal the

is

to
S
a

of .

(
)
“

"

section from gage steel Under the same load moment inertia divided by the distance from
16

I()
. -

deflects only 0012 This appears be sub the neutral axis the outer fiber
to

to
it

c
(
).
.
"

stantial improvement but when the beam acci

is

for
;

flat
to
dentally overloaded The distance the outer fiber the
the engineer surprised

)
(c
is

to
,

find that his stronger beam actually the weaker

is
"

"

beam The confusion results from his hazy concept

.

strong clear understanding

of

. of

of

instead the
,

a
“

"

properties
of

section
a

ha
The property
of

section which indicates its

MI
a

resistance bending the moment inertia

of
to

is

.
(
I)

The property which indicates its strength bending

YŤ
in

the section modulus Using the original flat

is

S
(
).

bar basis its properties are assigned factor

as

SV
,

-
a

16
see Figure Therefore the redesign has
KV
of

D
B

"
,
;

3
4
/
"
1

3
.

relative properties as shown

"
.

The first test for vertical deflection using

,

Moment
a

Section Relative
gage dial make the measurement depended only
to

Weight
of
,

Section Inertia Modulus

|

The new channel sec

531 TTTTTT
on

of

the moment inertia Ibs Rigidity Strength Weight

ft
.
)
(I

the original
of

of

times that
an

tion has value

95 41

39 38
,
1
.4

A
I

which accounts for the reduction deflection from

in

34

67

05
B

.5

1
.

0016 0012 second test under overload

to

,
A
.

.
"

on "

depended only the section modulus The new

% (S
).

67
34
an

of

of

channel section has value

,
SS

44 that the
-
=

=
.
1

1
S

flat bar which accounts for the resulting bending

,

stress far exceeding the yield point the material

of

Fig Although not usually the case the

.

buckling
of

the new section occurred

.

Thus
In
,

be
.

contrast the bending stress the original flat bar section modulus strength may lowered
in

)
,

was held much below the yield point and that mem when section redesigned for increased
is
a
,

of

ber still serving its purpose inertia rigidity

is

moment
.
(

)
.
 . -
1 3 4 / Design Approach
plate is one - half of the plate thickness , or 3 / 8 " . By in turn would decrease the inertia forces and reduce
the addition of 3 / 8 " high stiffeners to each side of the lever ' s deflection . They carried this to the point
the plate , this distance (c ) is doubled ; yet the mo of ordering a new lever made of aluminum for
ment of inertia has increased to only 134 % that of testing . At this point, one of the men took his
the original plate . The point to remember is this : handbook and showed the following :
any time the distance to the outer fiber increases
at a faster rate than the resulting moment of inertia , - KF 13 ma
the section modulus (strength ) will always be lower . ΕΙ and F =

might argue that although this partic

Someone
therefore :
ular member with stiffener ( B ) would reach yield
stress at the outer fiber of the stiffener sooner ,
this stiffener would ultimately yield plastically , KmaL3
until the surface of the plate would reach yield , and
A =
A =
EI
this condition would then be identical with the plate
where :
without stiffeners ( A ) . This is true especially with
steel which is ductile . A = deflection
It would not be true , however , if this member K = beam constant
were subjected to fatigue or repeated loading .
mass
Since the ultimate fatigue strength would probably
m =

be lower than the yield strength , the stiffener would a = acceleration or deceleration
have no opportunity to yield , but would crack when
E = modulus of elasticity (tension )
this fatigue strength and stress were reached . This
particular member with the stiffeners ( B ) , under I = moment of inertia
these conditions , would be weaker . If some brittle length
L =
material were used , for example cast iron , this
particular member with the stiffeners ( B ) would be Since :
weaker than that with no stiffeners (A ) because the
density of steel = 7 9 .
material does not have the ability to yield .
density of aluminum = 2 .8
MATERIAL SELECTION
of steel
3

~ 106
.

E = 30

After load conditions are established and eval E of aluminum = 10 .3 x 10°

or

uated for member the entire machine the next

a

step selecting the right material and using its inserting the ratios of these values ( steel to alumi
is

properties effectively To achieve effective use the num ) into the above deflection formula :
.

designer usually establishes the most important

design requirement strength or rigidity and picks
(1)(2.9)(1)(1):
(

the material which will most economically answer

.
Aal = Ast
these requirements 103 X
/ 106
.

)
)1(
30

For machine tool company exper

example 106
x
|
;
a

of

imented with bases different steels learn

to

if

03

Aal Asi
=

higher strength steel might result

1

more rigid
.
in
a

base Company engineers were surprised ob Thus the aluminum lever designed for equiv
to

,
.

serve they all had the same deflection under the alent rigidity would actually have resulted de
in
a

This was because the property

of

same load
03
of

of

flection times that the steel lever The

a
.

1
.

.
(

material which indicates its rigidity its modulus elasticity

of

lower modulus aluminum cancelled

is

of

elasticity and all steels have the same modulus

of of

out its weight advantage The problem was solved

,

.)

elasticity therefore the same rigidity by redesign the steel lever and not by sub
of

and
.

stituting another material

*

company was experiencing some dif

*
*

Another
ficulty with Steel has greater strength than any other com
at

lever which operated very high

a

speeds The engineers reasoned the problem mercially available material still more section
in
a

If
.

very logical manner The actual load strength required higher strength alloy steel
on

this lever
is

,
.

was very low the forces being due mainly inertia may be used instead con
of

the usual machine

or
to
,

forces the mass the lever times its acceleration

of

struction steels
,

or deceleration
Steel has greater rigidity
or
.

stiffness than any

The engineers decided that lighter metal other commercially available material This prop
if
a

could be used the mass would be decreased

of

This erty measured terms the material modulus

,

in
is
.

's
 Problem Definition / 1. 3 – 5

of elasticity . Figure 5 illustrates the relative stiff than a corresponding section of aluminum or
ness of several commercial metals . All samples magnesium , provided the steel section can have the
have the same section and are loaded so that all same depth .
deflect the same amount . The relative weights on Since aluminum ' s modulus elasticity is only
the samples indicate how the materials differ in 34 . 4 % that of steel , it requires
of
a moment of is
of inertia
their stiffness or modulus of elasticity . 2 . 9 times that of steel or a a sesi
moment
sectional area approxi
or
Even though aluminum and magnesium are light
er than steel, their moduli of elasticity are less
ly 2 9 . that of steel for equivalent rigid
times steel
mately 2 . 9 times
ity . With a density 35 . 4 % that of steel , the alumi
than that of steel by a greater ratio . Aluminum has num section would have an over - all weight of 1 . 03
a density 35 . 4 % that of steel , yet its modulus of times that of steel .
elasticity is only 34 . 4 % of steel ' s . Magnesium has weight for weight , mild steel is
Conclusion :
a density of 22 . 8 % that of steel , but a modulus of
still the lightest , most economical metal for equiv
elasticity only 21 . 6 % of steel ' s . A steel section - -
alent rigidity .
for the same stiffness or rigidity - - will weigh less

- CAST
BRONZE

IRON
MAGNESIUM
STEEL

ALUMINUM

Fig Comparative Steel supports

of

stiffnessvarious materials
5
.

greater weight for same deflection other materials

as

.
 .
1 3 –6 / Design Approach

all

The inherent rigidity of steel welded presses are essen

-

tial maintaining parallelism bolster faces resulting

of
in

long die life

in

.
 SECTION 1. 4

Designer 's Guide

to Efficient Use of Steel

1 . DESIGN FOR EFFICIENT USE OF STEEL ( 13 ) Welding procedure

The efficient use of steel in machinery calls (14 ) Control and correction of distortion
for many design decisions - - some major , some Cleaning
( 15 ) and inspection
minor . Experienced designers who produce suc
cessful designs follow a definite sequence in doing Some of these guideposts refer to manufacturing .
so . Many decisions are proposed , accepted or re These are important to the designer in evaluating
jected subconsciously . The process is essentially the producibility of a proposed design , and in con
the same as that involved in the creative design of tributing more fully to product planning sessions .
any product or component . Questions to ask in connection with each of these
check points are given on following pages .
This section presents the major design and
fabrication considerations in an easily - followed
sequence . The sequence will serve both as an TV List No . 1 OGNITION OF PROBLEM
introduction as well as later reference for the young
engineer , or the more experienced engineer who 1. Is this an entirely new machine , or a redesign
hasn ' t yet had the opportunity to use steel or weld of a present machine ?
ments extensively in structural members ofmach
inery . The sequence is presented as a series of If a redesign problem , should the conversion
2.
to steel be made a part at a time or the entire mach
checklists that constitute a practical systems ap
ine designed as a whole new approach to meeting the
proach to designing for maximum economy and the
basic requirements ?
best functional designs producible under given
manufacturing conditions . 3 . What are the primary and secondary func
tions of the proposed machine ?
4 . Relate every detail of existing and proposed
TO

DESIGNER GUIDE EFFICIENT USE OF

2

'S
.

designs to performance of the machine . Continue to

STEEL
do so as the proposed design develops and takes
Following master check list help guide de shape .
to
is
a

signers through the system approach efficiently

to

using the properties steel achieve economy and

of

to

OF
No
List

improve functions machinery The list appli V ANALYSIS PRESENT DESIGN

.
2
is
in

either designing one part

at

or

cable time
to

de
a

signing the entire machine the machine larger heavier more rigid
Is

,
1
.
.

of
or

capable longer life than required

?

Recognition
of

the problem
the de
(1

service records reveal

as
)

do

What
to
2
.

Analysis the present design mand for replacement parts Examine any available
of
(2
)

history failures warranty claims and owner

. of

Determination load conditions

of

complaints Perhaps the machine was overdesigned

(3
)

Major design considerations some respects while other members may need
to
in

,
(4
)

up

Layout be beefed
.
(5
)

What parts must remain interchangeable

so

Plate preparation
to 3
.
(6
)

as meet future need for replacement parts for

Special sections and forming machines presently service Be careful that any
in
(7
)

joint design such reasoning sound the extreme could

In
is

it
,

Welded
.

retard modernization of design for years and permit

(8
)

of

Size and amount welds competition capture your original equipment

to
(9
)10 )

subassemblies market
of of

Use
.
(

What do your customers say about the

4
11

jigs and positioners

.

Use fixtures
,

machine And what does your sales force think

(
)

is
,
?

Assembly right or wrong with

12

it
(
)

?
. -
1 4 2 / Design Approach

major casting which might be made integral with the

weldment ?

10 . If the new design is to be based on present

cast design , are the present thicknesses of various
sections actually required for strength , rigidity or
functional reasons ? Or , did foundry practice make
these necessary ?

y List No . 3 DETERMINING LOAD

It is first necessary to define what work the
machine must do ; then , what conditions of service
may cause overloads or vibration . From such in
formation , the load on individual members can be
Fig . 1 Same load stresses simply supported determined .
beam almost to yield , while rigidly support In starting point from which or to
seeking a
ed beam resists bending . which calculated , the designer may
loading can be
find one or more of the following practical methods
5 . What features of the present design must be useful :
retained
From the motor horsepower and speed , de
?
1.
6 . What new features must be added ? termine the torque ( in inch - pounds ) on a shaft or
revolving part .
7. other men in your company had
Have you or
any new ideas which they wanted to use on this 2 . Calculate in pounds the force on machine
machine but haven ' t been able to because the design member created by the dead weight of parts .
was frozen ? Now would be the time to review these
suggestions .
3. Load on the members of a hoist or lift truck
can be figured back from the load required to tilt
8 . Is the appearance dated , non - functional ? the machine .

If the new design is to be based on present

9. 4. On a shovel or ditch digger , for example , the
cast design , are there any parts now attached to a maximum strengthof critical cables proven satis
equal

Fig Proper use

[
(

2
.
of

stiffeners and
Thesestiffeners closed sections
ri
as

not effective
resisting increase the
in

of

compressive loads gidity members

equal
be

yet must usedbecause

coringproblem casting and frames
of

in

frame approximatelyequal
to
of

Torsionalresistance
is
of

of

sum resistance individual members

with completefreedom
in

designof weldments the

,

most effective stiffeners

be

may used

BEST GOOD
Closedsectionsbestfor resistingtorsion Round
,

sectionsarebetter than rectangularbecause

shearstresses
areuniformaroundcircumference
 Designer' s Guide to Efficient Use of Steel / 1.4 - 3

factory in service can be used to work back to the

load on machine parts .
5 . The maximum force required to shear a
critical pin may be used as a starting point .

6. satisfactory starting point cannot be

If a
found , designfor an assumed load and adjust from
experience and test.

List No MAJOR DESIGN FACTORS

4
V

.
|

developing design the designer seldom

is
In

,
a

adhere strictly separate sequence

of
able
to

to
a

design steps into which the material here has been

,

grouped The designer thoughts must constantly

's
.

refer both forward and backward progresses

as
he
through the sequence towards the finaldesign This

.
constant cross reference frequently generates new
-

ideas relating machine function appearance

,
a

's

and cost
.

When the designer this pure design stage

at
is

,
-

will lay out the de

he

he

must think ahead how

to

sign for production and how these decisions will

affect manufacturing costs He must be thinking
.

how his decision will ac

be

even further ahead

of to

cepted by the user the machine The function

,
.

HIGH

the appearance the cost will eventually be sub

,

mitted the judgment of the customer who decides

to

or

whether buy not buy the machine

to

to

The following design factors determine the per

the design hence the section proper
of

formance
,
;

ties and dimensions of the member They demand

.

careful consideration insure maximum design Fig Shroud bands and nozzle vanes are
to

3
.

economy stainless welded mild steel web

to
405
.

.
Design should satisfy strength and stiffness
diagonal bracing for
1
.

requirements Overdesign costs money Use closed sections or

9
.

extra
in

torsion twisting closed section for example

.

material welding and handling costs

,

,
A
(

).

may be several times better than

,

open section
an
.

Check safety factor being used Past expe Fig

2

2
(
.

.
).

performance might indicate that

.. of

rience set
is

Specify non premium grades of steel where

it

10

unnecessary expense
-
.

too high
at

ever possible Remember that higher carbon and

..

Specify appearance required Appearance alloy steels require preheating and frequently
,
3
.

for its own sake usually increases cost more than postheating which are added cost items
,

necessary Many welds are completely hidden from

Place higher grades steel only where re
.

of
11

not likely
.

view The weldor know which welds

is

to

quired
of

and use mild steel for rest structure

.

are critical appearance wise and which are not

,

Fig
-

unless print specifies them

3
(

.
).
.

Remember that high strength steels and

12

code work restrictions ascertain

-
.

check
to
If

other premium materials are not available

4

as
.

in

that most economical method allowed by code

is

range standard mill shapes from stock

of

wide
,

,
a

being used
as the lower priced mild steels
.

Use deep sections resist bending

to

viz wear resis

only surface properties
5
.

13

If

-
.

.
(

higher priced or difficult weld ma

of

tance
to

Symmetrical sections are more efficient for

a

-
-
)
6
.

resistance bending terial are needed consider using mild steel base
,
to

and hardsurfacing obtain the desired properties

.

to

beams rigid
of

Weld ends supports This Fig

( to
7
.

4
.
.
(

increases strength and stiffness Fig

1
)
.
.

Consider first standard rolled

of
15

the use
will provide rigid
.
of

Proper use stiffeners sections Fig These require less forming and
8
.

5
.
.
ity

with less weight Fig welding

2
(

.
).

.
. -
1 4 4 / Design Approach

16 . Choose sections according to a planned

factory stock list.
17. When delivery time is short or production is
low , use plate and bar sizes in stock or easy to get .
18 . For maximum economy, use plate and bar
sizes standardized for your own or other industries .
19 . If bar or plate surface must be machined or
ground or hardsurfaced , dimension the section so
that initial plate and bar sizes can be readily ob
tained from plant or vendor inventory (Fig . 6 ) .
20 . Provide maintenance accessibility . Do not
bury a bearing support or other critical wear point
within a closed -box weldment .
21 . Sometimes sections can be designed round so
that automatic welding can be used more advanta
geously ( Fig . 7 ) .
22 . On special machines especially , consider
possibility of economies in using commercially
Fig . 4 Cutting edge on mild steel grader blade available standard index tables , way units , heads ,
is hardsurfaced with wear - resistant alloy . columns , and chassis .

08

Fig . 5 A great vari

Mn .
ety of standard rolled
shapes are available
for economical ma
*
VIII chine designs .
1111111

VUU

INI 1111111
UN

CUA
011111

10
1111111
111

00012
11107
000

000

162

WMN
NIMIZ
 Designer 's Guide to Efficient Use of Steel / . -
1 4 5

- --
- --
--

finish 2 finish it
By using a 2" thick bar,
In some typesof steel, the

/8 top

/8 be
next larger thickness this surfacemay finished

off
with only

to
available is 2 1/ 4" , this machined

1
7

1
"

"

.
would require 1/ 4" tobe
machinedoff

Fig Standard rolled bars are economical when section dimensioned

is
6
.

for minimum finishing .

Check tolerances and press fits first speci

No

List LAYOUT

. 3.
economically hold
.
V

!
5

fied Shop may not be able

to
the designer familiar only with castings the Close tolerances and fits may not be
To

,
them

.
problems laying out weldment for production
of

required
a

.
may seem complex because the many possibil
is of

Lay out for fewer number pieces Fig

of
ties This variety however welded de
of

8
one

)
.

.
.
,

This will reduce assembly time and amount of

's .

sign advantages presents many opportunities

It
.

welding
for savings
.
.

Lay out parts various sizes and shapes

or of

to
for

of

Design easy handling materials

5
.

and
1
.

be nested when cut stamped as minimize

to
so
for inexpensive

,
tooling
scrap Fig
.

9
.
.
(

)
Check with shop for ideas where shop
ex
2
.

possible modify shape scrap

of
perience can contribute and size
or

,
better methods
If
6

cost
to

that material may used later for

be
so

savings cutouts
this before firming design
Do

parts
.

other pads stiffeners gear blanks etc

,
,
,

.
:

Fig
If 10
(

)
.

standard rolled shape section not

is
to
7

-
-
.

available consider these choices large

,

(a

a
)
:
plate flame cut developed blank size and then
to
-

formed up into section long flat bar stock

;
(b
)

welded together special order rolled to

or
;

(c
)

-
the economy which will depend
of

shape section
,

upon the footage involved the number operations of

,

saved and whether the contour can be developed by

,

standard mill rolls

.

ODOOD
PreviousDesign Improved
21

Pieces
Pieces
3

Fig Design sections for circular Fig Design simplicity

or

can save much

8
7
.

straight seams permit automatic welding welding

to

and assembly time

.

.
. -
1 4 6 / Design Approach

8. For heavy rings , cut segments from plate

and nest so that little scrap is produced ( Fig . 11) .
Welding small blanks or pieces of scrap may

HALCU
9.
eliminate extensive cutting from plate , machining ,
and loss of material (Fig . 12 ).

No

IV
List PLATE PREPARATION

6
.
Cutting the basic step fabricating weld

is

in

a
ment Many different methods are available and

,
.
the most economical will be determined by balanc
ing several factors material section quality re

,
:
-
-
-
quired and equipment available The decision

is
,

.
generally one economy

of

.
Consider the proper method producing

of
1
.
weldment blanks as which most economical

to

is
,
for the quantity and quality required principally

:
Flame cutting

(a
Lay out sections they can
so

-
be

nested reducescrap loss

to

Shearing

(b
)
Free
Sawing

c
(
)
this

Cut like this

Cun
like

Punch press blanking

d
(
)
looola
Nibbling
Open
up

(e
)
Open
up

Lathe cut off for bar and tube stock

(f
)

)
Factor into the above evaluation the influ

,
2
.

Result deeper more rigid section

,
A
:

quality
of
p and

on

of
method

fit
ence edge for

-u
for

Fig Good design makes possible whether method can also provide bevel required
it

if
9
.

)
production for groove joints
of

make maximum use stock

to

Use rectangular cutoutsfor

pads, stiffeners etc
,

for

Fig Plan
10
.

cut out scrap

-

sections
be
to

CO2 used pads

for
,

stiffeners
or
,

less welding
C

Flamecut rings fromthick plate other parts

.
Try

reducescrap loss
to

to

useinner disc
 Designer 's Guide to Efficient Use of Steel / 1. 4 - 7

Fig . 11 Cut segments heavy ring

for
from

thick plate and nest reduce scrap

to

.
Consider whether dimensioning re
of
blank
3
.

quires stock allowance for later preparation

of
edge
and groove
.

When proposing combine cutting

of
blank
of to
4
.

size and preparation for welding remem edge

to

ber that not allwelds are continuous continuously

A
.

beveled edge that not continuously welded may be

is

undesirable exposed joints

on

plate prepara
or

For single bevel single

V
5

tip-

-
.

tion use single flame cutting torch Fig Forming

,

of
13
corner can often save
-

For double bevel or double plate prepara .

material fabricating and welding costs

,
V
6

.
- -

-
.

tip

use multiple
so

tion flame cutting torch this

,

-
of

can be done one pass the cutting machine

in

plate planer

of or
available thick plate Consider arc air gouging flame gouging
is

is
,
If
7

,
a
.

-
.

sometimes prepared with groove because for back pass preparation

or

chipping instead
U

,
a
J

-
requires less weld metal machining bevel both edges prior welding
to

to
it

.
kumu
AU

Fig Efficient
12
.

welding can save

material costs
,

machining costs and

,

over all production

. -

by

Original Stock Material Soved Welding

costs
PODU

--
-
F

Weld barstogetherinstead cuttingfromsolid plate welding

of

if
,

cost less thanscrapsaved.

is

on up

by

compositesections welding
to

Build cut
down machiningand material costs

Hub with integralkey

be

produced fromlaminations
of

Stiffenerscan made flat

welded together plate barswelded together
or
 . - 8 / Design
1 4 Approach

IV List NoFORMING AND SPECIAL 4 . Determine whether there would be any saving

7
.
by forming round or square tubes or rings , instead
SECTIONS
of buying commercial tubing .
The second major step fabricating weldment

in

a
generally forming The proper use forming Put bend in flat plate sections

of
5. to increase
is

.
can greatly reduce the cost weldment by elim

, of
stiffness ( Fig . 15 ) .

a
inating welds and very often numerous machining
,
operations Several factors determine the best
.

forming thickness over all dimensions

of

method

is ,
. -
, :

production volume and tolerances Cost again

Fig
Flange

15

on
the final factor

.
flat
.

plate
Consider using the following forming increases
1
.

stiffness
methods

.
:

Press brake
a
(
)

Bending rolls
b
(
)

Roll forming
c
(
)

Tangent bending and contour ending

d
(
)

-b

Flanging and dishing

e
(
)

Press die forming and drawing

)

-
(f

Consider whether corner should be bent or

2

a
.

up

formed rather than welded from two pieces

Press indentations plate act as ribs in

to
in
Fig
13

6
.
of adding needed stiffeners
(

).

stead reduce vibration

to
Consider possible saving rolling ring Fib
16
in
3

a
.

.
(

)
cutting from plate Fig
of

14

instead

up
stiffener by bending of
.

.
(

Gain the edge

7

a
.

a
sheet before welding the next sheet Fig

17
to
it

.
(

)
Fig Roll rings Consider using corrugated sheet for extra
14

8
.
.

instead cutting stiffness

of

from heavy plate Consider whether incorporating steel cast

.

a
.

forging complicated
or

ing the weldment for

in

a
section will simplify the design problem and cost

of
manufacture
.

Fig
18
Use minimum
.

amount of weld met

in
al

Shaded areas
.

dicate amount of
weld metal

daha
added
Concave Convex 45° flat .
Automatic welding
K
&

Manual Automatic

eliminates need for

much beveling
.

High currentsand slowtravel

to

depositrequiredmetal will cause

burn thru
-
 Designer ' s Guide to Efficient Use of Steel / 1.4 - 9

Fig . 16 Press in
dentation in flat
pane I increases
stiffness .

10 . A small amount of hardsurfacing alloy can be

applied by welding where it will do the most good ,
instead of using expensive material throughout the Fig . Bending up edge of sheet before
17
section .
welding to next sheet provides stiffener .
Wherever flanges , lips , ears or tongues are
11 .
needed , consider building them up by welding rather joints by using automatic submerged - arc welding
than using forgings or considerable machining . which has a deep - penetration arc characteristic
( Fig . 18 , top left ) .

V List No . 8 ) WELDED JOINT DESIGN 3 . Use minimum root opening and included angle
in order to reduce filler metal required (Fig . 18 ,
The type of joint should be selected primarily on
top left ) .
the basis of load requirements . Once , however , the
type is selected , variables in design and layout can 4. On thick plate , use double - V instead of single
result in startling cost reductions or cost increases . V to reduce the amount ofweld metal ( Fig . 18 , left) .
1. Select joint requiring a minimum amount of 5 . Sometimes a single weld may be used to join
weld filler metal . three parts (Fig . 18 , bottom left ).
2 . Eliminate beveling on a large percentage of 6 . Reduce the convexity of fillet welds . A 45°

Electrodemustbe held close to 450

when making thesefillets

n= =
=
-- ==

--
Fig . Design must =
19 =
allow access to joint =

--
for welding . >
Try avoid placing pipe joints
to

so

nearwall thatone ortwo

sides areinaccesible These
be

weldsmust madewith bent

electrodesandmirror

Easy specify
to

weld all around"

- D
"
the

Easyto draw, but 2ndweld but =

--
--
-
-
to

will be hard make

--
to

Too close side allow

to

proper electrodepositioning Pipe

.

May be OK for averagework

but bad for leakproofwelding

Easy
Wall
Very difficult
 . -
1 4 10 / Design Approach

flat fillet , very slightly convex , is the most economi nished . The allowables used by the designer have a
cal and reliable shape (Fig . 18 , top right ) . built - in safety factor . Don ' t add still another safety
joints that create extremely deep factor .
7 . Avoid
grooves . The joint formed by the meeting of a 3. The leg size of fillet welds is especially im
portant , since the area or amount of weld fill re
Outubing
or ,
round or tubing with a flat surface of another round
tubing , is one example . This presents two pro
is one quired increases as the square of the increase in leg
cedure problems ; getting
getting proper fusion to the root size .
pro
and not burning through the thin wall while filling
thin wal
4 . Always make certain in manual welding that
the joint with weld metal ( Figure 18 ) . you do not specify a 3 / 8 " horizontal fillet if a 5 / 16 "
8 . Design joint for easy accessibility for weld fillet will do . The 3 / 8 " horizontal fillet requires at
ing ( Fig . 19 ) . Consider availability of welding least two passes to guarantee size with a 44 % in
positioners . crease in cost (Fig . 20 , top left ) .
5 . For equivalent strength , longer fillet welds
having a smaller leg size are usually less costly
V List No . 9 WELD SIZE AND AMOUNT than heavy intermittent welds (Fig . 18 , top right ) .
Overwelding is easy to do and difficult to control . Joint length may influence the relationship .
It can be very costly and , unfortunately , it is a
6. Sometimes , especially under light - load or
common error of both design and production . Con
no - load conditions , intermittent fillet welds can be
trol begins with design , butmust be carried through
used in place of a continuous weld of the same leg
out the assembly and welding operations . The fol
lowing are basic guides : size , thus reducing cost (Fig . 20 , center right) .
7. Convert several short manual welds into one
Be sure to use the proper amount of welding - -
1.
continuous weld for automatic welding .
not too much and not too little . Excessive weld size
is costly . 8. Place the weld in the section with the least
Specify by print or Standard Shop Practice thickness , and base the weld size on the thinner plate .
2.
that only the needed amount of weld should be fur 9 . Place the weld on the shortest seam . If there

44% more
22222 One - half the
weld metal
weld metal - Twice the
only 20% Gauge samestrength
weld metal -
stronger r concave
welds samestrength

W
forBig

Gauge
convex welds
<
<

W
<
<
<
<
<

Measuringsize CONVEX
of

<
&

<
<

CONCAVE fillet welds

<
W

in

both cases
=
3
"8
/

of

Location cut out

-
for

hole automatic
welding
of

Location
cut out hole
-
for

manual
welding
be

Fig Overwelding costly and should avoided

20

is
.

