Metallic content in sediments of the high Andean

and coastal aquatic systems of the Atacama Region,

northern Chile (25º-28º S): An environmental
evaluation based on the calculation of local
backgrounds

Informe de Tesis de:

Oliver Glenn Cooper Percker

Investigador Patrocinante:
Jorge Rubén Valdés Saavedra

2023
Table of Contents
INDEX OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... II
INDEX OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. III
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1
2. STUDY AREA ........................................................................................................... 3
2.1. GEOLOGY ................................................................................................................................ 3
2.2. CLIMATE................................................................................................................................... 4
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS ............................................................................ 12
3.1. SAMPLING AND LABORATORY PROCEDURES ................................................................... 12
3.2. COMPOSITE CALCULATION FOR THE LOCAL BACKGROUND (LB) ............................... 13
3.3. ENVIRONMENTAL EVALUATION........................................................................................ 13
3.3.1. Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) ............................................................................................... 13
3.3.2. Degree of Contamination Index (CI) .................................................................................... 14
3.3.3. Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI) .............................................................................. 14
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ........................................................................... 15
4.1. COMPOSITES GEOCHEMISTRY (LOCAL BACKGROUNDS; LB) ........................................ 15
4.2. SEDIMENTS ............................................................................................................................ 19
4.3. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF SEDIMENTS ............................................................. 23
4.3.1. Coastal Systems .................................................................................................................... 23
4.3.2. High-Andean Systems .......................................................................................................... 24
4.3.3. Comparison of Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) Using Other Backgrounds............................... 26
4.3.4. Mining tailings vs. Environmental Evaluation in the Study Area ......................................... 31
5. CONCLUSIONS..................................................................................................... 33
6. REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 34

i
Index of Tables
Table 2-1. Legend, surface area and relative percentage, respect to the studied basins, of the
geological map units of Figure 2-2. Sym.: Symbol. ................................................................... 7
Table 2