.
 - --

Designer ' s Guide to Efficient Use of Steel / 1. 4 - 11

is a cut - out section , place the welded seam at the

cutout and save on the length of welding . On the
5 . Tooling must have means for quick clamping
and releasing of work .
other hand , in automatic welding it may be better to
place the joint away from the cut - out area to permit 6 . Tooling must be easy to load and unload .
making one continuous seam ( Fig . 20 , lower right ).
. Pre - camber
7 can be built into the tool for con
10 . Stiffeners or diaphragms do not need much trol of distortion .
welding ; therefore , they are often overwelded . Re
8. factor can be increased by pro
Operating
duce the weld leg size or length of weld if possible . viding two jigs, so that helper can load one while
11 . Don ' t overweld the flange to web of beam sec other is being welded .
tions . The weld takes very little load . (Fig . 20 ,
9 . Welding positioners facilitate maximum
lower left ) . welding in the flat downhand position , allowing use
12 . Keeping the amount of welding to a minimum of larger electrodes and automatic welding for
will minimize distortion , internal stress , hence re faster welding speeds .
duce the need for stress - relieving and straightening .

No
| No . List ASSEMBLY

12
V List 10 USE OF SUBASSEMBLIES

.
oil rust dirt before welding

of
visualizing assembly procedure , the designer Clean work

,
1
In

.
should break the proposed machine down into sub reduce troubles

to

.
assemblies several different ways to determine Determine any need for preheat interpass

,
2
which , if any , will offer some of the following cost

.
and postheat temperatures not normally required

;
savings :
for welding the mild steels commonly used

in
1. Spreads work out, if machine structure is machinery construction Low ydrogen electrodes

-h
large or complex . More men can work on whole job . will reduce any preheat requirements

.
This means shorter delivery time . The need for preheat may affect numerous
3
.

tooling loading
for

up
2 . Usually provides better access welding decisions relative

fit
etc

to

,
-

.
.

up
Reduces the possibility lock fit Improve necessary Gaps
of

or

distortion Check

if
4

-
.

.
3
up.

stresses which might occur whole assembly are costly

ed

if

.
-

were tacked together and then completely welded Clamp position and hold during welding
.

into
5
.

.
Precision welding possible with modern
Use jigs and fixtures hold parts with proper
4
.

to
techniques permits machining
- 6

close tolerances
up.
to

maintain alignment during welding

fit

to

and
before welding into final assembly

.
.

Permits stress relief necessary cer Preset joint offset expected

of

contraction
to
if

7
.

.
5

-
.

tain sections before welding into final assembly expected

offset any
or .

Prebend the member

to
8
.

Permits leak testing compartments distortion

of

.
6
.

chambers and painting before welding into final Weld two similar members back back

to
9

-
-
.

assembly
with some prebend
.

Facilitates process inspection before job

in

for stress relief weld two similar

7

10

need
-
.

If

has progressed too far rectify errors

-
.
to

members back back without prebend and keep

to
.

-
-

fastened until after stress relief Weldment should

-

List No
up

ASSEMBLY TOOLING straight

11

end
V

.
|

Jigs fixtures
and welding positioners should be Use strongbacks
11
,

used decrease fabrication time planning as

to

In

Arrange the erection fitting and welding

.

12

the designer should

,

semblies and subassemblies

.
,

parts have freedom one or

so

sequence move
to

in

keep mind the following points

in

more directions for as long as possible during

:

as
jig

First decide simply assembly

to

aid
in
if

is
1
.

sembly hold weldment for tacking or whether

and
to

Use subassemblies and complete thewelding

13

addition the entire welding operation

.

be
is
to
in

each before final assembly

the jig
in

done while work

.
is
in

Where possible break the weldment into

14

welding
or jig

,
on

Determine be mounted
.
to
if

is

the welding
2

each can be
.

of

natural sections
so
,

positioner pedestal floor

,

balanced about its own neutral axis

.
Jig

must provide rigidity necessary hold

to
3
.

Weld the more flexible sections together

15

dimensions
.

first they may be more easily straightened be

.

so
,

Tooling must provide easy locating points fore final assembly

of

member
4
.

.
1 4 . - 12 / Design Approach

larger leg the fillet will be line with the load

of

in
| v List No . 13 WELDING PROCEDURE will the most good

do
where This reduces weld

it

.
These checkpoints are primarily for guidance of metal being deposited

.
weld shop personnel . Control of cost and quality, groove welds watch reinforcement

15
On
Pro

,
though , is a mutual concern of both Design and

T
-
.

.
Most unnecessary for full strength joint

, of

is
it
duction . The designer must be concerned with what

-
ig lower left

14
goes on in the shop , and the production man must

).
(F
see that his experience is passed back to the de the best ways

of
save money

16
One

to

to
is
.
signer . Thus : prevent before they happen repairs due crack

to
,

,
ing porosity etc which result from poor welding

,
. Use good weldable steel .

.
1
procedures

.
2. Try to improve operating factor ; use weldor
portion

of
unrestrained

17
Weld toward the
helpers, , .

.
good fixtures and handling equipment
member

.
3 . Deposit the greatest amount of filler metal
first those joints that may have great

18
Weld
the shortest possible time.

.
in

as
est contraction they cool

.
4. Use backup bars to increase speed of weld
Distribute the welding heat

as
uniformly

as
19
the first pass , for groove joints .

.
ing on
possible throughout the member

.
Eliminate or reduce preheat by using low
5.

21 20
Use procedure which eliminates arc blow

a
hydrogen

.
electrodes .
Use optimum welding current and speed for
6 . Be sure welding machines and cable are

.
best welding performance
job

large enough to do the

.
.

sure you are using optimum travel speeds

Be
22
electrode holder that allows the use
an

Use

is .
appearance
7

not critical and

no
.

distortion

is
If
high welding current
of

being experienced normal speed frequently can be

.

,
Use manual electrodes down stub exceeded
to
8

2
a

"
.

flat downhand position possible .

Use the correct current and polarity Make
23

Weld
if
in
9

.
.

vertical welds are more expensive use the type electrode that will pro

of
Overhead certain
to
and
.

duce the highest deposition under existing conditions

possible position fillet welds the flat

.
10

in
,
If
.

negative polarity for

of
24

trough position for highest welding speed Consider the use

.
.
(

submerged arc welding increase melt off rate

to
sheet metal 45° downhill
-

.
Weld
11

.
.

small fillets smaller diameter elec

On
25

,
12

a
Consider welding from one side only
.
to if

trode may actually deposit the weld faster by not

.

plates are not too thick instead

of

both sides
,

overwelding
)

eliminate necessity for turning over heavy weld

.

larger
or

using overhead welding

at
Investigate electrodes
26

ment the use

of
.
.

higher currents
With automatic welding position fillet welds
13

.
,
.

obtain greater penetration into the root Use semi automatic full automatic weld
or
of

27

the
to

-
.

joint wherever possible and take advantage

of
at

flat plate angle ing

an

of
30° from horizontal its
:

Fig
21

and vertical plate 60° from horizontal deeper penetration and uniform deposit
.

.
(

For fillet welds loaded transversely posi Be especially careful specifying weld
14

size
28
,
.

the flat plate that might increase possibility

on
of

horizontal
so

tion 30° from that the burn through

-

single pass welds Fig

22
(
-

).

for samepenetrationand
IV No
14

List DISTORTION CONTROL

.

strength this weld will

-

require lessweld metal

expansion
of

The forces and contraction that

tend distortion
cause steel when heated can
to

in

be readily controlled that distortion seldom

is
so

this penetration
a

does not help problem

be

Here are some measures taken

to

:
.

this the only

is

Use high deposition electrode

or

penetrationwhich automatic
,
1
.

effective welding
is

Use fewer passes

be

2
.

Fig Joint can often positioned for

21
.

welding minimize weld size without Use higher welding current

as
so

3
to

affecting penetration metal

or

strength Use minimum weld

4
.

.
 Designer 's Guide to Efficient Use of Steel / . - 13
1 4

5. Take advantage of deeper penetration with have uniform appearance ; therefore , do not grind
automatic welding . the surface of the weld smooth or flush unless re
6 . Welding should progress toward the unres quired for another reason . This is a very costly
trained portion of themember but backstepping may
operation and usually exceeds the cost of welding .
be practical as welding progresses . 2 . Reduce cleaning time by use of powdered
7 . Balance the welds about the neutral axis of
iron electrodes and automatic welding which mini
member ; that is , position welds opposite each other , mize spatter and roughness of surface .
preferably equidistant from the neutral axis . 3. Spatter films can be applied parallel to the
joint , to reduce spatter sticking to the plate . Some
8 . On double - V joints , weld alternately on both
electrodes and processes produce little or no
sides of plate . spatter .
9 . Flame shrink when advisable .
4. Eliminate as many welding difficulties as
10 . Avoid buckling in section due to improper possible so as to reduce the amount of inspection
handling or support . needed .

11 . Avoid buckling due to poor choice or per Perhaps a slightly reduced welding speed or
5.
formance of flame - cutting , shearing or other plate a lower welding current will minimize weld faults
preparation process . and inspection . Result might be lower repair costs ,

12 . Avoid error in original alignment of mem

and lower total cost .
bers to be joined . 6 . Overzealous inspection can run up welding
13 . Avoid prestressing members being joined to costs very fast . Many plants overinspect .
gether by forcing alignment in order to get better . Good welds must always be the goal ; how
7
fit -up . ,
ever even a “ poor ” weld is often stronger than the
plates being joined .

V List No . 15 CLEANING AND INSPECTION 8. Inspection should check for overwelding ,

which can be both costly and a contributing factor
1 . Industry now accepts as -welded joints that in distortion .

Fig Single pass welds

22

for
-
.

Drawing calls Don expect fill groovewith

to
flushweld Cornerwill melt

V
't

up
requiring large amounts one passunlessbacked
of

metal tend burn Will burn

to

through
through especially with Copper
,

May burn OK for handwelding

-

automatic welding throughhere

Try less
.

on
weld Thesewelds look good drawing
but are tough make
to

This toomuchweld metal fill

to

one
in
is

pass On thinmetal copperbacking

,
-

needed multiple pass Largeweld will burn

or
is

throughthin metal
be

This joint cannot filled one pass

in
Try

without backing offset corner

-

Try have heavy

to

piece underneath
for backing
to

One fundamentalrule remember Very difficult

to

fill Easy
-
50
%

Less than
Burnsthrough Safe when gap
is

Doubtful present Burnsthrough

%%

60
40

-
-
-
-

-
-
-
-
60

penetration all that can

%

About
is
be

safely obtainedwith onepasswith

be
on

Looks easy drawing but should avoided

if
on

no

out backing joint with gap;

a

possible Have joining members right

at

even lesswhen gap present

to .
is

angles pipe
.
. - 14 / Design Approach
1 4

Welded headstock for wood turning Lathe headstock was welded up from
lathe was manufactured at half the 11 pieces - - low - cost stampings and
cost of earlier cast iron unit . flat bars .

SECb -b

Secb - t

Conventional cast volute for centri Redesigned pump housing is a lower

fugal pump housing . Section b -b cost weldment , claimed to be more
sketched to show contour . efficient than the cast design .
 - - - -- =- =- . -

SECTION .
1 5

Redesigning by Means of
Equivalent Sections

1. THE EQUIVALENT - SECTIONS CONCEPT valent Tables since each applies to only a specific
type of design problem . They eliminate most or all
Although is preferable in most cases to de
it
direct mathematical calculations and enable the
sign a machinethe basis of calculated loading , at
on
user to find graphically actual dimensions of the
times an engineer desires to convert from a casting
steel member . However , they tend to restrict the
or a forging to fabricated steel in the simplest way
designer to the existent casting ' s configuration .
possible .
The Lincoln I Rule supplements the Equivalent
The Equivalent Sections concept is aimed at this
Tables in simplifying the solution of rigidity designs .
direct conversion from one material to another .
Possibly a single member or assembly will be rede It is especially helpful in finding the moment of
signed for steel and must be functional within an inertia ( I ) of the original casting cross - section . See
Sec . 2. 3 for a more detailed description on the use
over - all machine design still based on cast iron . Or, of this I rule .
the decision may be to lean heavily on the plant ' s
casting experience and pretty much duplicate the Application of each of these three design aids is
original machine in steel rather than go into stress discussed in the following paragraphs , using actual
analysis . Or, the need may be to convert from one design problems for illustration .
steel design to another in order to take advantage of
new manufacturing techniques . 2 . USE OF EQUIVALENT TABLES

The basic 3 - step approach to converting a cast Here again are the basic 3 steps to converting a
ing into a steel weldment by means of equivalent casting into a steel weldment by means of equivalent
sections is this : sections :
STEP 1 : Determine the Type of Loading Under STEP 1: Determine the Type of Loading Under the
Requirements of Strength or Rigidity Requirements of Strength or Rigidity for Each
for Each Member . Member
STEP 2: Determine the Critical Property of All parts of a structure must have basic jobs to
this Cast Member do :
STEP 3: Determine the Required Property for 1. Maintain sufficient strength or , in addition ,
the Steel Member rigidity .
Three aids have been developed to simplify an 2 . Withstand loads applied in tension , compres
engineer ' s taking this design approach . They are : sion , bending , or torsion .
1. Tables of Equivalent Strength and Rigidity STEP 2: Determine the Critical Properties of the
Factors Cast Member
2 . Nomographs , for Specific Types of Members The ability of the part to withstand the above
loadings is measured by certain properties of its
3 . The Lincoln I Rule , for Rigidity Problems
cross - section . These are :
The Equivalent Tables were developed from a
simplification of traditional engineering formulas . A = Area of the cross - section
The tables permit the designer to be concerned only I of inertia ,
for

Moment resistance bending

to

=
with an appropriate property of the section . He
Section modulus for flexural strength
doesn ' t have to work directly with design loads which
,
=
S

be the case when using the traditional

of

would Polar moment inertia for resistance

to
,
=
J

formulas . twisting
Nomographs further shorten the design process . Polar section modulus for strength under
,
-
J

In one respect , they are more limited than the Equi torsion
C
. -
1 4 14 / Design Approach

Welded headstock for wood turning Lathe headstock was welded up from
lathe was manufactured at half the 11 pieces - - low - cost stampings and
cost of earlier cast iron unit . flat bars .

SEC

Secb
for

Conventional cast volute centri Redesigned pump housing lower

is
a

fugal pump housing Section cost weldment claimed be more

to
,
b
-b
.

sketched show contour efficient than the cast design

to

.
.
 SECTION .
1 5

Redesigning by Means of
Equivalent Sections

1. THE EQUIVALENT - SECTIONS CONCEPT valent Tables since each applies to only a specific
type of design problem . They eliminate most or all
Although it is preferable in most cases to de
sign a machine on the basis of calculated loading , at direct mathematical calculations and enable the
user to find graphically actual dimensions of the
times an engineer desires to convert from a casting
steel member . However , they tend to restrict the
or a forging to fabricated steel in the simplest way
designer to the existent casting ' s configuration .
possible .
The Lincoln I Rule supplements the Equivalent
The Equivalent Sections concept is aimed at this
Tables in simplifying the solution of rigidity designs .
direct conversion from one material to another .
It is especially helpful in finding the moment of
Possibly a single member or assembly will be rede
inertia ( I) of the original casting cross - section . See
signed for steel and must be functional within an
Sec . 2 . 3 for a more detailed description on the use
over -all machine design still based on cast iron . Or,
of this I rule .
the decision may be to lean heavily on the plant ' s
casting experience and pretty much duplicate the Application of each of these three design aids is
original machine in steel rather than go into stress discussed in the following paragraphs , using actual
analysis . Or, the need may be to convert from one design problems for illustration .
steel design to another in order to take advantage of
new manufacturing techniques . 2 . USE OF EQUIVALENT TABLES

The basic 3 - step approach to converting a cast Here again are the basic 3 steps to converting a
ing into a steel weldment by means of equivalent casting into a steel weldment by means of equivalent
sections is this : sections :
STEP 1: Determine the Type of Loading Under STEP 1: Determine the Type of Loading Under the
Requirements of Strength or Rigidity Requirements of Strength or Rigidity for Each
for Each Member . Member
STEP 2: Determine the Critical Property of All parts of a structure must have basic jobs to
this Cast Member do :

STEP 3 : Determine the Required Property for 1. Maintain sufficient strength or , in addition ,
the Steel Member rigidity .
Three aids have been developed to simplify an 2. Withstand loads applied in tension , compres
engineer ' s taking this design approach . They are : sion , bending , or torsion .
1 . Tables of Equivalent Strength and Rigidity STEP 2 : Determine the Critical Properties of the
Factors Cast Member

2 . Nomographs, for Specific Types of Members The ability of the part to withstand the above
loadings is measured by certain properties of its
3 . The Lincoln I Rule , for Rigidity Problems
cross - section . These are :
The Equivalent Tables were developed from a
simplification of traditional engineering formulas . A = Area of the cross - section
The tables permit the designer to be concerned only I = Moment of inertia , for resistance to bending
with an appropriate property of the section . He ,
Section modulus for flexural strength
doesn ' t have to work directly with design loads which
S =

would be the case when using the traditional J = Polar moment of inertia , for resistance to
formulas . twisting
Nomographs further shorten the design process . J Polar section modulus , for strength under
In one respect , they are more limited than the Equi C torsion
 . -
1 5 2 / Design Approach

Step 1
TABLE 1
Determine the Type of Loading

RIGIDITY short
compression
long
tension column column bending torsion

Step 2 Area
Polar
Area Moment of Moment of Moment
Determine this property Inertia Inertia of Inertia
of the cast member .

Step 3
Multiply the above property of the cast member by the
following factor to got the equivalent value for steel . *
EQUIVALENT FACTORS
TABLE 1 - EQUIVALENT
Grey Iron A STM 20 40 % 40 % 40 % 40 % 40 %
ASTM 30 50 50 50 50 50
ASTM 40 _
50 69 63 63
RIGIDITY FACTORS
ASTM 50 67 67 67 67 67
ASTM 60 70 70 70 70 70

Malleable A47 - 33 35018 _ 83 23 100

A47 - 33 32510 83 83 83 22 100

Meebanite Grade GE _ 40 40 40 9
Grade GD 48 48 48 48 48

Grade GC 57 57 57 57 57
Grade GB 60 60 60 60 60
Grade GA 67 67 67 67 67

Cast Steel (. 10 - . 20%C) 100 100 100 100 100

Magnesium Alloys 22 22 22 22 20

Aluminum Alloys 34 34 34 32

subscript '
" g 18 for steel ; " C" 1s for casting

* The factors above are based on published values of moduli of elasticity .

STEP Determine the Required

3: Properties for lower - cost welded steel members of equal rigidity .
the Steel Member
APPLIED
If these properties of a cast part or member are FORCE
known , Equivalent Tables facilitate determining the
2"
2 " ROUND
corresponding properties of the steel member or
part that will have equal rigidity ( Table 1 ) or equal
strength ( Table 2 ). It is necessary only to multiply
ROUNDYDAT
the known properties of the casting by the factor
obtained from the appropriate Equivalent Table .
o
Forinstance : To determine how much area á X 3 " BEAM
ROUND
must be provided in a steel tension member to ROUND
equal the rigidity of a gray iron casting , refer to
Table 1 which shows that the steel member need
have only 40 % as much area .
To see how the system is applied to an actual 2" x 2 " COLUMN
problem , consider this gray iron mechanism , Fig
ure 1 . The redesign objective is to convert to FIGURE 1
 Equivalent Sections / . -
1 5 3

STEP 1:

Fy
As - 40 % Aco
Each member is labeled as to the type of load As = %. 2 ive
ing to which it is subject , Figure 2 .

- - - - -Card
POYAU
APPLIED FORCE
-
ENSION Is = 40 % Io
Is 3 .60 in
LJS =40 % JC,
js =. 62 IN

Is = 90 % Ic ,
Is = . 268 ing
BENDING TORSION
FIGURE 4

ure 5 represents just one solution . This welded

COMPRESSION steel design of equivalent rigidity resulted in 60 %
LONG COLUMN less weight and 45 % less cost than the cast iron
design it replaced .
FIGURE 2
APPLIED
x 25 FLAT BAR FORCE
STEP 2: A . 1. 25 ina

From each cast iron member , a cross - section

is chosen which represents the member . Then , by
consulting Table 1 , the necessary property of each
section is determined . The values of these pro
perties , when computed , tell how well each cast
AO
STO PIPE
Figure

L
its

.
member does job
62
,

3
.

in
y
.
s

.
.

lcze

BAR
APPLIED FORCE

O
FLAT
11N

65 int

10
AREA ACI

.
3
-
.

FIGURE
5
o

MOMENT OF INERTIA USE OF NOMOGRAPHS

OF

MERDA
3
.

MOMENT
Ici int
=
1,

OF
5

POLAR type
of

MOMENT Bases constitute member common

of to
L

every class machinery Thus the redesign

IN

of

INERTIA JCI
=
1
6

,
.

simple base can serve example

as
an

of
how
a

nomographs are used applying the Equivalent

in
in OF

MOMENT INERTIA
Section concept
Ic 67
.
=

?
,

The original cast base Figure 60 long

is
,

of 6,

"

wide deep made ASTM Class

30

is

FIGURE
It
6
x

.
"

"
3

STEP
3
:

properties the gray iron sections are

of

These
multiplied by the equivalent factors from Table
1
.

required property value for

of

The result this

is
a

each steel section Figure Any steel member

,

4
.

having this required property will

do

the same job

as well as the corresponding gray iron member
.

Final Design
:

the required properties sec

of

From the steel

tions several steel designs are considered Fig FIGURE
,

6
.
 . -
1 5 4 / Design Approach

20 gray weighs rigidity

of
iron .
It has one rib underneath and under bending load

.
For purpose of comparison , cost will

its
681 lbs .
Critical Property

of
STEP Determine the the
be considered equal

2
:
to
100

%
Cast Member

.
STEP Determine the Type Loading

of
rigidity design the member must have
1
:

In

,
a
which motor and pump are resist bending

of
This cast base sufficient moment inertia

on

to
,

a
I()
mounted was acceptable service Equal or bet load Where the shape the cross section as well

of
in
,

re

-
.
ter rigidity an essential objective the redesign as the length and depth

of
the member are

in
is

to
for welded steel The design problem thus one main the same will be accurate enough within

is

it
,
.

(
Step

1
TABLE the Type Loading
2

of
Determine

compression
STRENGTH short
tension column bending torsion

Polar
Step Area Area
Section
Section
2

Modulus
Determine this property
Modulus TABLE EQUIVALENT

2
-
of

the cast member

x
.

STRENGTH FACTORS
Multiply the above property mem
of
the cast
Step ber by the following factor get the equiva
to
3

lent value for steel

*
.

EQUIVALENT FACTORS
40 30 20

21

21

Gray Iron 94 28
%

ASTM %
ASTM 31 123 31 42
ASTM 42 136 42 56
ASTM 50 52 156 52 70
ASTM 60 63 167 63 83

68 68
33

Malleable A47 35018 76

-

A47 33 32510 54 54 70
-

Meehanite Grade GE 125 31 42

Grade GD 36 136 36 49
Grade GC 44 164 44 58
Grade GB 49 174 49 64
Grade GA
73

57 199 57
75

75
75
10

20

Cast Steel
37 33 75
%
C
-
(.

Magnesium lloy 50 50 50
, T6

AZ63 HTA
, ,

, ,

,
C H
- -a

T6

alloy AZ92 HTA 50 50 50

40

Aluminum 195 T4 40 40 43
5 7 5 0 0

5 2 5 7 5 0 0

3 6 6 0 0 3
5 2 5 7 5 0 0

. . , . . . .
. . . . .

. . . . . .
. . . . . . .
T7 T6 T7 T6 T4 T6

Sand 45 45 45 50
Castings 220 57 57 57 55
355 43 43 43 46
42 41 47

46
47
47

356 41 41 43
.42 .2

40

42
0
5

.
°C
=

1
0

subscript for steel for casting

is
is

;
C
s
"
"

"
"

published values compressive and shear strengths

on

of

The factors above are based tensile

,
of

using safety factor for mild steel and from for the cast materials depending
to
3

4
.8
a

upon ductility
.
 Redesigning by Means of Equivalent Sections / 1.5 - 5

5 % ) to assume that the moment of inertia will vary

as the cross - sectional area , or going one step
further , as the thickness of the top and sides .
UNI In our cast iron base example , Figure 7, the
ONO
thickness of the top panel is l " and that of the side
panel is 5 / 8 " .

STEP 3 : Determine the Required Property for the

Steel Member
Fig

Cast Iron Base 681 lbs

7
.

)
The minimum thickness of the top and side

FIG REQUIRED THICKNESS OF STEEL SECTION

8
-
.

For Rigidity Equal Cast Section

to

Casting Steel

Thickness
of

Casting Thickness
of Steel

16625
156a
.
of

Type 1462

Casting 1362
.
2

126a
.

Ga
Il
.

IOGA
96
ytop plate
z1

Mg allosas
.

alloys
Al

mit
---
CGE

.
---

20

GO
)piate
side

84 Mechanite ööl Grey

somente
(

SIM
4
.

Malleable
ordinary
+

Melleable STEEL
ASTM 32510

casting
ĘE

steel casting
t

'
t

*
• Eo

modulus elasticity tension

of

thickness
t

of 20

Example Grey Ne
98

Iron thick
,
:

steel section same rigidity

for

Find thickness

AS3
NP

Construct
to

line from Grey Iron

20
_

-
'
'8
des

read thick steel

C

:
"

"
 . -
1 5 6 / Design Approach

panels

of
the steel member can be read from the
first nomograph Figure nomograph

On
this

Oog
,

:
.
Line casting panel

of
known thickness
=
A

Line known type material

of
= cast
B

Line required thickness steel panel

of

to
=
C

have rigidity equivalent the corres

to

lbs
ponding cast panel Fig Welded Steel

10
Base 281

)
to on
15
stiffeners centers
straight edge laid along the point

"
Line

on
With

of
a

indicating the Total cost relative that casting

the top panel and

is
of
thickness
A

1
"

34

30
indicating the ASTM for one for ten

%
the point Line

20

,
on

cast

.6

9
.
B

gray iron Line will be intersected by the

,

straight edge approximately

at

This the original casting mean

is
the

of

30
3 52 span
8
the

.
"
/

in

,
required thickness of the steel top panel sim

"
ing that required

In
span the steel member

15

in
.

is
a
ilar manner the required thickness

"
the steel

of
have equal rigidity See Figure
,

order for

to

10
it
in
side panel will
be

be

.
to

found
1
/4
"
.

Accepted practice make the base ends the

to
is
original
rib

The cast base has which serves The stiff

same plate thickness as the side panels
a

.
as stiffener and thus one or more stiffeners must

as
deep
,

eners not have be The result

a

do

to

is
a
be provided Figure

.
the steel member The steel base which has equivalent rigidity
in

welded
9
.

,
important thing here
on
the stiffener effect the
is

greater strength less weight and lower cost

in
s
'

,
,
unsupported top panel relative
of

span the latter comparison with the original cast base

to

's

thickness thin steel top panelmay require more

.
A
.

stiffening than the much heavier cast panel design has been very simple and quick
This

.
.

Even though means two different plate thicknesses

it

, ,
used and welded together

be
and must

,
8

1
4
"

"
it 3/

/
requires only two operations shearing and weld

,
thickness ing Therefore the cost low

is
,
.

.
The weight

of
the base has thus been reduced

by
by 59 69 depending lot

65
and the cost

on
to
%

%
,

size
.
20

Second Redesign
fo

span
:
-

made by
An

even more efficient design can

be
changing the shape the base cross section How
of

.
ever this would require finding the moment

of
FIGURE
,
9

the proposed section One procedure for

of

inertia .
doing this covered later example
is

The required maximum

in

span the steel top

a
of

.
panel between stiffeners can be read from the sec the cast iron can be
of

of

the moment inertia

If

can then be multiplied equi

by
Figure
On

ond nomograph this nomograph

an
determined
13

it
,

,
:
.

valent rigidity factor This factor the percentage

is

Line thickness steel top panel determin

of

.
=
A

the rigidity
(

of

of

of
the cast material that steel
to

previous nomograph

.
ed

from
This percentage can be found the first nomo
on
)

known type cast material by using the value for steel section
of

Line graph Fig

=
B

8
)
.
(

that found when the cast section thick

is

is

Line
1

reference line
.
"
=
C

Line cast top panel

of

known thickness
=
D

Line length length

of

of

ratio steel span

to
=
E

panel between
or

cast span length

of

of
,

stiffeners
straight edge laid across the point
on

With
a

Line indicating the required thickness

of

the
A

3
8
"
/

steel top panel and the point representing

on

Line
B

the ASTM gray cast iron the point which Line

at
20

intersected will be reference point Now

is

lbs
C

Fig
.

Steel
11

Second Welded Base 274

with the straight edge repositioned across this
.

point and the point represent

12
on

stiffeners centers
on

on

Line Line
4

"
D
C

ing the the cast top panel Line Total cost relative that casting
of

of

thickness
to

is
,
1

E
"

will be intersected aproximately 52

at

This for ten

is

39

28

for one
%

%
,
.

.2
 Redesigning by Means of Equivalent Sections / 1. 5 - 7

With redesign based on an equivalent mo

the
ment of inertia , this steel section can be made of
5 / 16 " plate bent into the form of a channel . See
Figure 11 . This takes a little thickness from the
top and adds it to the sides . The thinner top panel
requires an additional stiffener , as determined from
the second nomograph ( Fig . 13 ).
By using one thickness throughout , one steel
plate does thework of three . Bending down the sides
eliminates preparing edges for welding and then Fig . 12 Third Welded Steel Base (248 lbs)
· welding them back up , a further reduction in cost . 5 stiffeners centers on 10 "

Although this eliminates some flame - cutting or Total cost relative to that of casting is
shearing and considerable welding , it introduces an 38 . 4 % for one , 24 . 7 % for ten

extra operation - - brake forming . This may in

crease the cost for very small quantities but reduces the bottom legs of the base , Figure 12 . Since this
greatly increases the rigidity of the section , a fur

the
the cost on larger lots .
plate thicity
ther reduction in plate
of
thickness can be made . This
Third Redesign : requires additi in
additional stiffeners as determined by the
,
A slightly better design can be had by flanging Sequires
second nomograph (Fig . 13 ).

OF

TO
REQUIRED RATIO CAST SPAN
13

FIG STEEL SPAN

-
.

For Steel Section Have Rigidity Equal Cast Section

to

to
of

Thickness
Steel panel

of
Length Steel span
Length Cast span

of
-

80 90 100
% % %
+ #
Thickness
(

of Casting

+
06
Type of
(
o

Casting

%
40
Steel 35018
Malleable ASTM 35210
Ordinary Malleable
20
Meenanite STM Class
grey iron
ttttt

20
%
HHHHHHHHH
ttttttttttttttttt

Example N°20 grey iron panel thick

:

Staal Esteel span

30
t

%
|

Steel Casting
of

span steel panel

,
-

it

Ecasting Find made

Casting
for

plate equal rigidity

|

of
8

Nº

grey iron
20

draw
to

thru
%

line from
C
B
A

of to _
-

52

read
%

panel draw line from

D

Li length
C
of

thickness
E
-

of -
ľ

steel panel cast panel

·
t

span of panel
52

span
%
of

hence
span
.

30

15

E• modulus of 52
or

elasticity
•
*

"

tension
-
.
1 5 —8 / Design Approach

shown the dark areas indicate the sections that run

,
continuously throughout the length of the member

,
acting as beam resist bending For simplifica

to
a

.
tion this view can be treated as single section

.
The Lincoln Rule now used find the moment

is

to
I
of inertia about the horizontal axis

of
this section

:
for more detailed description

on
See Sect the

3
.
I 2.
use rule

of
the

.
Estimate the neutral axis the section by

of
1
.
imagining where the section would balance sup

if
ported horizontal line through

on
this axis Draw

a
.
this mark this number

0
.
Draw horizontal line across the top ex

a
.
the section and one across the bottom

of
tremities
of the section mark these number
.Fig

10
extremities

,
Cast Iron Base 4900 lbs
14

.
(

)
Place the Lincoln

on
Rule the section

so
,
3
.

I
the top line and the number

10

on
that the number

is
By going thinner plate the blank edges may the neutral axis See Figure Mark off

on

16
is
to

O
,

.
points and draw horizontal lines through them

10
be reduc
of

sheared instead flame cut This the

is
a

.
-

This will divide the top portion

of
tion cost the section into
in

so
Then place the rule

10

10
areas that the number
not require much weld
do

Braces and stiffeners

.
on

on
the bottom line and the number

is

is
intermittent fillet welding Diag the

0
ing sufficient
is

neutral axis and repeat for the bottom section

;

onal bracing for additional torsional resistance

.
could be used and discussed Sect pertaining engineer scale measure off the

an
With
is

in

,
3
.6

of s
.

'
.
average width areas the top

of
Torsion

10
the
to

each

in
.

portion
of
the section Be sure consider the

to
This third redesign has now brought the weight

.
(
by up
the drawing the average widths of
of
scale Add
the original casting
of

of

.)
36

the base down that

to

This will give the

10
areas and divide
10

these
or more
,
25
of

of

what

.
10

and the cost lots

to
in

average width
of

of
(

the top portion the section

was originally

.
it

The Rule has now transformed the top section

I

USE OF LINCOLN RULE above the neutral axis into rectangle whose
4

,
I
.

a
(

)
width equal the average width whose depth
of to is

is
to

, ,
redesigning machinery members that must
mo
In

equal the depth the top section and whose

of

have high rigidity under bending loads the Lincoln

,

equal inertia of
I

of
ment inertia the moment
is

to
great help developing Equi
of

Rule can often be

in

the top section

–

valent Sections This design aid especially

.
is
.

finding the moment of inertia large

of

valuable
in

unsymmetrical complex casting

or

.
20 an

As example cast machine toolbase

of

ASTM
,
a

Class gray iron Figure redesigned for

is
14
,

rolled steel Each component of the cast base

is
.

converted into steel section by following the step

3
a

design approach until the entire base has been re

,

designed steel good place start the

to

to

is
A
.

cross section
of

the base
-

STEP Determine the Type Loading

of
1
:

desired that the welded steel base be as

or is
It

rigid more rigid than the cast iron base Since

.

the member subject bending its resistance

is

to

to
,
be

bending must evaluated

.

STEP Determine the Critical Property

of

the
2
:

Cast Member bet2

32
The property
-

section which indicates its

of
a

resistance bending as its moment of inertia

to

.
(
I)

complete cross section view needed through the

is
A

cast base Figure usually available as Fig section through cast machine
15
15

this Cross
is
,

-
.
a

scale drawing the pattern print

on

the view base

In

.
.
 Redesigning by Means of Equivalent Sections / 1. 5 - 9

This is repeated for the bottom section (below

the neutral axis ) . The following values are obtained :

Area Top Bottom

KULE
portion portion
I$
12 . 0" 4. 0" $
- 4
I

RULE
14

.4
0

0
.
14

.9 .0

4
0
4

.
$

14

816
1
0

.
co
.

32
4
.
.

SIRULEI
10
co

8
.
00 -

RULE
00
"T"
0
00
v
1
2
.

IRULEJ
.6

6
6
1

Z
.
77

Total width 62
6

1
"
.

.
"
71

Average width
26
6

7
.

.
"

"

Height
12
12

Fig Using the Lincoln Rule deter

16

to
,
4

2
.
"

"

of I
.

of
mine moment inertia cast member

a
rectangular area
of

of

Since the moment inertia cross section

a

.
its base
be

about considered
is

to

-
-

height replace ASTM gray cast iron

20
factor for steel

to
width
:
=

x
I

bending
40

of

of

of
the moment inertia the
in

is

)
(I
casting Hence
of

the moment inertia the cast iron base :

.
of

is
-
-

40
steel % cast iron
=
Itop

cast iron portion Ibottom portion

'

3450 in
=

.4

to
3980 4660
in

in
=

+
4

up
.

The problem build steel section

is
now to

a
8640 within the outside dimensions the cast section and
in
=

of
.

having moment Any steel

of

inertia 3450

in
=
Determine the Required Property
a

STEP

.
)
(I

for the
section having least this value will be more rigid
3

at
:

Steel Member
than the cast section The dimensions and location
.

Consulting equivalent rigidity the two top flange plates must be retained
of

Table the The

),
1

.
(

test
FA
24
4
"
'

1772"
-

Fig Cross section through steel

17

-
.

base
.

LH
I
. -
1 5 10 / Design Approach

design must lend itself to the most economical The moment of inertia of the steel section is
methods of fabricating rolled steel .
steel section shown in Figure 17 is one pos
The
Isteel = 1 - M
sible solution . Its moment of inertia (I) is found by
the method known as “ Adding Areas ” . This is ex = 6457 - 20o = 6457 - 178
plained more fully in Sect . 2. 3 pertaining to Prop
erties of Sections . = 6280 in . ' (or 1. 8 times as stiff as
cast iron )
' The “ Adding Areas ” method was used to develop
the following table of properties for each component Since equivalent rigidity would have been a
of the section in order to compute the moment of in chieved with a moment - of - inertia value of only 3450
ertia of the entire section . in . , this design is 1 .8 times as rigid as the cast

Assume reference axis is 12 " up from the bottom .

Size Distance y A M l y Ig

14 x 1 3/ 4 + 12 . 37 24 . 50 + 303 . 0 | + 3745 .

1 1 /8 x 6 1 /2 + 7 . 25 7 . 31 + 53 . 0 384 . 25 . 7

1/ 2 x 4 - 2. 0 2. 00 - 4. 0 8.

6 x 1 /4 - 4. 0 1. 501 - 6. 0 24 .

E 16 . 75 X 3/ 8 - 4. 0 | 6 . 28 - 25 . 2 101 .

3 /4 x 6 1 /4 - 7 . 13 4 . 69 1 - 33 . 4 | 238 . 15 . 3

14 x 1 /4 - 7 . 13 | 3 . 50 | - 24 . 9 178 .

8 x 1 3/ 4 | - 11 . 13 14 . 00 - 156 . 0 1738 , 0 . . . . . ..

Total 63. 78 +106 .5 6457

where :
base . See Figures 18 and 19 on facing page .
y = distance of area ' s center of gravity from
Now that the cross -section of the steel base has
section ' s reference axis
been designed , other less important components of
A = width x height of area the cast base are taken one at a time and converted
to steel . Figure 20 shows these various components
M = A x y
for the welded steel base , and Figure 21 shows the
Iy = M x y redesigned base fully assembled .
Ig = width x height of area Although this final steel base is 1 . 8 times as
12 rigid as the cast base , it weighs 49 % less and costs
38 % less .

sos Fig . 21 Welded steel machine base ( 2500

62
lbs

of

Fabrication cost the cost the

%
:
) .

original cast base

.
 Redesigning by Means of Equivalent Sections / 1.5 - 11

Fig . 18 Front view of cast machine IT 11

base .

-- --
-

DD
=
Fig . 19 Front view of welded steel =
=
machine base. 17

Fig .20 Exploded view of steel

components for welded machine base .
. -
1 5 12 / Design Approach

Cast steel cleaning bar forage

chopper was redesigned for
production as mild steel
weldment . Result: 26 % cost
reduction .

II

Arc - welded housing of beverage filling machine

improved appearance and strength , with 25 % less
weight and 15 % less cost than previous cast design .
 SECTION
Loads and Their Evaluation
1 . TYPES OF LOAD
In designing a machine member , it is necessary
to recognize the type of load applied to the member .
This is true whether the new design is to be based
on a previous model , or directly on calculated
loading .
The load may be imposed by the dead weight of
machine members , or by the work performed by the
machine .
Load is the amount of external force applied to an
elastic body , tending to deform it . Under load , some
dimension or property of the member changes .
Stress is the internal molecular resistance to such
deformation , tending to restore the body to its orig
inal condition once the load has been removed .
Strain is the amount of unit deformation that occurs
under load .
Usually the change in the property of the section
- area , moment of inertia , etc . - caused by loading
does not affect the value or nature of the loading .
Sometimes it does , and then the member may fail
unexpectedly .
There are five basic types of load : tension ,
compression , shear , bending , and torsion . Figure
1 illustrates these various load conditions . Although
The rugged service requirements
of such equipment as this motor
scraper demand careful evalua
tion of the loads and resulting
stresses . Steel weldments de
signed accordingly , meet the
requirements .
.
2 1
later sections of this text will deal more thoroughly
with the various types of load , some of the main
features of each are described here .
1.Tension is the force that pulls a member
from two opposing directions. It results in deforma
tion by elongation . Excessive tensile loading causes
failure of the member by pulling it apart . Tension
is shown in Figure 1 by two examples : the tension
member of the simple bracket “ A ” , and the tension
member of the lever system “ D ”.
As a tensile load is increased , the member
elongates and its cross - sectional area decreases .
Neither change affects the load . However , the de
crease in cross - sectional area affects distribution
of the load and thereby slightly increases the unit
tensile stress . Even this does not affect the pro
portional relationship of the stress to strain within
the elastic limits of the material .
Any eccentricity in applying the load causes a
bending moment . This sets up secondary bending
stresses which are added to the primary axial ten
sile stresses . However , this bending moment tends
to straighten out the neutral axis of the member so
that as the load is increased , the eccentricity
decreases .
2. Compression is the force that pushes ,
 .
2 1– 2 / Load and Stress Analysis

nt Tension -

Kload Bending

Force
compression

La
<

Tension
Welds shear

in
Torsion
Bendina
K

Torsion

O
.
Compression
Load pressie
hear
Compression compression

Compression
i tension

Compression

Fig Typical examples which machine members are subjected

of

of

the various kinds load

to
1
.

.
presses squeezes member opposing di but not along the same line by shear may Failure
It or

from
,
a

rections results deformation by contraction follow direction parallel applied forces or

to
the
in

a
.

Excessive loading compression causes failure by along diagonal slip lines tensile member
. in

in
a

.
crushing buckling
or

Shear stresses are often present as byproduct

a
the principal stresses the application trans
of

of
or

Compression shown Figure the two

is

in

in
1

forms which may exist long column which verse forces The overhead craneway bracket
it

B
in

”
,

.
A
.

might fail by buckling often occurs compres Figure loaded rather high shear because
. as

is
in

in
,
1
,

Similar ex short and carries large load The beam

is

sion member lever system

is it
in

E
a
D

"

"
in a

amples are seen the compression member loaded bending but the fillet welds joining the
in
of

the
,

bracket the piston connecting rod flanges the web are stressed horizontal shear
in
to
in

and .
,

C
A
“

”
.

short column which might fail by crushing occurs

,

,
A

here the bearing support for bridge Bending

loads are forces applied transverse
in

to .4
G
a

”
.

at

member some distance from the section

ly

As compressive loading in
as

long column under consideration

of

Such the beam

is

load
in
,
a
a

eventually causes some eccentricity Figure produces bending moment Ap

of

creased
it
,

,
1
E

a
.

This turn sets up bending moment causing the plication the load farther out along the beam would
of
in

,
or a

column deflect buckle slightly This deflec increase the bending moment bending moment
to

A
.
.

tion no matter how slight increases the eccentric also occurs the lever system
in
,

D
“

”
.

ity and thus the bendingmoment This may progress

. is .

where the bending moment increasing rate

to

at

bending moment causes deflect

a

to

beam
in
A

greater than the increase load As result of this

in

the direction which the load applied

a

in

is
by

vicious cycle the column soon fails buckling

,

As the bending load increased the deflection

is

straight
of

Shear loading the subjection member increases

of

However this deflection

to
is

,
3

a
.

opposite directions the position

of

equal forces which act

no

two has With

on

beam effect the load

in

.
 Loads and Their Evaluation / .
2 1- 3

large deflection , the cross - section may change in 2 . Impact loads are applied suddenly , usually at
area with a corresponding decrease in its moment high velocity . There is , frequently , actual impact
of inertia . This would both increase the bending ( a blow ) on the machine member by anothermachine
stress and decrease the member ' s resistance to member or some external body . Impact loads are
deflection , so that the possibility of failure in common to such machines as pile drivers , punch
creases at an accelerating rate . presses , etc .
Deflection of a straight beam under load takes 3. loads are applied in various ways ,
Variable
the form of a curve . Fibers between the neutral but each case the value of force is variable . In
in
axis and the outer surface are under tension , and
some cases the load is constantly varying , as in the
those along the inside of the bend or deflection are connecting rods in an engine . An extreme condition
under compression . Failure under a bending load is is typified by a rotating shaft which experiences a
usually the result of the outer fibers being stressed complete reversal of load on each cycle . If fibers
beyond their tensile limit or buckling of outer fibers
along the top of a shaft are stressed in compression ,
in compression . those along the bottom are stressed in tension . At
5. Torsional loading is the subjection of a mem any point on the shaft , each revolution produces a
change from tension to compression .
ber to torque forces that cause it to twist about its
central axis . Cranks , axles , spindles and other ro Over an extended period of time a member can
tating members , such as “ F ” in Figure 1, are under
withstand much less stress under severe variable
this type of load . load conditions . As a measure of the maximum unit
The principal deflection caused by torsion is stress that a material can withstand indefinitely
measured by the angle oftwist. The amount of twist under variable loading , its endurance limit is often
does not affect the torsional moment and therefore established by testing . For this reason , some
has no effect on the value of the moment . Failure forms of variable loads are commonly referred to
under torsional loading is usually a result of shear as fatigue loads .
stresses that develop as the load increases .
At the surface of a round steel shaft , for ex 3 .
VALUE OF LOAD
ample , the metal is stressed in shear in a direction In order to use many design formulas , it is nec
perpendicular as well as parallel to the axis of essary to determine the amount of load that will be
twist . The metal is stressed in tension in a direc applied to each machine member . The methods of

STATIC IMPACT VARIABLE

As in dead weight As in dropped weight As in cam -action
Fig . 2 may be static
A load , impact , or variable according to the way in
the

which the load is applied to machine member

.

tion 45° these shear stresses and compression doing this are many and are often peculiar
to

in

the
to
of ,

at the tensile stresses industry machinery concerned

or

900 the surface class They

to

Below
.

.
ap

these forces decrease as the central axis have their basis elementary mechanics and
is

in
of

proached Ultimate failure under torsion duct proper analysis the actual service conditions
of
a
.

.
ile steel shaft shear perpendicular Very often formulas or nomographs have al
is

the shaft
in

of to

axis Ultimate failure under torsion brittle ready been developed selecting equipment
a
.

in

aid
to

initially the shaft axis

at

shaft tension 45°

to
is

for the power drive system required for the particu

in

lar class These will also provide the

of

service
APPLICATION OF LOAD
.
2
.

on

basic load information needed calculate load

to

There are three ways which load can be ap individual machine members
in

plied machine member These are static

to

im

Here the systems approach can be

,
a

of
.

use the
to

pact and variable Fig

frame or chassis designer Like the drive systems
',

2
(

)
.
.

Static loads are steady constant or are ap engineer the working tool with calcula
he

starts
at
1

,
.

plied slowly The load does not change very much required delivered horsepower for exam
of

tions
.

value Examples include the weight ple

of

fluid Then he works upstream calculating all sec

in

in
a

,
.

storage tank the dead weight structure upon

of

ondary forces that effect the required

an

increase
,
a

in

its supports etc motor horsepower This will take into consideration
,

.
2 1 . - 4 / Load and Stress Analysis
friction , inertia of moving members , rotational
forces upon bearings and their housings , flywheel
energy , and so on . He now has a graphic picture of
the loads emanating from the power train from end
to end . From this information he proceeds further
to chart the distribution of forces , adding in the dead
weight of machine members .
Considering individual members , there are
many possibilities . Torque on a shaft or other re
volving part is determined from the motor horse
power and speed ( T = 63 , 030 x hp / rpm ) . Or , tool
pressure and work or tool diameter , if known , per
mit calculating the torque .
Many mechanical and electromechanical trans
ducers are available to help in evaluating loads on
existing equipment or on prototypes . Many ofthese
instruments incorporate electrical strain gages in a
precision bridge - type sensing element. Such trans
ducers include load cells , pressure gages , torque
meters , dynamometers , accelerometers , flow me
ters , and load beams .
equipment such as a hoist or lift truck , the
On
maximum load on members can be figured back
from the load required to tip the machine over .
When following an existing design on a power
shovel or ditch digger for example , the maximum
strength of cables that have proven satisfactory in
service can be used to work back to the load on
machine parts .
If a satisfactory starting point cannot be found ,
the design can be based upon an assumed load and
subsequently adjusted from experience and test.
4 . FACTOR OF SAFETY
The anticipated loading, translated into stresses ,
dictate the proportions of the individual machine
member . However , a factor of safety must be in
cluded in the calculations in order to ensure the
member ' s withstanding greater forces that may
possibly result from :
1 . variations in the material ;
2 . faulty workmanship in fabrication ;
3 . variations in actual load (Ex : hitting an im
movable object with an agricultural imple
ment; interrupted cut in rough machining
hard steel on a medium - duty machine tool ;
overloading a lift hook ; etc .) ; and
4 . error in design computations.
There are various ways determine the factor
to
of safety , and various ways which to use it . The
in
two decisions are interrelated .
In order for a machine member to have sufficient
strength , the maximum unit stress must be limited
to some value less than the material ' s yield strength
or ultimate strength with proper consideration for
the safety factor . Once the member ' s proportions
are established , this allowable unit stress can then
be translated into allowable load .
Ordinarily the allowable stress must be relative
to the material' s yield strength . In most machine
members the permanent deformation that would re
sult from exceeding the yield strength might seri
ously affect further performance of the member .
This is not always the case however ; and if a degree
of permanent deformation can be tolerated , a design
based on ultimate strength can bemade at less cost .
In order for a machine member to have sufficient
rigidity , the maximum allowable strain or deflection
is the determining factor . In the past many design
ers were under the impression that zero deflection
was desirable . This is not at all realistic : if zero
deflection is mandatory , zero stress is mandatory .
This would mean the member could carry no load
at all .
Once the maximum allowable strain is estab
lished , the corresponding stress figure can be ob
tained since stress and strain have a proportional
relationship within the elastic range . The safety
factor is applied here to determine the maximum
allowable stress , which can then be used in propor
tioning the member .
The relationship of stress to strain is expressed
by the material ' s modulus of elasticity , which is
30 , 000 , 000 psi for all steels in tension . Thus , if the
maximum allowable strain is 0 .001 in . / in . , the cor
responding stress would be 30 , 000 psi . The modulus
of elasticity of a steel in shear is 12 , 000 , 000 psi ;
therefore , it is essential to keep in mind the type of
force involved .
Any basic rule - of - thumb safety factor that is
sufficient for static loads under ideal conditions
must be increased under certain circumstances . It
is important to correctly determine the mode of load .
Consider not only the condition at time of initial con
struction , but the possible effects of wear . A cam
follower in a barrel cam produces a variable load
ing . After a relatively short period of service ,
wear in the cam track often results in an additional
severe impact loading .
High speed motion pictures and vibration moni
toring equipment frequently revealvariable loading
or impact loading conditions where only static loads
had been assumed .
A variable load necessitates use of a higher
safety factor than a static load does . An impact load
also requires use of a higher safety factor .
The presence of local areas of concentrated
stresses are usually ignored in assigning a safety
factor under static load . However , under impact or
 Loads and Their Evaluation / 2 1 . - 5

variable load , these concentrated stresses have a

TABLE 1 . - ALLOWABLE STRESSES
vital role in reducing the maximum allowable
stresses , Conservative Interpretation of AISC Specifications
High stress calculations are most commonly as
sociated with abrupt section changes . They also are Tension
present at points of contact between a member and o = .60 oy

its support or load . An example of this exists where

pressures of high intensity evolve between mechani Bending o = .60 Oy
cal fasteners and the members they connect .
Traditional Safety Factor
Shear T = .40 Oy
One procedure for determining the factor of
safety , following traditional practices of the ma
chinery builders , is as follows :

012
. .
Compression l o on _ _

_
(L
)2
1 . assign an initial factor of safety of 3 ; and = 1 927 6872EU
2. if a cast material , multiply by 1 43'; and from zero to C

3 . if a brittle material , multiply by 1 . 2 ; and

or
4 . if impact loads , multiply by 2 .

o
=

(L
)
-v
1
For example , the factor of safety of the follow 72

E
ing materials would be :

)2
92
/L
. 1
1. rolled steel 3.0

.
?
L

C
2. cast steel ( 3 x 113 ) 4.0

16
900

2
1
3 . malleable iron 4.0

\
( 3 x 143 ) or

=
o

92
4 . gray cast iron 4.8

1
x 1. 2 )

)
L

.
/
r
( 3 x 113
5. extruded aluminum 3. 0

900
, 23
6 . cast aluminum ( 3 x 1% ) 4.0 272

E
/
=
:C
where

Oy
Voy

malleable iron design subjected impact

to

For further discussion of allowable stresses for

A

of

loads would thus be assigned service factor

8
a

Columns see Sect

.

2
5
.
.
on

These service factor values are based their

being applied the ultimate strength material
of

Structural Safety Factors

to

other words the bar steel ten

In

be used
in
to
if
,

ultimate tensile strength The structural field has widely adopted values
an

of

sion member has

for the safety factor applied various ma
be
000 psi dividing by the service factor of would
to

to
90
,

give the allowable unit stress 000 psi terials AISC research and specifications have been
30
of

be
to

.
,

design computations interpreted give corresponding allowable

to

used
in

working with variable stresses Table

1

fatigue loads
(

).
or

the
If

of
proper endurance value for the material These AISC
American Institute Steel Con
is

divided
(

by the factor safety as found above struction allowable values are realistic terms
of

in
)
.

superior materials However the lower

of

today
,
's

sometimes simpler apply the service fac yield strength

of of

values are based the material

is

to

on
It

tor as multiplier the previous

on

calculated load
the and not ultimate strength
to

In

the view
a

specific member thereby giving us the allowable arguments designing avoid permanent
of

favor
to
in
,

be used our computations rather than the deformation not just failure these values appear
to

load
in

allowable unit stress be more appropriate today need

to

to
.

's

either case whether the service factor ap

of is
In

Reducing the Safety Factor

plied divisor
as

the ultimate strength the

to
a

material or as multiplier the calculated load The safety factor figured into design calculations
to

in
a

the member we would end up with member that often recognized being too large and prob
is

as

. is
,

would fail only the applied forces reached times ably adding unnecessarily the product cost Very
if

to
3

its rated load bearing capacity often safety codes dictate the practice However
,
.
is -

code applies the designer

no

simply applying where loathe

is

An error sometimes made even

,
in

reduce his section dimensions arbitrarily This

is to

the safety factor

on

the service load the machine

to

particularly true his design princi

on

reliable since the in based

is
if

itself The results are not

as

pal forces and the safety factor has been covering

.

dead weight members developed horse

of

of

fluence
,

unstudied secondary
or
of

power and other factors involved the total forces the influence unknown
in
,

forces
on

the individual members are not considered the

in

resultant safety margin for any individual member The safety longer as critical de
no

factor
is

in
.
 .
2 1– 6 / Load and Stress Analysis

for
Fig . Brittle coatings are applied to surfaces of actual members study

of
3 surface stress
concentrations under various load conditions Here Stresscoat patterns are obtained from
,
.

dynamic loads
on

tractor track frame

.

Fig Stress analysis

4
.

by photo elasticity
study is
on

of

based the
stress pattern revealed
by passing polarized
light through trans
a

model
of

parent the
member subjected
to

load Pattern varies

.

load
of

the amount
as

varies
.
 Loads and Their Evaluation / . -
2 1 7

NO LO A D LOW LOAD HIGH LOAD

ALT
by
Fig The principle analysis photoelasticity adapted

of
stress has been
5
.

direct readout bonded actual structures and members

gages Here are
to

to
-

.
Photo Stress rosettes that accurately reveal both orientation and magnitude
principal strains within areas
of

of
limited strain gradient
,

.
sign calculations for many machine members This EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

5
.
of .

mainly due the widespread adoption im

is

reducing the safety factor

To
to

well as

as
aid

to
in
proved electrical and hydraulic overload controls improve machine performance machinery builders
,

,
slip clutches overload relief beds presses for
are turning more frequently experimental stress
in
,

to
example more reliable shear pins qualifying fix analysis provides

of
mathemati
,

This verification
prevent oversize castings from
.
tures or stations
to

cal analyses and also more detailed knowledge

of
,
entering machinery station double blank detec complex force fields which discourage mathemati
,
a

tors presses and other such devices The criti

on

cal analysis
,

the safety factor also minimized by .

of

cal nature
is

materials more re The primary measurements are made

of
generally better reliability strains
of

, ,

that develop the member under load From these

, in
manufacturing quality
of

fined control and other

.
advancements strain values the stresses can be interpolated

.
.

experimental stress analysis are

of

Still overload devices often lead machine Four tools

to
,

stoppage The design must balance increasing cost these

:
.

of lost productive time against the further cost re Brittle coatings are used study surface

to
1
.

ductions building machinery made possible dangerous stress

of
stresses and locate areas
to
in

through lowering the safety factor concentrations Fig

.

3
.
).
(

The precise influence of concentrated stresses Photoelasticity study stress dis

is

used
to
2

fabricating methods
.

section changes for

or

due
to

tribution through cross section ig

example can be determined analytically or
4
a

.
).
(F
,

experimentally Mechanical strain gages are used primarily

3
.
.

Fig The wire grid and

6
.

etched foil strain gages shown

-
the

here are most common types

.

Electromechanical strain gages

change
of

exhibit electrical
a

resistance with change

in
a

strain This change linear and

is
.

can be measured
.
 .
2 1 – 8 / Load and Stress Analysis

Instrumentation for use with strain gages pro

vide a continuous reading as strain develops . Thus ,
they permit a more comprehensive history of elastic
behavior under dynamic loading than is possible with
either brittle coatings or photoelasticity . However ,
brittle coatings are inexpensive, simple to use , and
frequently provide all of the information needed by
revealing distribution of maximum stresses at the
surface of the member . Brittle coatings require
considerable skill to make an accurate quantitative
analysis .
Whereas the other techniques are limited to sur
face readings , photoelasticity is especially valuable
where further knowledge is needed of stress distri
Fig . 7 Here , flexible etched - foil gages are bution across a section . In general , photoelastic
applied to bend lines of a steel member to re study is more expensive than the other techniques
veal stress behavior under load . and is fairly slow . It depends on transparent models
of the member but is often limited to two - dimen
sional models . In either case , it may not reflect all
of the forces to which the three - dimensional mem
ber would be exposed .
to make measurements of large forces , or in the These limitations do not apply to (Zandman )
field where other techniques have limitations . photo - elasticity techniques employing Photo Stress
gages mounted directly to various surface areas of
4. gages are very sensitive
Electrical strain
application (Fig . 6 ) . They are very the machine member ( Fig . 5 ) .
and flexible in
small and often can be used where space does not Membrane analogy is another useful tool of Ex
permit mechanical strain gages. They can detect perimental Stress Analysis and will be described
variations in strain measured in micro - inches . later in Section 3 .6 .

Fig. 8 Measurements read by electromechanical strain gages are amplified and fed into
an oscillograph for permanent continuous record of the member 's behavior under load .
Here , structural strains on a proposed side -delivery rake design are recorded as equip
ment is pulled over obstacles .
 SECTION .
2 2

Properties of Materials
1 . IMPORTANCE OF PROPERTIES specimen is placed in a tensile testing machine , and
All materials have certain properties which an load is applied to it by pulling the jaws
axial
must be known in order to promote their proper use . holding the ends of the specimen in opposing direc
These properties are essential to selection of the tions at a slow and constant rate of speed , Figure 2 .
best material for a given member . As the pulling progresses , the specimen elon
In the design of machine members , the proper
gates at a uniform rate which is proportionate to the
ties of material which are of primary concern are rate at which the load or pulling force increases .
those that indicate material behavior under certain Original distance
types of load . Some property of material is called between points
for in each of the basic design formulas .
Properties commonly found in engineering hand
books and suppliers catalogs ( Table 1) are these :
1 . ultimate tensile strength
2 . yield strength in tension
3. elongation
4 . modulus of elasticity
5 . compressive strength
6 . shear strength
7. endurance limit
Other properties such as modulus of resilience
and ultimate energy resistance , may also be given .
The various properties are best defined by a
description of what happens when a specimen of the
material is subjected to load during laboratory tests .
- 21
final distance or 25
2 . TENSILE PROPERTIES elongation in 2 "
%

In a tensile test , the machined and ground speci

men of the material is marked with a centerpunch
Fig . 1 Tensile test specimen before and

at two points 2 " apart , as shown in Figure 1. The after testing to failure , showing maximum
elongation .

TABLE 1 - PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF CONSTRUCTIONAL ALLOY STEELS

Yield UIT . Nominal Composition , %

Producer Alloy Poini . Strength , Elong. , C Mo Si Cu Mo Cr Ni Other
psi psi %

Great Lakes N- A-Xtra 80 80 , 000 95 , 000 18 0 . 15 0 . 80 0 . 70 0 . 20 0. 65 0 . 09 ZI

Steel 90 90 , 000 105 , 000 18 0. 15 0. 80 0 . 70 0 . 20 0 . 65 0 . 09 Zr
100 100 , 000 115 , 000 18 0. 15 0. 80 0. 70 0. 20 0 65 0 . 09 Zr
110 110 , 000 125 , 000 18 0 . 15 0. 80 0. 70 0 . 20 0 . 65 0 09 Zr
25 25 25
15 15 15

25 25 25

90 , 000 105, 000

25 25 25

Jones & Laughlin Jalloy - S- 90 18

0 0 0
0 0 0

1 1 1

0 0 0
. . .
. . .

. . .

. . .

Jalloy - S- 100 100 , 000 115 , 000

Jalloy- S- 110 110 , 000 125 , 000
115

000

,
18

15

80

25

35

55

60

85

Lukens Steel 100 000

,

,
1
T

B
V
0

0
.

.
90 85

8 20

20 15

00 00

65 000
15 15

2515

2525

5025

Republic Steel 000

7065

, ,

Republic
, ,

0 0

1 1

0 0

1 1

0 0

1 1
. .

. .

.
70

000 000
.
.

.
100

000 000

115

000 000

60
18

15

80

25

35

55

85

US Steel
,

,
.T

B
V
0

0
1

Youngstown Yoloy
65

95

20

12

60

30

00

80
S

1
.

Sheet Tube
&

Table courtesy PRODUCT ENGINEERING Magazine

-
 2 2
. -
2

( &

Jones
of

Steel

Steel
&

Iron

Sheet
US Steel
Bethlehem
Alan Wood
TABLE

Producer
&

Armco Steel

Inland Steel

Lukens Steel
Kaiser Steel

Youngstown
America
2

Crucible Steel

Colorado Fuel

National Steel

Republic Steel
Steel and
/ Load and

Great Lakes

Pittsburgh Steel
Laughlin

Weirton Steeli

Tube
N N
Ex Ex - - Tri Hi Hi Hi

JLX
Tri

GLX
- - - -

GLX
- - A A

GLX
GLX
- - - - -

Jalten
- -
- - - - - - - - -

Yoloy
Yoloy
X

Yoloy
Yoloy
- - X
Stress

Mayari

Man
60 5550 45

Ten
Ten
-

Steel

Ten
Maxeloy
- -

Kaisaloy
Clay loy
45

Steel

Cor Ten
- - 60 55 50

Cor Ten
Republic

Par Ten
Republic
M M E WW WW R

Man Ten
- - - -W
WWW No
Dynalloy 1
Dynalloy II

5045 M .

Yoloy EHS
Man 440
-B -A (

Yoloy 50W
Yoloy 45W
Pitt Ten No

Yoloy A242
50

No
1

HSX
Alloy

. . (
1 1

Man Ten A440

)

A440
Medium Manganese

High Tensile
)
High Strength No . 1
Analysis

Manganese Vanadium

High Manganese
Structural High Strength
50 50 50 50 50 5060 55 50 45 50 50 5845 50 6055 50 4550 5050 50 50 5050 50 50 50 50 50
50 45 45505045 50 50 5045 5050 50 , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
psi

, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
Yield

, , , , , , , ,
Point,

50 , 000

50 , 000

50, 000

000
45 , 000

000
000
40 , 000
45 , 000

45, 000

000
000

000
000
000
000
000
000
000 000

000
000

000
000
000

000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000

000
000
000

000
000
000
45 000
000
000

000
000

000
000
000
000

000

000
000
000
70 75 70 75 70 70 70 70 8075 70 65 70 75 8360 70 8075 70 65 70 7070 70 70 75 70 70 70 70 75 70
70 65 707070 80 70 70 70 , , , , , , , , . , , , , , , , , . , , , , , , , , , , ,
psi

, , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
Ult .

70 , 000

000
60 , 000
60 , 000
62 , 000

000
000
64 , 000

000
000
70 , 000
70 , 000

000

000
000

000
000

000
000
000

000
000
000
000
000

000

000
000
000
000

000
000

000
000
000
000
000

000

000
000
000
000

62 000

000

000
000
000

000
000

000
- PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION

%
Strength , Elong

20 22
22
.,

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
. . . . . . . 0 0 0 0 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IC
0. 15

0 . 25
0. 15

0. 10
0 . 15

0 . 22
0 . 15

- 2515 12 25 15 1515 15 15 27 30 12 20 15 15 1515 25 15 15 22 28 2512 22 15 22 25 12

15 15 23 2518 1822 15 22 12 28 25 25 20 12 12

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 . . .
Mo

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. . . 0. . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 . 70
0 . 80

0 . 70
0 . 80

0 . 60

1. 25
1. 35

75
75

75
35 75 25 20 25 35 75

75
75 75 75 35 75 75 50 40 30 25 35 3575

75
65 65 40 60 00 0025 25 35 35 75 75 35 3575 75 60 50 60 25

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Si

. . . . . . .
0. 15

0 . 30
0 . 15
0 . 30

0 . 25
0 . 10
0. 30

30 20 30 75 1010 10 10 30 35 50 60 10 10 1010 25 10 10 30 30 30 15 35 50 30 30 55
25 30 30 3030 30 30 10 30 30 10 10 50 50
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cu

. . 0. . . .
OF HIGH - STRENGTH

. . . . . . .
0 . 60
0 . 60
0. 45

0 . 20
0 . 45

40 20 35 30 35 30 30 20 20 20 95 50 20 30 50
20 35 35 3520 00 40 2065 85 20 25

0 0 0 0 0 0
0 . . . . .
. .
Mo
LOW

0. 10
0 . 10

40 10 20 10 10 15 18

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 . . .
. . . . . . .
Co

80 30 55 80 25 25 25 70
40 40
Nominal Composition , %

0 0 1
ALLOY

0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . .
. . . . . . . . . . .0
Ni

0. 75

Table courtesy PRODUCT ENGINEERING

0 . 75
0 . 55
0 . 55

55

75 65 40 60 60 50
70 70 70 65 70
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
o.

0 0 0
.
V V V,
, , . . . . . . . .
. . . . .

ů
. . .

o
. . .2
10 02
03

02
STEELS

01
05 02

04
02 02 01 10 03 03 03 Ti Ti Ti 03 03 03 03
Other

0 02 V

V V v V V
V V V Zr Cb CbCbCb Zr
CbCb CbCb

Magazine
Cb Cb
 Properties of Materials / 2 2 . - 3

Fig . 2 A tensile testing machine applies

a pulling force test piece . The max
on the
imum load applied before failure of the
piece , divided by the original cross
section , equals the material ' s ultimate ten
sile strength .

The load divided by the cross - sectional area of the
specimen within the gage marks represents the unit
stress or resistance of the material to the pulling
or tensile force . This stress ( o ) is expressed in
pounds per square inch , psi. The elongation of the
specimen represents the strain ( € ) induced in the
material and is expressed in inches per inch of
length , in . / in . Stress and strain are plotted in a
diagram , shown in simplified form in Figure 3 .
The proportional relationship of load to elonga
tion or of stress to strain , continues until a point
, strain the specimen by a specified small amount
is reached where the elongation begins to increase
at a faster rate . This point, beyond which the elon
gation of the specimen no longer is proportional to
the loading, is the proportional elastic limit of the
material . When the load is removed , the specimen
returns to its original dimensions .
Beyond the elastic limit , further movement of the
Ultimate
test machine jaws in opposing directions causes a
permanent elongation or deformation of the speci
men material . In the case of a low - or medium
carbon steel , a point is reached beyond which the
metal stretches briefly without an increase in load .
This is the yield point .
For low - and medium - carbon steels , the unit
stress at the yield point is considered to be the
material ' s tensile yield strength ( cy) . * For other
metals , the yield strength is the stress required to
beyond the elastic limit . For ordinary commercial
purposes , the elastic limit is assumed to coincide
with the yield strength .
Beyond the material ' s elastic limit , continued
pulling causes the specimen to neck down across its
diameter or width . This action is accompanied by a
further acceleration of the axial elongation , which is
now largely confined within the relatively short
necked - down section .
strength
The pulling force eventually reaches a maximum
value and then falls off rapidly , with little additional

TT
elongation of the specimen before failure occurs . In
failing , the specimen breaks in two within the
psi

,
Fracture
50 Upper yield necked -down portion . The maximum pulling load ,
a point expressed as a stress in psi of the original cross
1000

sectional area of the specimen , is the material ' s

Lower yield point ultimate tensile strength ( Ou) . *
Stress

Proportional
elastic limit Ductility and Elasticity

the specimen are then put to

of

The two halves

gether and the distance between the two punch
,

marks measured Fig The increase length

is

in
1
.
).
(

gives the elongation the specimen

of

and
in

is
025

,
100

125

2
"

0050 075 qi50 0175 0200 0225 usually expressed as The cross
,

percentage
0
0

0
.

point of failure give

at

Strain section also measured

is

to
in

in
,
./
.

for mild the reduction area which usually expressed as

is

Fig stress strain diagram

in

,
A

percentage and re
3

-
.

showing percentage Both elongation

steel ultimate tensile strength and
a

.
,

the

other properties Here most critical The symbols commonly used for yield strength ultimate
,
.

,
*
the

portion magnified not indicate the type

of

strength and axial strain

of

curve
do
is

load
,
.

.
 . -
2 2 4 / Load and Stress Analysis

may vary according to the specific alloy . Cast iron ,

Tungsten for example , has a modulus of elasticity in tension

-Lt
between 10 , 000 , 000 and 25 , 000 , 000 psi , depending on
the grade .
Steel

,
psi

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

3
.
1000

The general design practice assume that the

is
to
compressive strength of steel equal its ten

is

to
a
Stress

sile strength This practice

is
also adhered

in
to
.
some rigidity design calculations where the modu

in ,
elasticity the material

of

of
lus tension used

is
o

even though the loading compressive

cost

iron
f

is
Rubber

.
in

I
The actual ultimate compressive strength

of
steels may be somewhat greater than the ultimate
002

001 003 004 005

.

.
compressive
0

0
tensile strength The variation

in
.
Strain
least partially dependent the condi
in

in
,

values

on
is
at
./
.

the compressive strength

of
tion the steel

an
of
Fig Stress strain curves for several

:
4

-
.

materials show their relative elasticity

.
Only that portion
of

curve displaying
a

proportional relationship between stress and

strain diagrammed
is

,
psi
area percentage indicate material
of

duction the
's

1000
ductility
.

most design members es

-0
the design
of

is
it
,
In

Stress

Endurance
sential keep the stresses resulting from loading oo
to

10
within the elastic range the elastic limit very
If
.

Limit
close the material yield strength exceeded
is
to

,
's

permanent deformation takes place due plastic

to

slippage along molecular slip planes When

or

flow
.

this happens the material

104

105

106

107

108
strain hardened and
is
,

thereafter has higher effective elastic limit and Cycles

a

of
N

Stress
"

"
-
higher yield strength
.

Cold working operations during manufacture Fig Fatigue are plotted

on
test results
of

5
.
a

deliberately strain harden work

of
or

member diagram number cycles

to

vs

stress
,

;
O
N
-

harden the material are becoming more common before failure

,

practice Although such operations increase the

.

yield strength and resistance deformation they steel closer

its tensile strength than
to

annealed
is

to
,

ultimate strength
no

on

have effect the member would be the case with cold worked steel There
a
's

(
-

and may create degree of risk some applica relationship between the compressive .
on

of

less
is
a

tions because of the lowered ductility

of

strength and the tensile strength cast iron and

.

stress some materi non ferrous metals

of

Under the same amount

-

.)
,

als stretch less than others elas compressive test conducted similar that
of

The modulus
is

to
A
.

ticity material simplifies the comparison for tensile properties but short specimen
of

of

sub
is
,

a
E

a
(
)

another material jected compressive load ap

of of

its stiffness with that This That force

is
on to

is
,
a
.

property the ratio the stress the strain plied the specimen from two directions axial
to
is

in

within the elastic range opposition The ultimate compressive strength

is
.
:

Stress reached when the specimen fails by crushing

.

elasticity
o

of

Modulus
=

E
·

Strain stress strain diagram developed during the

is
E

elas test and values are obtained for compressive yield

On

of

stress strain diagram the modulus

,
,
a

strength and other properties

of

ticity represented visually by the straight por However instead

,
is

the curve where the stress directly pro the Young modulus of elasticity conventionally
of

tion
is

's

the tangential modulus elasticity

of

portional the strain

is

The steeper the curve the used

E
,
to

)
(
,
of .

usually obtained This will

be

higher the modulus elasticity and the stiffer the discussed Section
in
.

Compression
on

material Fig
2
.5

.
4
.
).
(

elasticity Compression more complex

of
of

Any steel has modulus tension long columns

is
in

,
a

approximately psi
of

bend
of

materials since failure develops under the influence

30

000 000 Other

,

a
.

ing moment that increases as the deflection in
creases . Geometry of the member has much to do
with its capacity to withstand compressive loads ,
and this will be discussed more completely under
Section 2 .5 on Compression .
With long columns , the effect of eccentric load
ing is more severe in the case of compression than
tension ,
4. SHEAR STRENGTH
There is no recognized standard method of test
ing for shear strength of a material . Fortunately ,
pure shear loads are seldom encountered in ma
chinery design but shear stresses frequently de
velop as a byproduct of principal stresses or the
application of transverse forces .
The ultimate shear strength (T) is generally as
sumed to be 34 the material ' s ultimate tensile
strength .
Some shear values are obtained from torsional
loading , but these are not valid for stresses beyond
the elastic limit . The ultimate shear strength is
often obtained from an actual shearing of the metal ,
usually in a punch - and - die setup using a ram moving
slowly at a constant rate of speed . The maximum
load required to punch through the metal is observed ,
and ultimate shear strength is calculated from this .
5 . ENDURANCE LIMIT
When the load on a member is constantly varying
in value , is repeated at relatively high frequency , or
constitutes a complete reversal of stresses with
each operating cycle , the material ' s endurance
limit must be substituted for the ultimate strength
where called for by the design formulas .
Under high load values , the variable or fatigue
mode of loading reduces the material ' s effective
ultimate strength as the number of cycles increases .
At a given high stress value , the material has a
definite service or fatigue life , expressed as “ N ”
cycles of operation .
for
fa
Fig . 6 Typical setup
tigue testing under pulsating
axial stresses
.
FLOWER
Properties of Materials / 2. 2 - 5
series of identical specimens are tested , each
A
under a specific load value expressible as a unit
stress . The unit stress is plotted for each specimen
against the number of cycles before failure . The
result is a o - N diagram ( Fig . 5 ) .
The endurance limit ( usually Or ) is the maximum
stress to which the material can be subjected for an
indefinite service life . Although the standards vary
for various types of members and different indus
tries ,it is a common practice to accept the assump
tion that carrying a certain load for several million
cycles of stress reversals indicates that load can
be carried for an indefinite time.
Theoretically the load on the test specimens
should be of the same nature as the load on the
proposed machine member , i. e . tensile , torsional ,
etc . ( Fig . 6).
Since the geometry of the member , the presence
of local areas of high stress concentration , and the
condition of the material have considerable influ
ence on the real endurance limit , prototypes of the
member would give the most reliable information as
test specimens . This is not always practical how
ever . When building one - of - a -kind , fatigue tests
are seldom possible . Lacking any test data or
handbook values on endurance limit , see Section 3 . 2
on Fatigue .
6 . IMPACT PROPERTIES
Impact strength is the ability of a metal to absorb
the energy of a load delivered onto the member at
high velocity . A metal may have good tensile
strength and good ductility under static loading, and
yet break if subjected to a high - velocity blow .
The two most important properties that indicate
the material ' s resistance to impact loading are ob
tained from the stress - strain diagram ( Fig . 7 ) . The
first of these is the modulus of resilience ( u ) which
is a measure of how well the material absorbs
LEVER
PULL HEAD DYNAMOMETER -
UPPER
TEST SPECIMEN
TURNBUCKLE
VARIABLE ECCENTRIC
MOTOR
PULL HEAD
 . -
2 2 6 / Load and Stress Analysis

Fig
the stress strain

In
7
.

, -
diagram

at for
Unit impact the
stress
moment

of
elongation
(0) ultimate stress factor

is

in
a
determining the toughness

of
the material ulti

of
terms

in
mate energy resistance

.
Unit strain

(€
)
energy providing practicality the following formula can

be
not stressed above the elastic used
is
. it

:
limit yield point indicates the material re
or

It

s
. '

Uu

Oy

eu
ou
deformation from impact loading

2 +
sistance
to

See (
Impact
on

Section
3
1
.

.)

where

:
resilience the triangular
of

The modulus
is
(u
)

Oy
material shear strength
area OAB under the stress strain curve having its

's 's
-

apex For practicality let the

Ou
the elastic limit material ultimate strength
at

=
tri
.

the right
of

yield strength be the altitude

at
point

of

of
Eu
the material
,

strain
o
(
)

=
angle and the resultant strain
)Ey

be the base ultimat

ultimate stress
.
(

Thus
,

Since the absorption actually volu energy

of

is

a
metric property psi
2E

lbs

cu
Uu

Uu
the
u

in

in
in

in
,
=

.-

.
.
/
Tests developed for determining the impact
where modulus elasticity
of

strength materials are often misleading

of

their
=
E

in
absorption energy actually volu results Nearly all testing done with notched
is
of

is
Since the
.
a

metric property psi specimens which case more accurately the

in

is
cu

lbs

it
,

the
in

in

in

in
,

=
u

/
.-

.
.

testing for notch toughness

When impact loading exceeds the elastic limit
The two standard tests are the Izod and Charpy .
of

the material calls for

or

yield strength

.
it
,

specimens used
(

The two types these tests and

of

in
toughness the material rather than resilience
in

applying the load are shown Figure

.

of

the ability resist frac the method

in
Toughness the metal
of

to
,

universal impact
be

Both tests can made

by

ture under impact loading its ulti

in
8

a
indicated
is

.
,

testing machine energy

of
mate energy resistance measure of The minimum amount
uu

This
is

fracture the speci

a

falling pendulum required

.
(
)

in

to

how well the material absorbs energy without

a

the material
of

men considered be measure

is

In to

fracture
a

s
'
.

impact strength actuality test conditions are

,
.

The ultimate energy resistance

uu

the total
is

seldom duplicated the machine member and

in
(
)

area OACD under the stress strain curve For application

of

these test data unrealistic

is
-

Fig Typical Izod left

8

)
.

and Charpy ight impact

)
(r

of

test specimens methods

of ,

holding and applying the

test load The notch
V
-
.

specimens shown have in

an

cluded angle
of of

45° and
in a
. metres

bottom radius 010

0
.
"
300

394 the notch

a

0
.

.
10

165
394
952

50394
"
-
. 2

"
—

"
.
"
2
1
 SECTION
Properties
1. IMPORTANCE OF SECTION PROPERTY
The basic formulas used in the design of ma
chine members include as one factor the critical
property of the material and as another factor
the corresponding critical property of the member ' s
cross - section . The property of the section dictates
how efficiently the property of the material will
be utilized .
The property of section having the greatest im
portance is the section ' s area ( A ) . However , most
design problems are not so simple that the area is
used directly . Instead there is usually a bending
aspect to the problem and , therefore , the rigidity
factor normally is the section ' s moment of inertia
( I) and the simple strength factor is the section
modulus ( S ).
Another property of section that is ofmajor im
portance is the section ' s torsional resistance ( R ), a
modified value for standard sections .
2 . AREA OF THE SECTION (A )
The area ( A ) of the member ' s cross - section is
used directly in computations for simple tension ,
compression , and shear . This is true in both
rigidity and strength designs . Area ( A ) of a section
is expressed in square inches .
If the section is not uniform throughout the length
of the member , it is necessary to determine the
section in which the greatest unit stresses will be
incurred .
In those computations for bending where the sec
tion is a complex configuration , the area of the sec
tion is frequently of subordinate influence on the
results . In such cases , it is sometimes sufficiently
accurate to consider this area as made up of a
series of rectangular elements rather than figure
the section area precisely .
3 . MOMENT OF INERTIA (1)
Whereas moment is the tendency toward rota
a all added together . This summation of moments is
tion about axis , the moment of inertia of the
an
cross - section of a machine member is a measure
of the resistance to rotation offered by the section ' s
geometry and size . Thus , the moment of inertia is a
2. 3
of Sections
useful property in solving design problems where a
bending moment or torsional moment is involved .
The moment of inertia is needed in solving any
rigidityproblem in which the member is a beam or
long column . It is a measure of the stiffness of a
beam . Moment of inertia is also required for fig
uring the value of the polar moment of inertia ( J ) ,
unless a formula is available for finding torsional
resistance ( R) .
The moment of inertia ( I) is used in finding the
section modulus ( S) and thus has a role in solving
simple strength designs as well as rigidity designs .
The moment of inertia of a section is expressed in
inches raised to the fourth power ( in . “ ).
Finding the Neutral Axis
In working with the section ' s moment of inertia ,
the neutral axis ( N . A . ) of the section must usually be
located . In a member subjected to a bending load
for example , the neutral axis extends through the
length of the member parallel to the member ' s
structural axis and perpendicular to the line of ap
plied force . The neutral axis represents zero strain
and therefore zero stress . Fibers between the neu
tral axis and the surface to the inside of the arc
caused by deflection under load , are under compres
sion . Fibers between the neutral axis and the sur
face to the outside of the arc caused by deflection
under load , are under tension .
For practical purposes this neutral axis is as
sumed to have a fixed relationship (n ) to some ref
erence axis , usually along the top or bottom of the
section . In Figure 1 , the reference axis is taken
through the base line of the section . The total sec
tion is next broken into rectangular elements . The
moment (M ) of each element about the section ' s
reference axis , is determined :
M = area of element multiplied by the distance
of element ' s center of gravity from refer
( y)
ence axis of section
The moments of the various elements are then
next divided by the total area ( A ) of the section .
This gives the distance ( n ) of the neutral axis from
the reference axis , which in this case is the base
line or extreme fiber .
 . -
2 3 2 / Load and Stress Analysis

FIGURE 1

10 "

where b = width of rectangle , and

Problem 1
d = depth of rectangle
The neutral axis of the compound section shown
in Figure 1 is located in the following manner : + Moment of Inertia by Elements (Second Method ) -

ΣΜ sum of all moments In the second method , the whole section is broken
n = or
. .. .. . .. . .. ... (
into rectangular elements . The neutral axis of the
ΣΑ total area
whole section is first found . Each element has a
(4 · 6 · 14) + (2 · 12 · 6) + (4 · 8 · 2) moment of inertia about its own centroid or center
of gravity ( C . G . ) equal to that obtained by the for
(4 · 6) + (2 · 12) + (4 • 8)
mula shown for rectangular sections . ( See Table 1 . )
+ 44 + 64 544
i
_ 336
32 en In addition , there is a much greater moment of
24 + 24
inertia for each element because of the distance of
= 6 .8"
its center of gravity to the neutral axis of the whole
section . This moment of inertia is equal to the
Thus , the neutral axis is located 6 . 8 " above the area of the element multiplied by the distance of its
reference axis or base line and is parallel to it . C . G , to the neutral axis squared .

Finding the Moment of Inertia Thus , the moment of inertia of the entire section
about its neutral axis equals the summation of the
There are various methods to select from to get two moments of inertia of the individual elements ,
the value of moment of inertia (I ) . Six good methods
are presented here .

Moment of Inertia for Typical Sections Problem 2

( First Method )
Having already located the neutral axis of the
The first
method for finding the moment of in section in Figure 1 , the resulting moment of inertia
ertia is to use the simplified formulas given for
typical sections . These are shown in Table 1. This
method for finding I is the most appropriate for b6 "
simple sections that cannot be broken down into
smaller elements. In using these formulas , be sure
to take the moment of inertia about the correct line .
Notice that the moment of inertia for a rectangle
about its neutral axis is –
bd3
127 . . . . (2 )
Intitati I '
4 8" ī
Neutral
Axis
6.8 "
L
4"
but the moment of inertia for a rectangle about its
base line is –
The 10
bd3
In = bd . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3 ) FIGURE 2
 Properties of Sections / .
2 3 – 3

of the section (detailed further in Fig . 2 ) about its TABLE 1 - PROPERTIES OF STANDARD SECTIONS
neutral axis is found as follows : Radiusof
Section
, . 83 Momentof
6 . 43
In =
In =
1 + (6 · 4 · 7.22 ) + 40
2
+ (2 . 8 · 1. 22) +
Inertia Modulus Gyration
12 , 12

10 · 43
04 + 10 . 4 . 4 . 82)
((10
12 + • 4

= 32 + 1244 + 85 .3 + 23 + 53 . 3 + 921 . 6

= 2359 in .

Moment of Inertia by Adding Areas ( Third Method )

With the third method it is possible to figure

moment of inertia of built - up sections without first
directly making a calculation for the neutral axis .
This method is recommended for use with weld
ments because the designer can stop briefly as a
plate is added to quickly find the new moment of in
ertia . If this value is not high enough , he simply
continues to add more plate and again checks this
value without losing any of his previous calculations .
Likewise if the value is too high , the designer may
deduct some of the plates and again check his re
sult . This is done in the samemanner as one using
an adding machine , whereby you can stop at any time
during adding and take a sub - total , and then proceed
along without disrupting the previous figures .

- bi

. (Dº_ ) | (Dd |
dº VD +

Neutral
- T T - n Axis
ab аъ
Trab

- İly Base Line

FIGURE
( 19 –
c8d

3
vanad
cºd
ab

* abcd
|
)
_
(

4a
)

V
a

Using the theorem for shifting the

parallel axis
of

inertia the moment inertia

of

axis for moment

,
a
of

the whole section about the reference line

is
y
y
-

Thus
:

M2
na
Iy

In

(4
=

(6
)
A

..

)
.
.
.

..
.
.

.
.
.
.

..
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
na
Iy
In

(5
=

.
.
.
)
.
.
.
.
.
–

where
:

its

inertia whole section about

of

moment
of
In
=

total moments about base

M

Sinon
non

neutral axis
,

total area
all
of

the moments inertia elements

of
of
Iy

sum
=
M2
and

nº

about common reference axis

of

-y
y
,

course
=

A2
the moments all elements
of
of

sum
=
M

Substituting this back into equation axis

about the same reference
(5
):

y
y
,
-

or of the areas all

of

Note neutral axis total area sum

of ,
=
A
(n
1,

AMP
)
:
-

elements
=
.

section
1

has dropped out

2 3 . - 4 / Load and Stress Analysis

resetting the slide rule , this figure Mis multi

for
Although Iy for any individual element is equal
to its area ( A ) multiplied by the distance squared plied by distance again give 160 inches

to

to
y

2
(

)
"
from its center of gravity to the reference axis the fourth power This value for the element

's
.
( y2) , each element has in addition a moment of in moment of inertia about the common reference
ertia ( 18) about its own center of gravity . This must axis recorded under the table

is

)Iy
in
y
y

(
-

.
be added in if it is large enough , although in most

of

of
the moment inertia the plate about

)Ig
If
cases it may be neglected :

(
gravity appears be significant

of
its own center

to

,
figured by multiplying

of
this value the width the

is
M2 plate by the cube its depth and dividing by

is of

12
.
placed the extreme

7
Ig
ly

This value for

.
..
.
.
..
.
..
.
.
..
.
.(
)
In

Ig
then
=

A=

in
-

right

be
hand column later added with the

to

in
,
-
The best way illustrate this method work

of
is
to

to
Thus

Iy
sum

,
.
problem
.
a

bd3

18

12
=
Problem
3

10

43
:
53

in
=

.“
lo

.
"
4
ņ

Usually the value

of
small enough that

Ig

is

it
need not be considered our example this value

In

,
.
14
53 could be considered although will not make

of

it
,

,
3
much difference the final value The greater the

in

.
of
depth any element relative the maximum width

to
of

of
the more the likelihood
12
the section its value

Ig
,
@
4
"

being significant
Base
y
"

.
The table will now be filled out for plates and

B
as well
C

FIGURE

. Ay
My bds
4

M
in=

=
y
A

A
: b
d

1,
Distance

?
y
Plate Size

in
12

in
will refer
.y of

as
be

The base this section used

.
a

10
x4

Every time plate added its 40 80 160. 53

.0 .3 .3
ence axis

0
0 0 0
2
, is

"
"

.
"

.
y
,

,
a
-

X8

24 16

85
dimensions are put down along with 128 1024
14 8

table form

.0
"
2
B
in

"
"

|
.

32
x4

its distance from the reference axis No other 336 4704

.0

.0
6

"
y

"
"

.
.
(
)

information needed suggested that the Total 80 544 5888 170.

is

as is

.0

.0

6
.0

1
It
.

plate section size be listed width times depth 6058

its width first and depth last

is

that
,
;
b

d
x

.
(

;
Is
In

-
M
1
=

+
. Ay

My bd3
M
=

=
y
A

. A

.1
. b
d

Size
?
.

Distance
y

1x

Plate
12
in

in

in

in =

1200
'

sene 544
(

-)

5888 170 6059 3700

+
=
".

.6

=
-

80
10

x4
2
"
"
"

2359
in
=

X8
B

.*
8
2

"
"
"

x4
6
"
"

Total 544
M

PĀ80
_

and
-
n

up

from bottom
=
6
8

)
.
"

The above table has been filled out with all

of

the
given information from the plates The rest of the treating M2
of

recommended method
.

on

computations are very quickly done the

A

A
or
on

slide rule
by

Here we
on

slide rule divide the rule

is
to

80 M
,

calculator and placed into the table

.

Notice how
have 544 divided by which gives us
.

This
6
8
.
.

easy and fast each plate taken care

of
is

happens be the distance of the neutral axis from

to
.

Starting multiplied by
with plate Then without resetting the
10

the base reference line

is

to
in ,
A

4
"

"

entered in
sq

by

give slide rule multiply this 544 again by just sliding

40
an

of

area This value

is

,
.
.

the table under Without resetting the slide rule the indicator of the rule down 544 and read the
to

to
,
is A.

this figure for multiplied by distance answer as 3700 Many times necessary
to

know
is

to
y

it
A

2
"
(

, .

give
80

inches cubed This value for the element the neutral axis and can easily
be

found without
it
's
.

moment placed under the table Without any extra work

is

in
M

.
 Properties of Sections / . -5
2 3

M2
Problem 4 In = ly + 1g -

2"
– ( 88

656
)
= 7637

2747

in
.
656

M
and
Ā88

=
n
o0
"16

up
45
from bottom

=
7

(
.

)
"
of

of
Moment Inertia Rolled Sections
4
"
|
A

Fourth Method
A

)
"10

of
is
The fourth method the use steel tables found
the other steel handbooks

in
handbook and

C
S
FIGURE

I..
.
.

is .
5

These values are for any steel section which

further advantage this system as rolled and should be used whenever standard steel
To

of

,
show

,
a

sume that this resulting moment inertia

of sections are used

.
2359 not large enough and the section must
is
in
*
.
(

Inertia by Lincoln

of
be made larger Increasing the plate size Moment Rule
at

the top

“
I”
.

from the same as adding Fifth Method

to

is

(
X

)
6

4
x
"

"

"

"

a
area the already existing section
to

See
2

4
x
"

"

by
.

Figure The previous column totals are carried The fifth method was developed the Lincoln
5
.

forward and properties Electric Company and the Lincoln Moment Iner

of
only the added area need
of

, ,
,

tia Rule Figure must be used

An
be entered then solved using the corrected actual scale
In
is
to

.
,
.

drawing cross section

of
the member needed

is
totals

s
'

.
.

This method especially valuable for finding the

is
Ay Ay My bd moment inertia for complex cast sections
of
in =

M
in =

=
A

. b
d

.1

. ?

Plate

.
.

Size Distance
y

in

12
.

The reader can easily make his own

by
Rule
in
..

“
I”
following instructions the next right page which

on
Previous Section 80 544 5888 170
0

.0

.0

.6

,
.

has the necessary scale for cut out purposes

14
x4

New 112 1568 10

D

8
0

.6
.0
2

0
"
"

"

.
Total 7456 181
88 656 Basically the Lincoln Rule functions by con
.0

.2
.0

.0

“
I”
7637
verting irregular cross section two simple

to
an

-
676

5
RULE

Fig
I 3
2
The Rule permits -1
6
.

55
I
"
"

--
irregular section I
an

moment
RULE
's

quickly esti
be
of

inertia
to

2
mated from the sectional view 3
4
of

the member 5
190876
.

RULEI
gamis

I5
-
"T
RULES

LINCOLN
2 3 . - 6 / Load and Stress Analysis

67
5
. al

4
3 Fig . 7 -B An irregular sec
areas by
2
tion divided into 10

the " I" Rule . Contribution of

each area totalmoment ofto

inertia proportional to
is
width of area .
- - - X, X - -

I
Fig rectangle representing the top half
RULE

A
7
.
-

by
of

regular section divided into

10
areas the

,
a

Rule
"
"

rectangles actual scale drawing

of
that standard formulas can be used cross
so

the section
.

:
Fundamental principles involved include

of
gravity

of
Estimate the center
:

the section

1
.
section about its by imagining where the section would balance
of

of

moment
The inertia

if
1

a
(
)

neutral axis equals the sum

of

of

moments inertia supported this point Draw horizontal line

at

a
.
its top and bottom portions about the neutral axis through this
of

This called the neutral axis label

is

;
.

.
this
of

rectangle
of

The moment inertia about

o
.
"
"
(2

a
)

its base equals the sum of the moments of all lines parallel
of

its neutral axis

at
Draw the the

to
2
.

parts about the same base line top and bottom

of
and label these

10
the section
.

.
“

”
The Lincoln Rule divides the top and bottom upper portion

on
Place the rule section

of
“
I”

3
.

“
portions into parts The scale
I”
10

of

the rule such rule the top line and

is
is

number
so

10

on
that the
.

s
'

that the contribution of each parts

10
of

the the the neutral axis Mark off all points

to

10
on

its
is
0

.
proportional
of

of

total moment inertia the section through

is

and draw horizontal lines them This

.
the width of the individual part Thus Figure divides the top portion of the section into
to

areas

10
in
,
.

as .
all areas have the same width and
10

below
,
A
7
-

With engineer
scale the same scale
an

the same moment of inertia about axis xi

4
.

's

(
In
x

the drawing the average width oc

-

off

of
Figure wide as ma measure
as

area No twice
is

)
,
B
7

the top portion of

.
, -

cupancy
of

areas
10

jority each the

in

in

consequently
of

the other areas and has

,

up

the section and divide by This

10
twice the moment of inertia Area No three Add these
is

.
7
.

average width
of

will give the entire top section

an

times as wide and has three times the moment of

of .
inertia The rule has now transformed the top portion
.

the section into rectangle whose width equal

rec
is

to
Knowing that the moment
of

of

inertia
a
a

the average width

(I
)

sections and whose depth

10
of

tangular section about its base the

is

equal
-
-

the depth the section above the neutral

is

of
to

inertia equals the moment

of

axis Its moment of

bd3
.
=

the original irregular top portion

I

of

of

inertia the
very easy section
of

of

solve for the moment inertia

is

to

.
it

Figure Using the formula for finding rectangu

of
5
A

.
7

a
-
.

lar area about its base line find the moment in

of

Figure
of
of
To

find the moment

inertia
,
it
,
B
7
-

the top portion

of

of

first necessary convert the irregular shape ertia the section

is

to

to

equivalent rectangle done by simply This same procedure

an

is

This then repeated for the

, is

6
.

totaling the widths areas then dividing by portion

is 10
of

of

the bottom the section Remember that the

is .

The resultant figure the width of rectangle zero mark always placed
10

of

of on

the Rule the

a
.

“
”
I

which has the same moment of inertia about

X1

neutral axis and the mark the outside

10

on

the
x
-

the irregular section and can be used

as

the same area

in

.
a

formula
inertia of the top and bot
of

Add the moments

.

7
.

The following steps are used obtaining the portions

of

of

obtain the moment inertia the

to
in

tom
moment of inertia irregular part using
an

an
of

entire section
,

.
 -
8
- . -- 8 A

WC 41
19

WC 41
SIZE
10 6
9 4

SIZE
8
.-

DRAWING
2
. 7

DRAWING
|" 6

RULE
"
2
|

LENGTHS
FITS
5

LENGTHS
4

FITS

BEST

RULE
4

RULE
BEST

THAT
RULE
3 |"

RULE

OTHER
THAT
OTHER
10

LENGTH
10

FOR
"B 9

LENGTH
3 "

FOR
" 8

RULE
4 A"

:3
5 AU

RULE
7

RULE
.1 .2

SELECT
RULE
6

SEE
6

Serie
SELECT
7
..

SEE
8
9 12 6
"
10
|

RULE
Sections

Sections
Irregular

Irregular
MAKE YOUR OWN " I" RULE

|"5for
-
RULE

B
-
can make your own “ I ” Rule for
A
You
simply by cutting out the paper rules to
the right on this page , then adhesive
mounting them (one on each side ) to a
strip of plastic , metal , or card stock
also cut to size . Cut so as to remove o

"I"
the outer guide lines . 8
-8
RULE

If the rule base is of suitable thick 9

RULE

ness , cut right around both paper rules

"
and wrap over the edge of the plastic or
other base .

The printed rule bears themost com

2
D
|
"
Z
RULE

mon scales used by machinery designers .

3
6
4
"
3 7
5
6
| 8
RULE

Ž
8 9
LINCOLN

9
LINCOLN

10 10
 Properties of Sections / .
2 3 – 9

The Lincoln “ I” Rule is very accurate . At the

top and bottom of any section , where material con
tributes most to the moment of inertia of the sec
tion , there are more lines and individual areas ,
hence the average width can be determined quite TB
accurately . Near the neutral axis , where the indi – TRUE NEUTRAL AXIS
ORA
vidual areas are deeper and determination of aver
age width less accurate , material contributes less
to the moment of inertia and accuracy is relatively
unimportant . In other words , the “ I ” Rule is ac
curate where it needs to be , and where it is less
accurate , it does not matter .
The only consequential source of erroris intro
duced when locating the neutral axis . Even then , if
the neutral axis is placed anywhere within 20 % of the
true neutral axis , the maximum error possible is
only about 5 % . See Figure 8 .
Fig . 8 Assuming the neutral axis is at
When the axis is incorrectly located , it causes
B -B1 or C - C , results in a 5 % maximum
the moment of inertia of one half of the section to be
error , even though distance Dbc is a full
high while the moment of inertia of the other half
20 % of the total depth .
will be low . Thus their sum , which makes up the
total moment of inertia of the entire section , will
moment of inertia divided by the distance from N. A .
remain fairly constant .
to the outer fiber .
With little experience , it is possible to estimate
a
the neutral axis very closely . The resulting moment
Problem 5
of inertia should be accurate to 1 or 2 % .
However , if the section modulus also is required , To find the moment of inertia of the cross
it is necessary to more accurately determine the section shown in Figure 9, the following steps are
neutral axis since the section modulus equals the involved :
Top
poleron
09
16

5
4
3

"I"
NL

RULE
NEUTRAL AXIS

Y
RULE

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
BOTTOM
by

portions irregular section

of

Fig Top and bottom Rule

10

are divided into areas each the

9
.

.
"
ſ"
 .
2 3 – 10 / Load and Stress Analysis
5.43

TOP
SECTION

NEUTRAL
AXIS

BOTTOM
SECTION

177 %

Fig . 10 Irregular section conver Fig .Irregular section conver

11

ted to series of rectangles . ted to two simple rectangles .

1. Estimate the section ' s center of gravity (CG ) . 6 . Total the ave . ge widths and divide by 10 .
2. Draw neutral axis . The result is aver ce width (b ) , ( Fig . 11) .
3. Draw lines A -Ai and B -Bı . 7. Scale the distance from the neutral axis to
Select the scale on the “ I ” Rule that fits the the line A -Ai. This is depth (d ) .
section . 8 . Compute the moment of inertia of the top
5 . Scale the average width of each individual section above the neutral axis . Computa
area (Fig . 10 ) . tions are given below .
9. Repeat this procedure for the bottom section .
TOP PORTION BOTTOM PORTION Computations are given below .
10 . Add the moments for the top and bottom
Section Width Section Width sections together to obtain the moment of
inertia for the entire section .
45

00
1
1

.
.

00

45 Moment of Inertia by Unit Properties (Sixth Method )

3

. 1. 1.
.

67
WN
87 78

A
wooo

4
.

00
This sixth method called the Unit Properties
2
6 5
. .

85 00 Method very easy use and will save lot of

is

to
2 2
eros

. .

45 00 give
of

time The four sets Tables

voor
7

and
A
.

,
,
,
(2

5
)
.
00 00 00 00

43 unit values for section modulus above and mo

.7

2
. . . .

S
(
)
32

ment of inertia
coop

below for several sections which

7

2
. . .

,
)
(I

20
or

may welding forming

be

by

E fabricated
7

2
FNC

48
2

Values given each table are for section unit

in

deep all
other dimensions being based
on

the
= 67

,
54
) 28

Total Width Total Width

"
17
=

.
(b .

each table values are given for various

"

1 "

depth
Average Width
of In
77

Average Width
,

43
.
=
5

b
"

"
|
.

.
" (
)

ratios section width depth ranging from

to to
50

Depth
,

Depth
a
=

=
3
.5
(d

6
(d

width of
"
)

.
)

the depth
of

width times the

1
2

3
a
/
bottom

bd3
30 as

depth the plate expressed

of

The thickness
is
,

bds
bø°

% a
.
78

162
in

Itop
–

percentage
of

the depth and varies from

.
=

in

to
%
.
I

.0
=

=
3

2
of

the depth
.
Itop

inertia for large sec

of
To

total Ibottom obtain the moment

=

+
I

tion first determine the ratio

of

its width its

to
,

Itotal 240
in
=

depth and also what percentage

.

its

plate thickness
is
 Properties of Sections / . -
2 3 11

SECTION UNIT PROPERTIES

TABLE 2: TABLE 3:

Ratio OF WIDTH TO DEPTH Ratio OF WIDTH TO DEPTH

ya % 1 2 3

060
0134 0182 0240 0410 .

.
0047 0051 0053 0057 0061

.
.
.
.

.
.

A
(
)
Unit 0226 0258 0334 0610 0880
0086 0091

.
0070 0075 0079

.
.
.
.

.
.

Strength 0424 1140

Depth
024 0330 080

.
0101 0106 0116 0120

.
0094
Depth

.
.

.
.

.
.

nilmillvilo
Factor 05124 14160
01184 01266 01321 01431 01492 02850 03970 0964

.
.

.
.
of

.
.

.
.

.
of

Thickness
069470 08986 1712 24972
Thickness

02252 02415 02735 04914

.
02525 02833

.
.
.
.

.
.
.

.
0320 0364 0393 0409 0630 0914 1166 2230 3290
0345

.
.
.
.

.
.
.

.
.
.

% 0410 04415 04635 05065 0531 % 07254 1052 1353 2634 3914

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.

0558 0616 078 1136 1478 2910 436

0490 0530 0651

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.

.
.

4710

lilis
0648 07662 0814 1203 1592 3152
07220

.
0616

.
.
05660

.
.

.
.
.

The above strength

To
factor values are for unit sections deep use these

.
"
by

multiply

di
values the cubed depth the desired section
of
them Sunità
,

=
S
:
OF

TO

TO
Ratio WIDTH DEPTH Ratio

of
WIDTH DEPTH

Ya

1
L
(B
)

0031 0035 0039 0048 0056 0067 0091 0120 0205 030

.
.

.
.

.
.

Unit
0047 0054 0060 00071 0083 0095 0129 0167 0305 0440
Stiffness
.

.
.

Depth
Depth

0063 0071 0077 0095 0108 Factor 012 0165 0212 040 0570

.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.

.
.

00767 00881 00967 01164 01323 01425 01985 02562 0482 07080

.
of
.

of
.

.
.

.
.

Thickness
Thickness

01416 01637 01800 02175 02363 02457 034735 04493 0856 12486
.

.
.

.
.

.
0197 0228 0250 0304 0332 0315 0457 0583 1115 1645
.
.

.
.

.
Nilrillviloloog

% 02427 02839 0314 03845 04212 % 03627 0526 06763 1317 1957
.

.
.

.
.

.
0280 0332 0369 04535 0501 0390 0568 0739 1455 2180
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

03158 03742 04171 051964 05789 0407 06013 0796 1576 2355
.
.
.

.
.

.
.

To

The above stiffness factor values are for unit sections deep use these values
,
1

.
"
by

multiply them the fourth power

of

the depth the desired section raised

dº
to

Iunit
=
:

I
·

its depth the appropriate Unit Properties the actual section depth cubed
On
to

's
.

table for sections of similar configuration find the

,
of

Su

unit moment inertia for section having these

d3
=
lu

S
a
(
)

(9
..
..
..
..
..
.
)

proportions for comparable

is

Since the value

lu

a
.

depth only necessary multiply

of

section
is

to
it
,
1
"

this value by the actual section depth raised Problem

to

6
's

the fourth power

:

section having depth

of

Find the moment

a

a
T
“

of width of and plate thickness

of
10

dº The
,

5 1
% /2
a

a
"

"

"
.
Iu
=

8
I

)
(
.
.
.
.

the depth and the thickness

.

of
42

width the
is

is
,

depth
Similarly
.

obtain the section modulus for

to
,

particular section the appropriate table find the lower part

( on

of

From Table 00767 hence

lu
=
,

,
;
2

0
,

multiply this value by Iud

Su

unit section modulus

76

and 00767 104

in
=

=
0

.7

.*
.

·
'
I
)
 . - 12 /
2 3 Load and Stress Analysis

SECTION UNIT PROPERTIES

TABLE
TABLE
TABLE 4: TABLE

5 5:
:
O

D
:

T
4

TO

TO
OF

OF
Ratio WIDTH DEPTH Ratio WIDTH DEPTH

na

2
1
|

|
*

2
0085 0092 0099 0108 0114 0150 0210 0250 0450 0620

.
.
.

.
.

(A
)
0128 0138 0150 0159 0170 Unit 0240 0300 0360 0660 0910
.

.
.

.
.

.
Strength
Depth

Depth
0168 0182 0198 0211 0275 0280 0380 0470 0850 1200

silmililril
.
Factor
.

.
.

.
.

02087 02247 02445 02643 02783 03456 045772 057302 10246 14746
of of
.

.
.

.
.

.
Thickness
Thickness

03930 04260 04510 05050 05315 05766 077990 098374 17970 26104
.
.

.
.
0558 0608 0648 0728 0770 0710 100 1250 2350 3490
.

.
.
.

.
.
% 07025 07705 08190 09273 09817 % 07974 1124 1425 2759 3986

.
.
.

.
092 0980 1118 1185 120 1550 300 4390
.

.
.

.
.
.

.
1057 1132 1295 1382 1235 1624 3184 4744
.

.
.
.

.
The above strength deep

To
factor values are for unit sections use these

: .
l"
by

multiply the cubed depth

of

dº
values them the desired section Sunit
,

=
S
·
TO
OF

TO
OF
Ratio WIDTH DEPTH Ratio WIDTH DEPTH
44

ni 0050 0060 0080 0087 2

0075 0125 0225
0062 0105 0310
B

.
(
)
.
.

.
0075 0117
Unit 0150 0180 0330
0087 0093 0130 0120 0455

.
.

.
.

.
.
.

Stiffness
.
Depth

Depth

0098 0114 0124 0155 0173 0140 0190 0235 0425 0600
Factor
.
.

.
.

.
0121 01385 01536 01933 02172 01728 022886 028651 05123 07373
of
.

of
.
.

.
.

.
Thickness
Thickness

02197 02545 02831 0360 04052 02883 038995 049187 08985 13052
.

.
.

.
milililouli

0302 0347 0389 0503 0560 0355 050 0625 1175 1745
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
% 03645 04311 04852 06287 07125 % 03987 0562 07123 1378 1993
.

.
.
.
.

.
25

050 0570 0740 0845 060 0775 150 2195

1
.
.

.
.
.

.
.
.
..
.
.
.

05543 06315 08342 0955 06173 08120 1592 2372

.
.

.
.

factor values are for unit sections deep use these values
To

The above stiffness

,
1

.
"
by

multiply the fourth power

of

the depth the desired section raised

to

them Iunit
=
d
:

I
·

time con
of

solve for its moment inertia This

is
.

Problem suming After about or tries each taking about

7

,
.

minutes or total time

an
of

about half hour

is ,

,
7

designer requires welded section having section finally found which will satisfy the con
A

He thinking course will be heavier than

of

certain moment inertia

of

ditions but which

of

is

,
a

T
“

”
.

proportioned that the width of required This trial and error method costly
so

about
is

section
is
1
2
/

the depth and the thickness both flange and web

of

The Unit Properties method not only

,

fast
is

the depth
is

of

about He would like

10

know
to
%

with just one solution but gives

an
.

exact solution
it
,

what dimensions should be given this section

so

that
less than minutes
in

will have the required moment

2
of

inertia
.
I it

700 Given section

in
=

T
“

”
:
.

of

depth
10 12

Unless he uses this new Unit Properties method

=
b
,

depth
of
%

the designer will probably guess the size

=
of

his
section then solve for its neutral axis and then By referring Table using the above in
to

and
,

2
 Properties of Sections / 2.3 - 13

formation , the unit moment of inertia is found to be having the same thickness ( Fig . 12 ). For proper
rigidity , this section musthave a moment of inertia
Iu = 0 .01416 in . 4 ( I) of 3100 in . The problem is to determine the
proper thickness of plate to use in fabricating the
Since I= Iu da base .
24 _ I _ 700 .0 = 49 ,500 I = lu da
Iu .01416
lu = 14
1
.
3100 = 0079 in “ .
and d = 14 . 9" or 15 '' ; therefore (25 )
b = 12d = 7 . 5 " Using the lower part of Table simple
4 for a
t = 10 %d = 1 . 5 "
channel section , since b = 2d and
This would be fabricated by welding a 11/2" X 71/2" .
Lu = 0079
flange plate to a 142" x 13 /2" web plate . the required thickness (t) is found to be 2% of the
depth , or 2 % x 25 " = 1/2" thick .
Problem
Therefore , this base would be fabricated out of
8

1/2 " thick plate . As a check , this final section - -

- 50 "
25 " deep , 50 " wide , and 1/2" thick - - may be re
figured in the conventional manner , and its moment
of inertia found to be I = 3154 in . This is just a
t = ? little higher than the value needed for I.
T = 3100 in
Moment of Inertia by Torsion Pendulum
(Seventh Method )
FIGURE 12
For irregularsections made up of a single ,
governor base must be designed to give proper
A rather compact area , the principle of the torsion
support to pumps and control panels and also to pendulum may be used to calculate the moment of
house some tanks within the base . Because of the inertia about any given axis . See Figure 13 . The
equipment involved , it must have a width of 50 ' and given cross - section is cut out of some material
a height of 25 " . It is decided to make this base as a ( cardboard , thin wood , sheet metal , etc .) along with
channel section out of a top plate and two side plates a standard rectangular area of the same material

ANTTI
Piano Wire

Ww =
wod ?

3 . 63

Battery clip
= 54 in

712 "

- 10 "
16 seconds for 10 oscillations 34 seconds for 10 oscillations

Istd = 1. 6 sec . Tx = 3. 4 sec .

.4 | 2
Isto

13
54
std

lx = 244
in
=

2a
5

5
(
)
(
)
=

=
s
.6
1

in
|
.Fig
13

finding moment irregular section

of

of

of

Torsional pendulum method inertia

.
2 . 3 - 14 / Load and Stress Analysis

and thickness . The moment of inertia of the stand Since this distance can be measured two

in
c
(
)
ard rectangle is computed from the following : directions there are actually two values for this

,
property although only the smaller value usually

is
,
b d3
rolled sections because re
1

of
available tables
Istd

in

it
12
=

sults the greater stress the section sym

is
in

If
.
The standard rectangle
then fastened by metrical these two values are equal Section modu

is

,
a
small clip piano wire the strength

is
of

of

, of
the the lus measurement the beam
as to

at
end thin

a
the neutral axis given slight bending unsymmetrical section the outer

an
same line

is

In
It

in
a
.

.
twist and then released complete face having the greater value will have the

10
The time for

( of
.

)S (c
)
oscillations measured and this divided by lower value of section modulus

of
course

10
is

to
and
get the average period the greater stress has the greater stress
of
vibration Since

it

,
.
.
this the value needed

is
The given cross section then hung the wire

on
is

.
-

place the standard rectangle and fastened some typical sections symmetrical

of
of

With

on
in

de of shape not necessary solve first for moment

to
(I is
the axis about which the moment inertia

is

it
,
of
sired usually the neutral axis about the computed

of be
axis inertia The section modulus can

).
x
x
-

.
(

)
The average period found Using the directly from the simplified formulas

or
of

vibration Table
is

1
,
.
following equation from the Unit Properties Tables
of

of
the moment inertia the and

,
,
,

5
.
given cross section

of
calculated
is

many cases however the moment inertia

In

,
-

,
must be found before solving for section modu

)
(I
period given section
of

the previously described methods

of
Any
|

lus
?

td 10
-

S
(
).
.
..
.
..
(
)
|
of

period standard section may be applicable for determining the moment

of
)

inertia

.
Air has the period
no

of

effect vibration
on

It
.

simply dampens the vibration

.

Problem

9
Special Problems
Using previously

of
properties can be utilized meet the welded section
of

number

T
in

”
A

problem finding the section

as
Problem

in
ing special problems associated with the moment of
7

a
its neutral axis first Figure

14
modulus located

is
members subjected compressive load
,

,
inertia

.
to
in

ing These properties Using the standard formula for determining

be

discussed the later

to

in
,

(#
.

1
)
Section Compression include the minimum the neutral axis from any refer
of
on

the distance
,
2
of 5
.

n
(
)

inertia product
of

moment inertia and moment this case the top horizontal face

of
ence axis the
in
,

,
of

inertia about any axis flange

.

of

Sum moments
SECTION MODULUS Total area
of
4

(S
.

section
n

Ā
“
by

The section modulus found dividing the

is

75

15
(S
)

by the distance
(6

1
.5

15 1
· 5
.5 7
) .5
1 •
)

)
·

·
.

·
.
of

moment inertia from the

c
(

(
)
)I

the outermost fiber of the section

6

.51

neutral axis
75 (

)
·

(
to

75

168
+
6

.5 .
.
_

22
+
9
0
.

11
S

..
..
..
(
)

56
=
5
.
"

14

FIGURE
15
"

k
 Properties of Sections / . - 15
2 3

Next, the section 's moment of inertia is deter J = Ix + Iy .. .. . . . . . . .( 13 )

mined , using the elements method (Figure 15 ):

Polar moment of inertia is used in determining

the polar section modulus ( J / c ) which is a measure
of strength under torsional loading of round solid
bars and closed tubular shafts .
4 .81" 5 .56 "
7 . TORSIONAL RESISTANCE (R )

- EH ..94 1 94 "
Torsional resistance ( R ) has largely replaced
the less accurate polar moment of inertia in stand
ard design formula for angular twist of open sec
9 .44 " tions . It should be employed where formulas have
been developed for the type of section . These are
given in the later Section 3 .6 on Torsion .

8 . PROPERTIES OF THIN SECTIONS

Vieste Because of welding , increasingly greater use is

being found for structural shapes having thin cross
FIGURE 15
sections . Thin sections may be custom roll - formed ,
rolled by small specialty steel producers , brake
formed , or fabricated by welding . Properties of
these sections are needed by the designer , but they
-1,5 (6 -1.5- 4. are not ordinarily listed among the standard rolled
15°
812

942
15

In = 6 +
)
-
.

.
1
5

(1
.5
·1
)+

+
12

sections of a steel handbook . Properties of thin

12

sections customarily are found by the standard

87

68

69
22

84

208 421
=

+
1
.

formulas for sections .

716
in
=

.5

a thin section , the inside dimension is

With al
This value slightly higher than the required most as large as the outside dimension ; and , in most
is

700 because depth of section was made cases , the property of the section varies as the
in
=

.4
I

cubes of these two dimensions . This means dealing

of

instead
15

14
=

9
d

.
.
"

"

with the difference between two very large numbers .

Finally section modulus determined In order to get any accuracy , itwould be necessary
is

the
,

S
(
)

to calculate this out by longhand or by using loga

716 rithms rather than use the usual slide rule .

.5

SEē
=
+
=
S

44
9
.
75

in
=

3
.

RADIUS OF GYRATION
5

0
(
)
.

The radius gyration the distance from

of

)(1
is
)
(r

an imaginary point
1777

the neutral axis section

of

to
a

at which the whole area of the section could be con

Inertia

centrated and still have the same moment of inertia

.

This property used primarily solving column

is is

in

problems taking the square root of of

by

found
It
.

inertia divided by the area of the

moment
of

the moment
section and expressed inches
is

in

in
TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT
Error

12
.
...
..
..
.(.
)

POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA

TTTTT
6
.

(
J)

The polar moment equals the sum

of of

inertia
20
15
10

%
%
(
J)

right
5

any two moments

of

inertia about axes

at

depth
to

Ratio thickness
(d
)
(t
)

angles The polar moment of inertia

:

each other
to

perpendicular Fig using Line Method min

an

taken about axis which the Possible error

16
is

is

to

in

is
.

plane
of

the other two axes

of

imal with low ratio section thickness depth

to
.

.
2 3 . - 16 / Load and Stress Analysis

TABLE 6 - PROPERTIES OF THIN SECTIONS

Where thickness ( +) is small , b = mean width , and d = mean depth of section

xx
Section

X - - - - X
X- E - X
Ix -- - +
+ - X
x + x
-
12tdº

td td
4b

td 3d

6b
+

>

+
to
b 4
b

) dd

2
b

(4
b

p3
td
( (
’

’
|
)

)
(

td
d+
)
|
(
?

)
+
d

|
(?
3
b
+
)d
+

+
3

2
(b

4
(b

d
)

)
d +
d

4
b

) d

4b
?
t

2b
td

td
+
(

+
d

)
3
d
+
6
2
b
(

bottom top top

tar2

3b
td
6b

td
ta

tà
4b
td

(
+
)
d

(
+
)
d

+
2
b

(4

3
d

d
?

?
(

)
(
+

)d

+
3
b

2
2
b

d
(

)
top bottom bottom

by

+
3

4
b

d
t

)
+
4
b

d
(

)
4d

+
b

3
b
?
t

)
+
2

2
(b

d
)
right side
tb

6d
tb
3

(6
(b
d
)

)
+

t6

+
(3

4
b

d
)
left side

.
da
b2

t
0

+
4
(b

d
)
da

tb2
2

)2a

2ta
25
(b
d

d
)

(
)

(6
+

(
)
+

c
+
+
b

d
+
d
(4
b

6b
'

+
+ +

3
b
?
d

d d

d
(
12 ?
( (

) )
12

max
)

7071

0
.

r
.

12

+
V
2
b

(b

or
)
+
b

+
2
(b

d
)

min
.

da
d2

da
+
2
b

d
(

)
2d

down from top

+

+
2
b

b
(

top

b2

down from top down from

+
2
(b

d
)
b3

12 ba

3d ba
+
+

d
(b
(b b
|

)
/
(

min
12

2b
12
.

+
V

+
d
(b

)
6

2
(b
(

or
)

)
)

max
.

to

add for
=

S
c
(*

)
/

simplify the problem the section may The error calculating the moment of inertia
be
To

in
,

The pro by this Line Method versus the conventional formula

as

treated line having thickness

no
, ”,
a
"

by.

then multiplied represented

by

perty the thick the curve Figure using

of of

the line
is

16
to is

in

a
“

give the approximate value square tubular section as example

an

ness the section As indicated

. of

,
of .

the section property within very narrow tolerance the error increases with the ratio section thick
a

Table gives simplified formulas for nine proper ness depth

to
6

(d
)

)
(t

ties six different cross sections this table

of

In
-

which follows illustrates the use of

10

mean depth mean width the section and Problem

of

,
= =

=
,

,
t d

thickness Table Other excellent examples the savings

of

in
6
.
.
 Properties of Sections / 2. 3 - 17

TABLE 7 - PROPERTIES OF TYPICAL IRREGULAR THIN SECTIONS

Where thickness ( +) is small , b = mean width , and d = mean depth of section

kl
=tdkb2b (+k (+k +1) 1+)22dbd +
td =
3 p k =
I
- - -
d (b + d) d (k b + d)

TE - - -
Cb Ci =

--
b ( k + 1) + 2 d b ( k + 1) + 2d

tuku
bd

taſk

25d
3
(
)
-
*
+

+
1

2
b

+
b

d
taſk

25d
kb k
1

1
b

(
)
+

+
=
S

+
d
ko td tb d2

tbd
=

31°2
1
-
.I
12

3k
13
.-

+
)+
–
1

=
å
k
3k bda

k3

3k
+

+
1
?
–

t
(

)
da
2cd
+

+
a
?
+

+
2

d
(a

it
X
-

-
-

cd
a3

da

3cd
+

+
2

d
a
?

?
)?
t
(

4 t(
I

+
b

d
(a

)
by

design time offered use the Line Method exist

of

as column Problem Sect and as tor

in
4

2
.5
.
(

Column
sional Problem Sect
in

Beam
3

3
.6
)

gives the most important properties

of

Table
7

irregular but common

of

additional thin sections

configurations
.

L1
=
at

Reference Sections
6

and the back

'
,

,
7
5

7
.6

7
7
.

this book provide formulas for quickly finding

of

bending moments and other forces

on

Thin Curved
(

Bars Thin Circular Rings and Thin Rings Under

=
3
b

"
,

Internal Pressure respectively

,

16
=
N

N
3

"
/
10

Problem
=

N
4
d

"
at

supported
of

small machine the end

is
A

cantilever beam long During its operation

ft

,
6

this support and must

be
on

exerts force
it

F
(
)

Figure FIGURE
an

held within allowable deflection

17
17
),
(A

.
 . -
2 3 18 / Load and Stress Analysis

, using Properties of Thin Sections (Table 6 ) ,

Then
b = 4%"
find the moment of inertia of the section shown in
Figure 17 :

Ix = 4 (3 b + d )
d = 94" N
.
= 6 5 in .
WM
A new model of this machine must extend out to
a distance of 18 . 5 ft . and must operate under the
same conditions and allowables . It is decided the
new beam will have a width equal to half its depth
FIGURE 18
and a wall thickness equal to 5 % of its depth .

The increased length will require an increase in b = .5 d and t = .05 d

moment of inertia (I) . For a cantilever beam with
concentrated load at its end - - Iz = td ? (3b + d )
FL3
3 EI -6. d)(a?) (3.5 + d)
05

I3
PL

dº
02083
13

22
( .(
))

() )(
) )

.
or
and

=
Thus
=
(
E

:
dº
02083 190

in
=

.5
.

.
ICE 190
(, (1) )

.5
d4

=
9140

=
02083
or
la
=
1

and
:

60
d2

95
=
15

.
=
6
3

Therefore Figure

18
in

190
=

.5
.

:
78 (

)
or or
use
=
9

9
3
4
d

the required moment

/
"

"
the lengthened
of

of

inertia
89

use
=

beam
4

4
7
8
b

/
"

"
.
.

desirable
or

Since have 489 use

is

to

=
it

1
2
/
"

"
.
t
:

Load

Load
19

FIGURE
 Properties of Sections / . - 19
2 3

Shear
axis

The resisting
shear force flow
Shear in the section
axis

FIGURE 20

9 . SHEAR AXIS AND SHEAR CENTER ( P ) applied in line with the principal axis (y - y )
does not result in any twisting action on the mem
Since the bending moment decreases as the ber . This is because the torsional moment of the
distance of the load from the support increases , internal transverse shear forces ( > ) is equal
bending force fi is slightly less than force f2 ,
to zero .
and this difference (f2 – fi ) is transferred inward
toward the web by the longitudinal shear force ( fs ) . On the other hand , in the case of an unsym
See Figure 19. metrical section , B , the internal transverse shear
forces ( > ) form a twisting moment . Therefore ,
the force ( P ) must be applied eccentrically at a
f. = fó + Pay . . . . ( 14 ) proper distance ( e ) along the shear axis , so that
it forms an external torsional moment which is
equal and opposite to the internal torsionalmoment
This force equal component in the
also has an of the transverse shear forces . If this precaution
transverse direction . transverse force applied
A is not taken , there will be a twisting action applied
to a beam sets up transverse ( and horizontal) to the member which will twist under load , in
shear forces within the section . See Figure 20 . addition to bending . See Figure 21 .
In the case of a symmetrical section , A , a force Any axis of symmetry will also be a shear axis .

Vertical
er
Member will
Only

shear axis Only bending twist

S here bending

FIGURE 21
2 .3 – 20 / Load and Stress Analysis

IDEOS
ZZZ
Nr

x
-
NT Common neutral
axis

*
*
-
Shear

'
FIGURE

22
center
H

-
Reference
axis
y
-y

will be two shear axes and their inter individual parts are used

of
There Just as the areas
section forms find theneutral axis
the moments of inertia

to
the shear center now

,
Q
.
(
)

individual areas are

is of of
used find the shear axis

to
the shear center may be
at

force applied
if
,

,
composite section Figure The procedure
A

22
,
at plane the cross section and

a
of

any angle

.
the
in

de
-

the same select reference axis

there will be no twisting moment

(y

y
),
;
on

a
the member

-
,
termine for each member section about its

Ix
just transverse shear bending

(
and
own neutral axis and the distance this
.

X
x
-x
)
As stated previously unless forces which are member section lies from the reference axis
,

applied transverse member also pass through The resultant the formula will
to

(y from

e
a

-
)
.

(
)
the shear axis the member will be subjected then be the distance from the chosen reference
to
,

twisting moment as well as bending result the parallel shear axis the built

of
As axis

to
(y
y
,
a

-
.

)
as

up section
be

this beam should considered follows

:

The applied .
be

force should resolved into Here

:
1

P
.

the same value passing through the

of

1x2

1x3 1x3

1x4
force Ixı X1 X2 X3 X4
a

=
'

+ +

1x4 +
shear center and parallel the original applied
e

1x2
to
(Q
)

1x1

+
force then resolved into the two components
is
P

P
'
.

right angles parallel

at

each other
to

to

and the or
:

principal axes
of

the section
.

twisting moment produced by the

Χ
Σ
Ι
is

15
ΣΙ
=
A
2

e
.

(
)

)
(
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
,

applied force about the shear center

Q
P
(
)

(
)
.

The stress from the twisting moment

is

Locating Other Shear Centers

T
(
)

computed separately and then superimposed upon

the two rectangular components
of

the stresses
of

force
P
'.

This means that the shear center must be

symmetry
of

of

Any axis will

be

located one the

.

shear axes center

.

Shear
Q
,

For
on

open sections lying one common neutral

of

axis the location the other shear axis

is
,
(x
x
-
)

follows
as

Elx
IX
XX
<
=-
ee

5
Ι,
Σ

Notice the similarity between this and the

following FIGURE 23
:

EM
or
-
d

ΣΑ Here
:

EA
ΣΑ
*0
+
x
_*

EL
.
.
*

built
of

which used the neutral axis

to

find twº
tt
+
is

d
a

24 (

)
up

section
IX
.
 Properties of Sections / . -
2 3 21

Normally Q might be assumed to be at the or, since areas have a common (x -x ) neutral axis :

i 'X0
intersection of the centerlines of the web and the

mby
flange . td X0 +
+ 2 x (b tr)(d/2)
2xch
e - EIX
Σ ΙΧ
Y
bº dº tt

4 IX

ЕС
- - - ( x - x)

в
Shear
I AHHHH center

ZPZHX
FIGURE 24

Here , at point M ;

, Vay ( )( / )
V btr d 2
FIGURE 25

V b2 d tr
F = 1/2 fs b = ?
41x Here :

1x2
EIXX Ix10 + X2
& Mn = 0 = + Fd – Ve = 0
e =
e
1x1

+
1x2

Fd
da
b2

ti
V

= XzIv2
=

41x
y
e

V
da

b2
ti

Figure suggests approach locating shear

an
26

to
some other typical sections
B
IX

of

axes
4

FILTR
it
--
--
It
-
-

-
-

FIGURE
26
2 . 3 - 22 / Load and Stress Analysis

cd C
-WESTINGHOUSE
LETOURNEAU

-
LATOURNUB
ESTI
PULL
HOOL SCRAPER

Modern high - speed , high - capacity scrapers feature weldments designed

on basis of stress analysis to ensure long service life without costly
breakdowns .

Diagonal bracing of side walls on welded locomotive shell lowers panel

thickness and saves weight , material cost and welding cost .
 SECTION 2 4 .

Analysis of Tension

1. TENSILE STRESS These must be combined with the original tensile

stresses . An example of this condition would be a
The simplest type of loading on a member is
curved beam such as a large “ C ” clamp .
tension . A tensile load applied (axially ) in line with
the center of gravity of the section will result in
tensile stresses distributed uniformly across the 2 . TENSILE STRAIN
plane of the cross - section lying at right angles to
the line of loading . The formula for the stress is - - The unit elongation or strain of the member
under tension is found by the following relationship :

. . . . . . . . . . ( 2)

where :
where P = the tensile force applied to the member
E = unit elongation ( tensile strain )
A = area of cross - section at right angles to
o = unit tensile stress
line of force
0 = unit tensile stress E = modulus of elasticity ( tension )

tensile load that is not applied in line with the

A
The total elongation or displacement is equal to this
center of gravity of the section , but with some ec unit strain (e ) multiplied by the length ( L ) of the member .
centricity , will introduce some bending stresses . Elongation = 6· L

Problem 1

K24

welded tensile coupon test specimen meas - ,

13 330
((22)) ,
A

01
(

E
at

000

ures the reduced section and has two

42

000

€ È
,

=
,
1
2
x

= 30
"

"
/

punch marks apart with which later measure

to
2
"

000444
in

elongation load of
in
=

Just after the test started

0
.

.
./
is

,
a
.
10

000 reached
is
lb
,

000444
.

and elon
=
=

2
0

''
e

·
.
.
.

Find the unit tensile stress

on

the reduced 00089

in
1

2
(
)

"
"
0
.

section and the total elongation as measured

,

(2
)

within the two marks

.

elongation
or

calculation for strain

any
is
In

it

understood that the stresses are held below the

12 10

000
,
P

yield point Beyond the yield point the relationship

(
)1

,
=

.
=

142
of stress longer proportional and the
no

strain
is
to

psi
13

333 formula does not apply

,
=

.
 . -
2 4 2 / Load and Stress Analysis

This economical weldment combines steel

plate and castings into one integral unit .
 SECTION 2 5 .

Analysis of Compression

1 . COMPRESSIVE STRESS indicate this tendency is the slenderness ratio which

is equal to - -
Compressive loading of a member when applied
(axially )
concentric with the center of gravity of the
member ' s cross - section , results in compressive I
stresses distributed uniformly across the section . where L = unsupported length of member
This compressive unit stress is - -
r = the least radius of gyration of the section
and - -
. . ( 1)

short column ( slenderness ratio L / r equal to
A
about unity or less ) that is overloaded in compres
sion may fail by crushing . From a design stand
point , short compression members present little
problem . It is important to hold the compressive
unit stress within the material ' s compressive
strength .
For steel , the yield and ultimate strengths are
considered to be the same in compression as in
tension . Many pads , feet, and bearing supports are
short compression members and must not be
stressed beyond their elastic limit . Permanent de
formation of such members may cause misalign
ment of critical working members of the machine .
Any holes or openings in the section in the path
of force translation will weaken the member , unless
such openings are completely filled by another
its
... (2 )
is made longer , using the same
If the member
cross - section and the same compressive load , the
resulting compressive stress will remain the same ,
although the tendency for buckling will increase .
The slenderness ratio increases as the radius of
gyration of the section is reduced or as the length
of the member is increased . The allowable com
pressive load which may be applied to the member
decreases as the slenderness ratio increases .
The various column formulas ( Tables 3 and 4 )
give the allowable average compressive stress (0 )
for the column . They do not give the actual unit
stress developed in the column by the load . The
unit stress resulting from these formulas may be
multiplied by the cross - sectional area of the column
to give the allowable load which may be supported .

member that will carry

of

share the load

.

Excessive compression long columns may

of

RADIUS OF GYRATION
failure by buckling As compressive loading
3
.

cause
.

of long column increased eventually causes The radius gyration the distance from
is
of
. is

it
,
a

(
)
r
up

some eccentricity This turn sets bending the neutral axis section imaginary point
of

an
in

to
a

the section could be con

of
or

at

moment causing the column deflect buckle which the whole area
to
,

slightly This deflection increases the eccentricity centrated and still have the same amount
of

inertia
.
.

by

and thus the bending moment This may progress the expression
is

found
=
It

A
1
is .

.
:

/
r

where the bending moment increasing rate

to

at
a

the design unsymmetrical sections

be
of

greater than the increase

to
In

load and the column

in

as

of

soon fails by buckling

used columns the least radius gyration rmin
,

)
.

of of

be

the section must known order make use

/ in

to

the slenderness ratio the column

in

SLENDERNESS RATIO
L
(

)
r
.2

formulas
.

more slender
or

As the member becomes longer the section question not standard rolled
is
in
If
,

more tendency for ultimate failure section the properties of which are listed
of

there steel
is

to to

in
a
by

buckling will be necessary

be

caused The most common way handbooks compute this least

to
it
,
.
2 .5 - 2 / Load and Stress Analysis

radius of gyration . Since the least radius of gyra Problem 1

tion is - -

Locate the (neutral) x - x and y - y axes of the

. ................... ...(3)
Imin = . . . . . . . . . . ( 3) offset T section shown in Figure 2 :
| Α.

To locate neutral axis x -x :

the minimum moment of inertia of the section must
be determined . A l d M

Minimum Moment of Inertia 6 " X 1" 6.0 L 0 0

moment of inertia ( Imax) and the mini

| -3.5 - 21 .0
The maximum
mum moment of inertia ( Imin ) of a cross -section are found 1" x 6" 6 0 .
on principal axes , 90° to each other .
Total -> 12 0 . - 21 . 0

where d = distance from center of gravity of element

area to parallel axis (here : 81-81 )

and , applying formula # 1 from Section 2 . 3, the dis

tance of neutral axis x - x from its parallel axis
X1-X1 is - -

NA= = = M = - 21 0 = -1. 75 "

To locate neutral axis y -y:

DATdTM
FIGURE 1

. . . . . . . . . . (4 )

+
1

6
.0

1
5

9
.0
x

.
"

"

Knowing Ix, ly, and

Ixy

be

|
possible
6

.0
6

0
"

"
x

will
it

find Imin
to

0
9
.
Total
12
.0
=

16
-"

NA5

20
"
k
-1
.5

75
: 1

.
M

"
=

=
+

XIT
1

T
"

of

Product Inertia
will be necessary find the product of inertia
to
It
)Ixy

of

the section This the area times the

is

A
.
(

(
in )

product Figure
dy

as shown
of

dx

distances and
3
.
3
.5
"

ASL
of

finding the moment inertia

.75

of

an

area about
In
"
1
|

given axis not necessary con

1x

. is
, of or

to
it dx )ly

it
,
a

sider the signs ordy However finding the

in
,

product necessary know the signs

of

inertia
is

to

of product
dy

because the
of

and these two could

dx

be either positive negative and this will determine

or

the resulting product

of

the sign inertia

of

The
.

product
of of

total inertia the whole section which

of

the individual areas will

is

of

the sum the values

,

depend upon these signs Areas diagonally oppo

in
.

site quadrants will have products

of

inertia having
75
+
4

"
.

the same sign

.
и

The product rectangu

of

of
an

FIGURE inertia individual

which are parallel
2

lar area
of

the sides the

to
,

x
x
-

the entire larger section

of

and axes
is
y
y
-

-
-
 Analysis of Compression / . -
2 5 3

'y 'xy

dia

de
” = A 2 = A de = A

Moment of inertia Moment of

of
inertia Product inertia
about x - x axis about y- y axis about and axes

y
-y
x
-x
+

,
d
k

,
d
-
+
d

+
d

Lx
x

,
+
0
T
3rd
1st

4th
Quadrant 2nd Quadrant Quadrant Quadrant
dy

'ny

dy
'xy

do
do

dy

dy

dy
'xy

'xy
=

=
A

-A
d

=
A

-A
FIGURE
3

02 Problem
2

Determine the product

of

of
inertia this offset
section about the and axes
abcd

y
y
T

x
x
'xy

:
-

-
=

5
"
-
+ 555

"
.
1

FIGURE
4

25
1

"
.

where rectangle
.0
1
of

"

and dimensions
= =

=
A
c b
a

center of gravity
of

and distance area

d

-y 's

25
dx

dy

axes
to

"

the
.
-
-

and and
=
y
x
x
-

The product
of

or

inertia angle section

of

695
a
T

"
-
-

is
-
-

25
1
-

"
.

1918
945

+
-
.
"
1

FIGURE
6

adt
2c

td
À (d

(a
_

la –
)

t)

.6

Ixy
..

)dy

EA
-

dx
=

(
)
(

25

555 695
=

+
2
5

1
-

(-
.

.
(

)
(

FIGURE
5

388 737
=
+

+
1

1
.

inspection
by

Here determine sign 125

in
,

=
+

3
.

.
.
 . -
2 5 4 / Load and Stress Analysis

Now use
of inertia of
formula given previously for product
sucha section :
NA
, A = + 20 = + 75: ."
and -
I _ a d t (d - 2c) (a + t)
4 (a + d ) Iy = 1 32 . 00 – 6 . 75 = 25 . 25 in .

_ (4 ) (5 ) (V2) (5 - .
2 5) / )
(4 + 12
4 (4 + 5)
Product of inertia :
= + 3 . 125 in .

Ixy

)dy
EA

dx
=

(
)
(
1x6

75

75

75

75
=

+
1

1
x
(

)
(

)
(

)
(

)
. .
| Problem

)
(

)
.

-
.

.
3

15
75

of in
=

.
Determine the minimum radius of gyration of the Minimum moment inertia
re

:
offset section shown previously Fig and
T

2
(

)
.
peated here
:

ley
61

)*,
Imin

+
1
+
1
. (-
. 1.
=
55
25

25
25

,
55
–

25

25
+

25
–
(
.
–
.
15
)*

75
(
+

)
XT
WHITE
"1

21
T

75
25
40

—
LINNI

.
.
75
.1
I

"

50
18

in
=

.*
.
N
1
.3
5
"

"

75"
1

of
.

Minimum radius gyration

:
min
rmin =

542
findi

. 1
50
18

=
.
=
75
}
"

24
=
1
.

FIGURE
7

As matter interest this about axis

of

is
rmin

',
a

x
x
'-
of

the angle which

is
(0

–
)
of

Moment inertia about axis

AdTMTITIE
x
-x
:

Ixy
tan
V 20

Ix 2
-
=

20
1336

=
1
-
– 15

25 75
50

.
25 (

05
X
6

6
0

0
.

0
"

"

1
.

26
=

55
.
21

73

.18
00

8° 4°

6°
20

66 46
+

or
1

6
.
-

-
"

"

3
5

0
.

.
x

|
5
.

133
=

+
–

and
+
=
0

.
12

21

Total
92

00
-

-
.

.
0

Any ultimate buckling could expected

be

occur
to

Nu
52

about this axis

.00

x
-

.
(
'
')
75
M
=

.
"
-1

and "
–

=
6
b
00

55
25
92

36

75
Ix

in
AM
1

’
-
=

.
=
–

.“
of

Moment inertia about axis

N

.
.A
y
-y
:

-
-
-
-
ON
=

=
\"
4
"

t
Is
M
|
|A

L
|

|
d

=
,

5
5
"
.
b
-

Nd
13
"1

.18
6

00
"
x

6
0
.
+
1
5
.

9
+

00T010
.
|
.5
|

75
,
=
3

"
.

50
"6
X

"
1

. .6

.
|
01

Total
12

00
32

FIGURE
-
|
»
»

|
+

+
.

.
9
0

8
 Analysis of Compression / 2 5 . -5

Problem 4 using the properties of thin sections , treating them

as a line . See Table 6 , Section 2 . 3.
The channel section , Figure 8 , is to be used as
gyration about Mean dimensions b and d are used , Figure 9 .

its

of
a column. Determine radius
its axis
X
x
-

2b
Vd3

)
d
(
/3
rv
=
Using the conventional formulas proper

2d
for the

+
b
of

ties the section

-
-

75
8753 875

+
3

3
2
5

3
x
.

.
(

)
/
of

Area the section

75
875
:

+
5

2
3
.

.
(

)
bd bıdı

75
375

in
=

=
A

(6
(4

(5
.5

.2
)
)

)
(

)
–
-

.
279

.1

"
of

Distance neutral axis

:

bi The exact value obtained from this formula for

d
t2

dat
+
2

The value obtained by using the con

=

is
279
db
n

bidi

1
r

.
"
2

2
–

ventional formula 281

is
1
.

.
"
25
25
+

)
?
(.
.5 .5
)
(5
)
(6 (
.
(4 (4
) )

Assuming possible error one part

2

of
-a

1000

in
+
a
75

for every operation

2

2
(5

the slide rule

.
)

)(

)
–

of
would be

it
,
possible get answer as high

as
an
283 and as

to
764

1
=

"

"
2
.

low as This represents error

an

of
275 about

1
.

.
"
of the error using the conventional formulaswith
of

Moment inertia

14
:

slide rule The time for this last calculation was

dºtt bil

.
==
-2

minutes
II

A
(d

n
)2
-

.
3

)25

25
2
4
(

3 +
):
.(

3375
5
.

-+
(
5
(.
)

)'
_

764
4
(
-
2
.
2
)

-
539
in
=
5
.

T
Radius gyration
of

-
:

KX
=
r

539
5
.

у
у
375
3
.

FIGURE

10
281
=
1
.
"

slide rule had been used assuming possible Inertia About Any Axis
of

Moment
If

,
a

error of one part 1000 for every operation this

in
+

answer could be as high and as low as in

at of
as 336 Sometimes as Problem the moment
1

in
"
.

3
(

)
This represents error
an

, of

197 and axis lying

of

an
needed about
%

X an
+

ertia section
is
,
1

4
3
.

.
"

For this reason necessary when using angle with the conventional axis This may
it
is
%
6
.6

(0

x
-

.
-
of

these conventional formulas make use found by using the product of inertia

)Ixy
be

of
to

the
,

logarithms or else do the work longhand (

To

do this section about the conventional axes and

.

y
y
(x

x
-

-
)
requires about
30

minutes
of

with the moments inertia and about these

Iy
Ix
.

(
)

(
)

same axes the following formula

in

gyration will now found directly

:
be
of

The radius
,

Ixy
sin
1x

Ixcos20 sin2
Iy

@
=

0
|

(7
–

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
..
.
.
)
75
=
5

"
b

.
-

Ixy
Iy

Iy

Ixsin cos sin20

=

+
0

0
?

..
..
..
..
..
..
.(
8
)
14
=

"
t

CRITICAL COMPRESSIVE STRESS

4
.

by
as

875
=

The critical
3
d

given
on

column
.
"

load the
a

Euler formula
is
-
-
WHHHHA
THIHA

9
)
.
.
(
.
.
.
... ..
.
.
...
...
..
...
.
....
.

FIGURE
Le

where effective length column See next page

of
=
9

)
.
 .
2 5 – 6 / Load and Stress Analysis

pinned pinned fixed guided

W ,

Il = l.
Le = 2L
L. = 1/ 2 i 11 = .7L

7
fixed fixed

FIGURE 11

This can be changed into terms of average critical The modified formula then becomes –
stressby dividing by the cross -sectional area of the column .
Since A = I / ra, this becomes –
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 11 )
#2 E
.. ... .. ( 10)
O cr –
Le/ r) where Ei = tangent modulus of elasticity , corresponding to
the modulus of elasticity when stressed to Ocr .
Because this formula gives excessively high values
for short columns , Engesser modified it by substituting r = least radius of gyration of the cross -section
the tangent modulus ( El) in place of the usual Young 's Le = effective length of the column , corresponding
modulus of elasticity ( E ) . to the length of a pinned column that
would have the same critical load . See

--E,= -
106
Figure 11 .
20x106

Stress-StrainCurve
(Compression 25X
The Engesser formula
) T- 1 Steel
also called the Tangent

is
=

,=
Eq Modulus formula and checks well with experimental

--
15x106

values
.

L -E,=
-
LE

12x106

TANGENT MODULUS
POO

5
.

- E-
's

the Tangent Modulus formula necessitates

of

Use
po

- stressstrain curve preferably compression

------
in
a

)
10x106
of the material See Figure stress strain curve
12
,
.

for steel compression Whereas the usual

in
1
T
-

,)

IŤ
Young elasticity represents
of

modulus fixed
-
a
's
-E -E,

8x106
-, +

according

of
value for steel the ratio
ksi

30

to

106
x

(
(

stress strain below the proportional limit the

to

ac
,
-- -

tangent modulus elasticity takes into considera

Stress

of
--

plastic strain beyond this

of

6x106
tion the changing effect
point corresponding the actual stress involved
to

Notice Figure broken lines repre

12

the
in
,

4X106
,

senting the slope for various values of tangent

E
-

elasticity
of

modulus this case from 1x106

in
,
E
(
)

psi
up

The compressive stress level

30
to

106
x

value applies
at

which given determined

is
,

oc

2x106
+

E
a
E

(
)
-

T by moving out parallel from that reference modulus

by

parallel rule
-,

1X106
of

line dotted
or

means other
E
_
_
_
L

),
T

suitable device until the stress strain curveisin

,

-
10

one point only

at

at

tersected The line tangent

is
1

Strain( indin 103

this point
x
e
),

for

compressive stress strain curve

12

FIGURE The any

-
 Analysis of Compression / 2 5 . - 7

SLENDERNESS RATIOS : T- 1 STEEL

Le/ r Lelr

| 110 , 000 30 .2x106 119 , 500

| .
30 2x106 52 . 1
82 , 900
112 , 000 30 . 0 51 . 4 30 . 2

114 , 000 26 . 5 47 . 9 70 30. 2 60 , 900

116 . 000 22 . 0 43 . 4 30. 2 53 , 000
| 118 , 000 17 . 5 38 . 3
80 30 . 2 46 ,600

| 120 , 000 13 . 0 32 . 7 30 . 2 36 , 800

122 , 000 9. 0 27 . 0 100 30. 2 29 , 850

124 , 000 5. 5 20 . 9 110 30. 2 27 , 700

| 126 , 000 3. 3 16 . 1 125 30 . 2 19 , 100

TABLE TABLE 2
15 , 200
1
128 ,000 1. 5 10 . 8 140 30 . 2

Engesser portion of curve Euler portion of curve

material can be superimposed on this graph and the Below the material ' s proportional limit , the use of
values of Ei at a given stress level ( oc ) read by the Young's modulus ( E ) or tangent modulus ( EI ) provide the
same technique . same value . Table 2 for T . 1 gives the slenderness ratio
within the proportional por

for

Oc
( Le/ r ) stress levels

(
)
tangent modulus
of

as
The values
Ei

for steel
the stress strain curve Since the original Euler

of
,
1
T
(
)

tion
read from Figure -

.
are now plotted against the cor
12

-
Ocr
applies here this portion
,

formula for the curve

of

is
,
responding compressive stress This
oc

shown

in
is

often called the Euler curve

.
(
)

.
Figure
13
.

The Engesser tangent modulus formula for critical PLOTTING ALLOWABLE STRESS CURVE
or

6
.
stress then put into the following form
is

Ocr
values Tables are
(
)

These
-

from and now

2
plotted the curve Figure The Euler

14
of to
form

in

.
portion extended upward by broken

is
12 the curve
)
(

a
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

line indicate the variance that would be obtained

by continuing to
use the Euler formula beyond the

to
Le

and the critical slenderness ratio determined for

in is
r
(

)
/

resulting
of

various values Tables

oc

stress and
),

2
(

for only ResultingCritical Compressive Steel

1
T

Stressfor
-

-1
T
suitablefactorof safety

(A
be
gives corresponding applied

to
Table values slenderness must thesevalues)
of
1

above the pro

of
Le

ratio for given values

oc

stress
/
r
(

(
)

portional limit
of
T
1
-
.

Euler
Tangent
Modulusfor Steel
-1
T

140 Le
in

)
(
1305
130

30x106

Engesser
-
25

X106

ksi
stress och

psi

(
modulus Erl

20X106
Critical compressive

Test results
Tangent

15X106

Criticol stress

10X106
t

Allowable stress
factor safety
of

1
.8
(

5X106
110
100

120

140

20 40
70

90
50

60

80
20

30

40
10
), 60

80

100 120 130 140

oc

Stress( ksi Slenderness

ratio Lel
(

)
13

FIGURE FIGURE
14
 .
2 5 – 8 / Load and Stress Analysis

TABLE 3 - ALLOWABLE COMPRESSIVE STRESS

for Various Steels

Yield PINNED ENDS FIXED ENDS

Strength Range of AverageAllowable Unit Stress Range of Average Allowable Unit Stress
psi / I = P/A
4 5 Values = P/A /
4 5 Values

000

325
0 - 140 0 - 155

000

253
*=

, 15
*
=

(
)
-
.

(5
-.

)
15
33

000
,

000
15

15
- 000
P
.

,
140 200 155 200
-

-
860
,

370
15
0
. 5

(
)
+

, 20
+

)
, .05

(5
126

17
800

800
47
,

137
143

17
-
-0

*
=
=

.-

-
(
)

(
)9
40 000
800
,

PE
,
17

17
000

,
_
-

-
=

126 200 143 200

-

900
000
,

, 16
13
+
.

(
)
0
5

0
5

(5
.

)
+
500

605
20

120 135

500
,

20

47
0

,
-

*
=

(
-
.

-
0

(5
)*
=
45

500
000
,

20

, , 20
500
,

. -
p

120 200 135 200

-

930
630
,

14
11

0
5

(
)
+
0
5

(3
, .

)
+
110

738

125

574
500

500
22

, 22
-0

(5
-.

*)

*
=

)
- 0

(5
-.

50 000
,

22

500
22

,
,

500
_
P

125

200

110 200
-

-
460

440
,
, 10

13
0
5

(5
.

)
. *

(H
*
+

+
, 0.5

1902

000

702
120

105
105

000

,
00-

25
25

-0

=
-

-
(5
)
=

-
(
)*
5
55
,

000
25
25

000 000
,
,

Il
AI

105 200 120 200

-
-

220
510
,

12
+
.
.
)
0
5

0
5

(1
.

(
)
+
102

116

500
500

82
,
,

26
26

05

- 0

-.
-

*
0

(5
.

(
)
)

=
=

60 000
,

26

26

500 500
,
,

116
.

102 200
200

1
120
-

(
L
?
)
(13

11
)
.
3
5
0
.

.0
+

2006
+
5
*

and Gilligan
by
for

Adapted Design Manual High Strength Steels

24

from Priest United States Steel

,
(p
"

"

.
)

Corporation suggestions ASCE Special Committee Safety

of

of
on

on

based Column Research Factor approx

=
;

1
.8
.

.
 Analysis of Compression / 2 5. - 9

proportional limit . This must be kept in mind in

TABLE 4 - ALLOWABLE
designing compression members having a low
slenderness ratio ( Le/ r ) ) . COMPRESSIVE STRESS (AISC )
A few test results are also shown to indicate the
Range of Average Allowable
close relationship between the Tangent Modulus
Compressive
formula and actual values . Values Unit Stress (g )
Note that a corresponding curve has been plotted
below the main curve , representing the allowable
stress (g ) after applying a factor of safety of 1 . 8 . o to Cc
I (1 )
o = (1 - 26 P S.
7 . SECANT FORMULA
For the structural field the American Society 149,000 , 000
,

0 =
Civil Engineers ASCE as

200
of

of
result extensive Cc
),

to
a
(

full scale columns has recommended

on

research
,

the Secant Formula its original form can

In

it
,
.

only be used successive approxima

by

series
of
a

tions and as result usually put into more

is
it

where
,

:
272
workable form

20E
,

, 5
Cs
=
The column formulas Table have been
in

adapted from Design Manual for High Strength

"

Steels 1954 1961 by Malcom Priest and John

,

H
”

.
(

Gilligan United States Steel Corp The table

,

,
A

covers steels having yield strength of

33

000
to
,
a

60 000 psi
of

safety
of

factor has been used

,

1
.8
.

For very short columns this provides safety

of
factor
1

a
.

order visualize relative savings metal

of

67 for longer columns this gradually increases by

to
In

in

;
.
higher strength steels Figure in

)
by the use

up
of

eveloped formulas
15

92
max The earlier
15

to
%
,

1
.
.
-

.)

on (

-d
dicates the allowable compressive stress safety
of

are based factor

of
from Table uniform
g

1
.8
a

.)
(
)

the above formulas for four different yield strengths

of
When the effective length known the value Le
.2

is

,
.

"

in "
Notice that the advantage of the higher strengths should be substituted for the above formulas

:
drops off as the column becomes more slender
.

Fig Practical examples

of
of

the allowable
stress curve long columns built for
14
If

1
T
-

.
(

were superimposed this graph the even compressive loading are

on

now maximum resistance

to
,

greater strength advantage

of

lower slender
at

included the later Section and short columns

in

,
4
.5
1
T
-

ness ratios would be readily apparent feet and legs are illustrated the same section
in

.
(

)
.

for

AllowableCompressiveStress Various Steels

g
(
)
Oy
60
=

000
,

,g)
50
Jy

000
,
-

FIGURE
15

ksi

(
stress

940 000
,
Allowable compressive

33 000
=
y

/ 110

170

180
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 120 130 140 150 160 190 200

Slenderness
ratio
(L
)
 . -
2 5 10 / Load and Stress Analysis

MAXIMUM WIDTH -TO-THICKNESS RATIOS

For

Members Under Axial Compression CompressionDue Bending

or

to
of
Elements

and
Adapted from 1961AISC Sec

.19
.1

1
.9
.2
.
400

2,
1 Single Double angle

-
angle with separator

Rolled
column
b
Fabricated
column
or beam Double angle
Plate projecting
contact

in
from column

Rolled tee

Cover plate

b
ITT
M
(

up
Built
-
SSSSSSSS

CS

Fabricated column
P
)

box
column
or

beam

Accesshole

FIGURE

16
IM

Use net
sectionfor
compression

WA
by
be

may using the calculations width equal the

to
of

in

The above ratios exceeded

o
if,
b
/t

these limits the compressivestress value obtained within the allowable stress.
of

maximum
is
,

Where the specially prepared tables Tables

6
(

AISC COLUMN FORMULAS are not applicable the basic formulas while
10

,
)
8

-
-
.

giving more accurate results are more cumber

-
-

Steel Con
of

The 1961 AISC American Institute some work with than those of Table which were
to
(

struction specifications for structural buildings developed from the earlier ASCE investigation
)

contain new column formulas based the then

on

For most machine columns the Table formulas

(

recent Column Research Council Report great Figure curves will be sufficiently accurate
or

15
of A

to
.

struc
of

amount new information the behavior

on

justify the simplicity

of

their use
tural columns was developed including the use
of

.
,

column cross section

of

the new high strength steels For various conditions

,
-

Figure
-

limiting ratio
of

there element width

16

is
,

The column formulas Table resulting from thickness This ratio expressed as being
is
to
,

,
4

(b

).
t
/

may equal certain value divided by

of

or

designing
be

this research value certain less than

to

%
in

a
(
)

machinery where the most precise values the square root the material yield strength The
of

classes
of

's

are required for safety long slender columns permits direct reading com
on

of

related Table
,

a
:

or for maximum economy low slen pression ratio for various yield
on

of

columns element
b
s
. '

t
/

strengths
of

derness ratio steel

.
 Analysis of Compression / .
2 5 – 11

At times it may be desirable to exceed the limit The allowable compressive unit stress ( ) for a
ing b / t ratio of an element . This can be done if, in given slenderness ratio ( L / r ) , from unity through
the calculations , substituting the shorter maximum 200 , is quickly read from Tables 6 through 10 for
width allowed (by the Fig . 16 limits ) would give a steels of various yield strengths .
compressive unit stress value within the allowable
stress . Above L / r of 130 , the higher - strength steels
offer no advantage as to allowable compressive
To help in visualizing the variance in using these stress ( g ) . Above this point, use Table 7 for the
newer formulas , Figure 17 indicates the allowable more economical steel of 36 , 000 psi yield strength .
compressive stress ( g ) obtained from the above
formulas for five different yield strengths . When
compared to corresponding curves of Figure 15 , it TABLE 5- LIMITING b / + RATIOS OF SECTION
will be seen that the new formulas offer considerable ELEMENTS UNDER COMPRESSION
possible economy of material when the slenderness
ratio is low , and a somewhat more conservative Limits of ratio of width to thickness of compression elements
value when the slenderness ratio is high , for different yield strengths of steel

2,400
Figure 3.000 4.000 10, 000
16
Ratio
Allowable Compressive
Stress ( g ) V Oy
Basedon 1961AISC Sec1. 5. 1. 3

33

11 12 13 13

14 15 16 16

22
46psi psi

000

,
25050

000
=
,

= 000
,

21

42 36
30 9
000

000
9 , psi

,
,
,
9

19 20
, psi

000
42

,
,)5
000
=
,
+ 9

, PSI
36

46
000
=

000

( ,
A

ksi
psi
19

33

XD
000

18
=
,

50 000 13
,
stress
Allowablecompressive

Abovethis ratiouse
Table for steel
7
36

000 psiyield
of
,

strength
FIGURE

17
IH
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Slenderness
ratio
/1
(L
)
 . -
2 5 12 / Load and Stress Analysis

,,,, ,,, , ,, , , , . , ,5 , ,4 , ,3 ,,,,, , , , ,,,,, ,, ,, ,, ,,,,,,,8

970
120
970

150
940
100

280
260

970

210
230

430
060 119 900

480

540
550

890

550
770

400

510

570
970

910

180
470
320

660
210

270

230

830
11 810
430
440

730
010

530
530

730
660
100 9 020210 580 340
108 76 5 4

,,,, , , , , ,,,,,
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,,,, ,,, ,,, , , , ,7 , , , , , ,3

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19
1108
19

060
960

310
420

110

370

800
430

750

720
210

410

110
980

570

780

720

510
400
350

11 940

290

660
440

110

670
080

570

230
250

580

710

810
620
640

840
820
530
720
230 8 090290330 170
109 65 5 4 4
,,,, |, , , ,,,,,, ,, ,, ,, ,,,,,,,9
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,,,, ,,, ,,, , , , , ,6 , , , , ,3

21 202019 181716 151413
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18
2609
18

380

970

250
330

960

220
350

220

910

490
600

580
150

520
23 090
720

850

610

810

610
420

260
960

770
270
850

040
060
070

910
690
560

710
610
710
740
780
7 300 350 7 160 430 500 390 910260
97 65 44

,,,T , , , ,,,,,, ,, ,, ,. ,,,,,,,9

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17
steel
4109
370

100
960
steel

230
470

860

380

390
200

580

520
290
140

540

23 350 23 220

760
030

800
790
070

320

710

410
700

420

890

670
steel

790

480
220

810
840
500

850

820

630
670

410

010
830

350 170
170 100
544

) ,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,8,,6,,4 ,, ,,, . , , , ,,,,,9

24 55024450
|
5 , ,, ,. , , , , ,,,
272625 21 20181715 1311 29 282726 23 21 1917151311

,
21 202019 181716 151413 12 10

yield

11024
16
5609
yield
yield

9303

360
380
930
550

000

990
360

640

210
100
220

530

990

290
990

750
280

900

900

880

660
800

510

550
850
580

600
330

840
530
940

550

490
790
890

,
780

,
300 290
190
9 560

,
5 390 5
9 7 5 4
,,, . , , ,,,,,,,9
272625 22 20181715 1311 psi

4 , , ,, ,, , , , , ,,,
2726 2523 21 1917 151311

4,, , , , , , ,,,, , , , , , , ,
psi 21 202019 181716 151413 12 10 psi 29
T

900128
,,
AISC

9703

140

390

580
100

190
550
23 480

200
060
320

300

630
730
24 680

260
680

640

020
350

990
040

900

11 260 11 130

200

930

710

860

720
010

720

550

770
950

470

730

710
440

860

700

410

000
( 36-7 3,,,,,,,,,,, _, , , . ,6 ,,4 ,,4 –9 ,,, , ,,, , ,,,,,9
650

-
360 490 490

000
000 4 98765 4 2220191715 1311

3 , , ,, ,, , , , , ,,,
272625 24 29 282726 2523 22 2018161311
1961

21 20 19 18 1717 161413 12
46 50 1
41020

8709
0103

280

260
380

830
790

990
300

460

790
690
870

970

400

380

000
950

140

560

800

200
120

600

830

410

690
000

990

770

290
480

850
440

880
020

590

620
730

3420720 740
080 840
987 5 4 9
,,, , , , , , ,,,,,
272625 24232220 191715 1311 10

2, , , , , , , ,,, , , , 2, , ,, ,, , , , , ,,,
21 2019 18 1817 161513 12 29 282726 2523 22 2018161411

, , , , ,5 ,,4
)(0 ,,|,,,,,,,, , , , ,,,, , ,, 1,,, , , , , , ,,,,,
VALUES

05021

240T
900
480

980
900

420

990

370
170

420

740
240

030
220

460

790

080

560
130

730

080
900
550
040
520

480

570
410

050
400
990

050
510

500
030

610
800

690
720

TABLE
TABLE

2 930 930

TABLE
970 870 900030
9 8 765 4 272625 242322 20191715 1311 10

1, , ,, ,, , , , ,,,,
21 21 2019 19 1817 161513 12 11 29 292826 2524 22 2018167411 10
1

8501

190
120
200
21 130
110

560

910
110

330

870

010

200
330

540

580

29 260 29 170
190
100

240

140

020

190
540

260

550
760

090

030

750

470
11 540

700

560

940
850

810
560

870

090

510

550

720
690
1 7 65 5 4 8 4
120 120

|
, , , , , ,,,, ,
272626 2523 22

,
1917161412 10

, T
,
27 2524 2220 18161412 10

, ,, ,, , , , , ,,,
21 21 2019 19 1817161514 12 10 29

,
, , , , , , ,, , , , , , ,5 ,5 , ,4 ,3

30028
370
300
120
170

140

970

21 280

080
190

950

740
160

940
350

280
350

980

830

940
690

830
670

840

640

720
940

430
430

610

730

010

710
600

620
COMPRESSIVE

200 110 390

330 150 350 340370

r/L | | | r/L
5 4
r/L

ratio
8 7
ratio
ratio

21 201919 18 17161514 121110 26 252322 191816 1412 10 2827 2524 2220 19167412
1026

12010
_

120
150
160
170
180
190
200

100
100
110
120
130

60
70
140

20 304050 8090100
60
70

10 20304050 8090 110 102030 50 90 110

, , , ,,, ,,, , , , ,8,7 ,6,5 ,5 ,4 ,4, ,,,, , , ,,, ,, ,,8

960
380
280

910

770
980

210

150

370
460

12 490

730
730

230
420
780
070

430
510
530

660

21 100

210

970
910
000

610

090

550
710

180 9700 190

ALLOWABLE

, , , ,,, ,,, , , , ,9 ,7 ,6 ,5 ,5 ,4 ,4,3 ,,,, , , ,,, ,, ,,

1918 181717 16151413 11 10 24242322 19181715 1412 10

-, .g)(
8103
360

330

230
290
900

980

110
850

710
140

520

260
840

12 600

090

820

350
640

070
240

220

750

860
500
030

840

290

550
720
610

030

8 760
| |
,8, ,,, ,,, , , ,,7 ,6 ,6 ,5 , ,4,3 ,,,, , ,,,, ,,,,
19 181717 16151413 11 10 24242322 2120181715 1412 10

,,
54019

offer
2609
350

10
960

270
220

910

850
920
080

220
440

700
740

060

160
880
450

770

21 330

010

economical
500

430

910
610

610

730

7 820150330390
9 |
,6 , ,,,, , ,,,, ,,,,9 stress
1919 1717 16151413 11 10 2424 22 20181716 1412 10

, ,, , , ,,, , , ,9,8 ,7 ,6 ,5 ,4 ,4, steels

34019

820 14

42023

4109
steel
140
130

980

320

280

100
420
steel

290

800
840

720

070
010
580

600

520

890

010
690

570

880

21 440

640

590

7
220 490 170 900
compressive

.
for the more
strength

,,, ,, , , , ,,,, ,9,8 ,7 ,6 ,5 ,4,4, ,,,, , ,,,,,, ,,9

1919 18 1717 16151413 1110 24242322 20191716 1412 11

-
yield
yield

9303
190
100
930
920

280
220

140

080

560
660

400
050

600

830
690
470

490

780
780
890

880
620

510

550

750
590

, ,
180 360 360 940
290 320 strength

, ,, ,, , , ,, ,,,,9 ,8 ,7 ,6,5,4,4, ,,,, , ,,,,,,,,9

1919 18 1817 1615 1413 12 1110 24242322 21 20191716 1413 11
psi psi
7
higher
56
TABLES

9703

,,
110

360

470

470
230

920
430

980

800
590
320

300
860

030

950

200

270

910
550

410

990

710
680

930

590

21 660
520
020
660

710

690
000

allowable

- -
250
use Table

000

,,,, , ,,,,,,,,9
1919 18 1817 161514
1414 1311 10 20191716 1413 11

,,, ,, , , ,, , ,, ,9 ,8 ,7 ,6 ,5 ,4,4,4 8
24242322
yield

the
33 42
0103

/rL ,
180

950

300
380

400

870
280

130

920

990

060
060

440

21 770
770

130

460

680
780

650
500

430

640

620
070

6
070

720

620
690

760

3 050 to
130

420
psi

, ,, ,, , , ,, , , ,,9,8 ,7 ,6 ,5 ,5,4,4 ,,,, , ,,,,,,, ,

1919 18 1817 161515 20191816 1513 11
of as
1514 131210 25242322
point
000
200

230
240

170

460

880
870
760
530

770

590
830
030
160

230

840

410
840
030

230

040

050
690

510
730

570

050
820

TABLE
TABLE

advantage

320 570 100 760

500
36
this

,,,, , ,,,,,,,,
25242322 21 20191816 1513 11 10

, , , ,,, , ,, , , , ,9 ,8 ,7 ,6 ,5 ,5 ,4,4
1919 18 1817 16161514 131211
of
Above
390
300

320

340

200
110

970
980

760

Above
370

280

010
150
996

870
660
120
920

330

560
770

880

640

250

550
760
700

090

840
510

steel

150

,
570 920
no

,,, , ,,,,,,, ,
20191816 1513 12 10

,,,,, , ,, , , ,, ,8 ,7 ,6 ,5 ,5 ,4,43
1919 181817 16 161514 1312 11 242322
125

08021

550
420

990

480

930
190
200
360

990

380

170
410

340

430

270

140

790
930

710

630
830
090

620
640
830

610

060
920 060 370
730
ratio

ratio

/rL
19 181817 16 161514 13121110 23 2220 1817 1513 12 10

|
1024
2023

6019

120
110
Lr

170
110
120

150
160
100

130
140

50
180
190

10 203040 50 607080 90 30 40 7080 90100

200
 SECTION 2 .6

Analysis of Bending

1 . BENDING STRESS where :

transversely to the structural

Any force applied M = bending moment at the section in question ,
axis of partially supported member sets up bending
a in . - lbs
moments ( M ) along the length of the member . These ,
in turn stress the cross - sections in bending .
I = moment of inertia of the section in . *

distance from neutral axis to the point at

As shown in Figure 1, the bending stresses are
C =
which stress is desired , in .
zero at the neutral axis , and are assumed to in
crease lineally to a maximum at the outer fiber of Ob = bending stress , may be tension or com
the section . The fibers stressed in tension elongate ; pression , psi
the fibers stressed in compression contract. This
causes each section so stressed to rotate . The TABLE 1 - BEAM DIAGRAMS
cumulative effect of this movement is an over - all
deflection (or bending ) of the member . Type of Beam
Maximum Maximum Maximum
moment deflection shear

PL '
| M = PL V = P
Tensile Stress
Fixed end
3EI
Moment Free end
- Neutral Axis PL PL

Alla
M = A =
4 48EI
center center
Compressive Stress

VHP

ABEL
IPL

VE
M
=

-
s
FIGURE Fixed end
1

PL3
P2

=
V

P
=
M

A
=

Figure 12ET
The cantilever beam shown
in
is
in

Guided both ends

1

Free guided end

tension along the top and compression along the
in

DI
bottom contrast the relationship of the applied PL LA PL3
In

C
M
.

force and the points of support the member shown 192EI

on

center center
Figure ends
&

such that the curve deflection

of
in

is

is
2

inverted and the member tension along the PL

is
in
,

I.PI

=
V

P
M
=

compression along the top

=
|4

bottom and
in

Fire
.

Fixed end Free end

Within the elastic range below the propor
.e
(i

5PL
tional elastic limit the bending
or

the yield point

=

V
M
,

384EI
)

any point the cross section of

at

stress
0b

center
in

center
a
is (
)

beam
-
-

PL
olun
M
=

PL

185EI
M
=
8

-
-

Fixed end
1
(
)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

PL PL3
M
=

=
V

24EI
P
| A

Guided
=

24EI
|

pod
3

quided
Free
Fixed end guided end

PL3

NAS
=
12

384EI
M
=

both ends center

Pe L2
Pe
M
=

ZEI
V
A
=

whole beam
right angles
force
to

FIGURE
2
 .
2 6 –2 / Load and Stress Analysis

| Here::
Here 6 " T
I .
12 515 " - =1 . ":
47
62.6
WW1.47 " N .A. b = in

11.486 " P = 10 ,000 lbs FIGURE 3

5. 47 "
6 . 94 "
N 905 "

- 100 " .
5 , 000 lbs 5 , 000 lbs

The moment ( M ) may be determined

bending Since the bottom portion of the beam is stressed
from standard beam diagrams . Table 1 lists several in tension , substituting appropriate known values
of these , along with the formulas for bending mo into the formula :
ment , shear, and deflection . Amore complete pre
sentation is included in the Reference Section on
01= Mc
Beam Diagrams .
Normally there is no interest in knowing what the ( 250 , 000 ) ( 5 .47 )

bending (62. 6 )
stresses are somewhere inside a beam .
Usually the bending stress at the outer fiber is = 21, 845 psi (tension )
needed because it is of maximum value . In an un
symmetrical section , the distance c must be taken in The top portion of the beam being in compression ,
the correct direction across that portion of the sec
tion which is in tension or that portion which is in oc = MC
compression , as desired . Ordinarily only the max
imum stress is needed and this is the stress at the - (250, 000) (1.47)
outer fiber under tension , which rests at the greater 62 . 6
distance c from the neutral axis . , 870 psi ( compression )
= 5

Problem 1 Problem 2

standard rolled “ T ” section (ST - 6 " wide flange ,

A
lbs ) is used as a beam , 100 " long , supported on
80 . 5
each end and bearing a concentrated load of 10 , 000
lbs at the middle . Find the maximum tensile and
maximum compressive bending stresses .
Figure 3 shows the cross - section of this beam ,
together with its load diagram . FIGURE
4

Referring to Table 1, the formula for the bending the previous

of
Find the maximum deflection
moment of this type of beam is found to be - -
beam under the same loading From the beam dia
.

grams Table the appropriate formula found is

to
and

1
,

M = PL therefore be
-
-

P13
EI
10

000 100 max and therefore

=
,
-
(

)(

į
48
( 10

000 100
30 ,

lbs
48 (

)
(

250 000
in
,
=

.-

106 62
.6
x

)
(

111
=

"
.

Horizontal Shear Beam

in
A

HORIZONTAL SHEAR STRESS

2
.

Moment addition pure bending stresses horizontal

to
In

, ,

shear stress often present beams Figure

is

in

5
.

depends vertical shear and only occurs

on

the
It

if

Bending bending moment varies along the beam Any beam

Stress
,

Sheets
,
(

portion
of
'

or

the beam length that has uniform

,
's

bending moment has vertical shear and therefore

no

FIGURE no horizontal shear

5

.
)
 Analysis of Bending / . -
2 6 3

g
Unlike bending stress , the horizontal shear
stress is zero at the outer fibers of the beam and is
maximum at the neutral axis of the beam . It tends
to cause one part of the beam to slide past the other ,
Neutral
The horizontal shear stress at any point in the Axis
cross - section of a beam , Figure 6 , is - - FIGURE 6

T =
Vay
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2 )
It
(a) substituting the above values into the formula ,
where : the horizontal shear stress ( T ) is found :

external vertical shear on beam , lbs Vay

It
V =
T
T =
=
I = moment of inertia of whole section , .
in “
(5000 ) ( 18 . 6 ) ( 0 . 727 )
t = thickness of section at plane where stress
(62 . 6 ) ( 0 .903 )
is desired , in .
psi
area of section beyond plane where stress
= 1196
a =
is desired , in . 2
( b ) Since the shear force is borne entirely by the
y = distance of center of gravity of area to web of the “ T ” , the horizontal shear force (f) de
neutral axis of entire section , in . pends on the thickness of the web in the plane of
interest :
Problem 3
f = rt and thus
Assume that the “ T ” beam in our previous ex = 1196 x 0 . 903
ample (Problem 1) is fabricated by welding . Under
= 1080 lbs / in .
the same load conditions ,
Find the horizontal shear stress
(a ) in the plane
There are two fillet welds, one on each side of
the joining the flange to the web . Each will have
“ T”
where the web joins the flange . support
to half of the shear force or 540 lbs / in . and
(b ) Then find the size of continuous fillet welds its leg size would be:
on both sides , joining the web to the flange . 540
9600
12 .515 " —
L = . 056 "
extremely small continuous
an

This would be
fillet weld Based upon
486

. the AWS theminimum size

,
.

11
"

fillet weld for the thicker 47 plate would be

16
1

5
94

.
"

"
/
6

"
.

905 manual intermittent fillet welds are be used

+

to
If
"

,
FIGURE
7

the joint
of

the percentage the length

of

be welded
would be to
:

calculated leg size continuous fillet weld

of

100
,
the beam diagrams Table
From the appropri actual leg size of intermittent fillet weld used
*
,

,
is 1

be

ate formula for vertical shear found

to
V
(
)

056
.

18
-

%
16
=
/ 5

and thus
=
V

10

000
=

12

satisfy
16

fillet weld would

A

V
3
/

-
2

this requirement because results

of
25

the
it

%
in

lbs the joint being welded

of

000 length
=
5
,

The following values also are known deter

or

TO

HOW USE STEEL EFFICIENTLY FOR

3

mined
.

be
to

-
-

BENDING LOADS
62
in
=

.6

Every structural member must have

I

.
12

18

486 515
in
=

=
1

.6

.2
a

x
.

Sufficient strength carry given loads

to
1
.

727
=
y

Necessary rigidity
0

"
.

hold deflection within

to
2
.

903 certain allowable limits

=
0
.
t

"

.
 .
2 6 – 4 / Load and Stress Analysis

The moment of inertia ( I) of a section determines

THE FOLLOWINGRULES WILL RESULT IN4
its resistance to bending . To get the most from each
THE MOST EFFECTIVE USE OF STEEL FOR pound of steel it is important to know what sections
BENDING LOADS
of the area are most effective structurally to resist
bending .
1. Place flange material as far as possible
from the neutral axis . Connect flanges with For example , a rectangular section , Figure 8, is
web section . divided into 10 areas . Each area as shown has the
same resistance to bending since it has the same
2. Avoid reductions in sectional area below
moment of inertia about the neutral axis . Actually ,
requirements for horizontal stiffness .
the extreme areas at the top and bottom account for
3. Weld ends of beams rigidly to supporting 10 % of the bending resistance of the entire section .

members for maximum strength and stiff On the other hand , the center area , which has 14
ness . times the area of the top and bottom outer areas ,
does not offer any more bending resistance .
4 . Place joints in low stress areas .
The net effect of placing material as far as
possible from the neutral axis is shown in Figure 9.
For efficient designs , material must be placed Its similarity to increasingly deeper “ I ” sections
where it does the most work per pound of metal . is evident.
The section of a member , therefore , must be select
ed within practical limits to provide the required Each of the areas has equal bending resistance ,
strength and rigidity . For example , a beam section if the web is disregarded . Flange area becomes
obviously should not be so deep to withstand vertical less as the section depth is increased . At first
loads with minimum sectional area , yet be too weak this indicates that a deep , thin section is best for
and flexible for horizontal transverse forces . Sec maximum resistance to bending per pound of metal .
ondly , a structural section must not be so thin as to
However , the practical limitation is given in
be impractical to fabricate .
Rule 2 , which says :
It is important, therefore , to know the limits to
which a designer can go in theory and where to stop RULE 2 . Avoid Reductions in Sectional Area Below
Requirements for Horizontal Stiffness
for practical reasons .
Each of the sections shown in Figure 10 has the
RULE Place Flanges as far as Possible from
1. same resistance to bending about the x - x axis . As
the Neutral Axis . Connect Flanges with Web Section the depth of the section increases , the area ( A )
decreases . As a result , the strength of the section
is decreasing also , since S = I/ cand cis increasing
as depth increases , but I remains constant .

This area = 10 % of

These 2 areas = 10 %
stiffness of whole
section , yet 14 times
stiffness of whole
the

as much area as
section
two outer areas

All have
of

Each area has same about same moment inertia

-
x
x
I

FIGURE FIGURE
8

9
 Analysis of Bending / 2 .6 - 5

These Sections Are Equal in Stiffness in the Vertical Direction

u
100%
100%

x- - - r - -

X
-
-

-
-

+
X

X
-
-
-
-
-
HHO
I Vertical Strength Hvertical Strength

Areal
-

įHorizontal
istiffness realHorizontal stiffness
300 400

%
100 % 200 300
%

%
200 400
%

100
Depth
of

Depth

of
Section Section

FIGURE FIGURE
10

11
Since member designed for rigidity with
to
100

is 50
a

For strength
(

reduction the depth

of
in
%

,
generally times stronger
a

stand deflection
10
is

55to
",
to

twice the depth of section

)

section these

In
than necessary prevent

E
F
of

prevent failure the area

.
to

respects
a

section and section are the same

, ,

generally

B
reduced without exceeding
F
be

.
section can genera
the resulting area only
of
However section

is
graphs
as

to F
allowable stresses illustrated the
the original section area compared
in

of

25
the
%

%
9
of if 11

Figures
re
10

and
Horizontal bending
of

the case section

in
.

B
.

Figure Fis
the original compared
of

. of

the depth
10

made
of

the section sistance near

of %
( is
In

to
,

twice the depth the initial square section zero the case
in

the
),

B
A

resulting area only the initial square

of
25
is

%
B

of
choosing flanged section instead
(
)

Thus
,

still 50 as strong which more

a

a
area but
. is

is
%

simple
A

vertical web member achieves the same

..
.
(
)

than adequate principal bending resistance and strength with less

The objection modified section such as the material but with the added benefit of greater re
to
a

sistance horizontal bending

or

that bending resistance

to

area stiffness the

is

in
B

.
(
)

horizontal direction nearly zero as indicated

on
is

RULE Weld Ends of Beams Rigidly Supporting

to
3

avoid this good design practice

.

the graph
To

Members for Maximum Strength and Stiffness

.

assumes horizontal force along with given verti

a

a
of

of

cal load which leads the use flanged sections The deflection beam with concentrated load
to

a
..
.

midspan can be reduced

at

its value when

to

Figure
1
4

The flanged sections shown

/
11

have
in

the ends are rigidly fixed This easily seen

is

. a in

equal bending resistance the sec

of

As the depth
.

any beam see Figure

/ of
.

Deflection
12

table
the flange area drops off and the
,

tion increases
.
,

uniformly loaded beam can be reduced

to

strength decreases The essential difference how

1
5
,

greatly increased
.

Strength
is
of

ever between the sections Figure the beam

12

and those
, .
in
in
,

Figure the fact that the area drops off

at

the demonstration setup Figure

10

13
is

beam
,
In
a

flanges simply supported

of

faster rate with the use

at

the ends The background

is
.

.
 .
2 6 – 6 / Load and Stress Analysis

Simply supported beam (A ) Fixed ends beam ( B)

lood
Load
1

t
f
Moment
Diagram DI

12
FIGURE

mood

ends
and
Moment
Mmexlate

)=
&
)=

Amon

102
Deflection

lei
=
. at
sketch shows the bending moment when loaded deflection the beam

in

.
midspan
at

There no bending moment the end

is

Graphic illustration of what happens when both

.

midspan
at

Maximum bending moment

is

Figure
.

beams are loaded

14
shown

is

in

.
of

rigid frame since the ends the

is

Beam
B

The simply supported beam stressed be

a

is
are rigidly connected the supporting col

A
(
by )
to

beam
yond its yield point and fails buckling

to it
If
result some
of

umns As the moment carried

.
is
,
a

had not failed the beam would have been stressed

.

through the end connection into the supporting col

49 150 psi
,
umn Although some bending moment introduced

.
is
.

the column the rigid connection reduces the rigidly supported stressed

to
The beam
in

is
,

B
(
)
maximum bending moment the central portion of only psi and failing
28

000 far from

in

is
,

.
the beam reducing turn the bending stress and
in
,

RULE Place Joints Low Stress Area

in
4
.

rigid beam the bending moment passes

In

,
a

through zero twice along the length

of of
the beam
WS

. .
These two points are called points inflection
Because bending stresses these points are almost

at
zero joint at this position does not require much
a
,

welding usually just enough take the shear load

to to
,

of of .
frequently practical fabricate beams
is
It

this type three sections that the amount

so
in

welding for the joint can be drastically reduced

.
the background Figure is just such
of

15
In

a
FIGURE
13

FIGURE FIGURE
14

15
 Analysis of Bending / . -
2 6 7

beam , made of three sections with the joint at the

points of inflection . The greatest moment occurs at
midspan of the beam and at the ends where it con
nects to the columns . This beam when loaded
identically with a rigid beam having no joint , as
illustrated in the foreground of Figure 15 , exhibits
the same strength and stiffness . The mechanical FIGURE 16
joints at the inflection points , even though not welded
for purposes of this demonstration , have no effect
on the properties of the beam . Its deflection curve
is identical with that of the solid beam .
Figure 16 illustrates the application of these
principles in machine design . This cross supporting
beam must be removable for functional reasons , yet
when in place must be very rigid . By fixing the ends
of the beam into the side members , the beam will be
4 to 5 times as rigid as it would be if simply sup
ported ; yet this means a very rigid end connection . FIGURE 17

A mechanical joint at this point of high bending

moment would be very cumbersome .
By welding the ends directly to the sides of the
frame, as in Figure 17 , and making a service joint
at each point of inflection , only a single bolt at each Practical Application of Basic Design Principles
point is required to hold this section in place . The Typical Machine Frame Problem
to
main shear load is taken by the small clip welded
to the bottom of the cantilever section of the beam .
This type of construction gives the same results as
a continuous beam welded directly to the sides of
the base without any removable feature . Welding This Steam Chest at Points of Inflection And
Another practical application of this principle is Not at Corners Eliminates Flexing Problem
in the design of a rectangular steam chest, Figure
18 . Instead of using four flat plates joined at the No bending stress on welds
corners by welding , it was decided to form the cor
ners on the two end plates in a press brake and
thereby eliminate welding at the corners . This
places the welds farther back from the corner and
they become groove butt welds . Perhaps the sim
plest design would have been to make the entire Internal pressure
frame from just two plates , each with two bends.
This would have necessitated just two groove butt
welds . | | | | | |
The rectangular section with uniform pressure
applied inside becomes a frame, uniformly loaded .
The moment diagram of this frame is shown . Notice
in this case that the maximum bending moment is at Point of inflection : no bending moment
the corners . This means any corner weld would be
subjected to the maximum bending stress which
would vary from zero to maximum every time the
unit was operated and pressure applied . Corner
welds would be flexed (tending to open up ) as the
pressure varied .

The of the welds is at the point

final location
of inflection , i. e. where
the bending moment is zero
(see the moment diagram ) and at which point there is
no flexing ; even though the pressure fluctuates , the
weld remains perfectly straight . This would be the
Moment diagram
ideal point to locate the weld in this type of struc
ture , especially since it is a type of fatigue loading
because the pressure varies as the unit is operated . FIGURE 18
 2 6
. -

UNDER BENDING LOAD

19
BEAM

-
FIGURE REQUIRED SECTION MODULUS OF
8

(
Strength Nomograph
/ Load
and

MAXIMUM 100000
,,

780 000
BENDING
E

STRENGTH FACTOR 690

MOMENT

(
SECTION MODULUIS

-
TOTAL LOAD FOOT POUNDS INCH POUNDS

ON
165
)(
-. 10
,

BEAM 000
29

000

-
1000
Stress Analysis

po 000
19

OF
100
+
LENGTH oo
. ,6

200
BEAM 000
000

10
4000
INCHES 000

. .
FEEI

OF
TYPE 60 000

2009 580000
BEAM 200 .
90005 100 000
,1

2000 19000 000

UNIFORM CONCENTRATED
ALLOWABLE

+
LOAD 4000
LOAD
9000
,1

Wullu
200 000 UNIT STRESS 000

__
0000

--
29000
)

BENDING PS1
29000
,
I oo
49000
10
000
MWMM

400 000
1000
SE69000 600 000
100000 690003E800 000 2000
-

m 1000
-- .

89

,,
100 209000 000 4000 000
--
,

100000 000
-

LALA
GUIDED gooo 000
--

LISTINO sogooo
.

MULI
10 20

GUIDED 000 000 000

community 400gooo 20000
- + 6 -- , , --

.
-

000 000
400
04

114
--
-

000 000
600
00
--

mmmmmmmmm
,

000 000
-

sogoc
.,
10

000 000
--

S
-

,1

:
PROBLEM FIND THE REQUIRED SECTION MODULUS 000 000

.
OF THE FOLLOWING BEAM NOTE CAN ALSO USE THIS NOMOGRAPH
SOLVE FOR ALLOWABLE LOAD OR

TO
20

000000

OF
0

TYPE BEAM AS RESULTANT STRESS OR START WITH oo

MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENT
TTT

OF
.
INCHES

120
LENGTH BEAM
-

, ,, , . , , Ummu
S

KROL
40

000 000

10

ON
:
,
LOAD BEAM 000 POUNDS
000 000
opport

20
,
:
ALLOWABLE STRESS 000 PSI 69000 000
000 ood the

IN

S
.-
75
. - .. .2- 4. .6 ,6- . , , ,
80

( )2( )3( )5( )6(

READ REQUIRED SECTION MODULUS 00acoo
, , ,,
6 8

000 oo logocg000
that

,4 . . ,

19000 000
 Analysis of Bending / .
2 6 – 9

4 . QUICK METHOD FOR FINDING REQUIRED nomograph ( Fig . 20 ) an allowable unit deflection
SECTION MODULUS ( STRENGTH ) OR MOMENT (A / L) is This is the resulting deflection of
shown .
OF INERTIA (STIFFNESS ) the beam divided by the length of the beam . The
To aid in designing members for bending loads , stiffness property of the beam is read as moment of
the following two nomographs have been constructed . inertia (I) .
The first nomograph determines the required By these nomographs the designer can
using
strength of straight beam . The second nomograph
a quickly find the required section modulus ( strength )
determines the required stiffness of the beam . or moment of inertia ( stiffness ) of the beam . He can
then refer to a steel handbook to choose a steel sec
Inboth nomographs several types of beams are
tion that will meet these requirements .
included for concentrated loads as well as uniform
loads . The length of the beam is shown both in If he wishes to fabricate the section from welded
inches and in feet , the load in pounds . In the first steel , he may use any of the methods for building up
nomograph (Fig . 19 ) an allowable bending stress a steel section having the required values of section
(ob ) is shown and the strength property of the beam modulus or moment of inertia discussed in Prop
is read as section modulus ( S) . In the second erties of Sections .

SNYDER

SNYDER

SNYDER

Steel Weldments speed up the delivery cycle on special

purpose machines , while ensuring maximum rigidity and
dimensional stability .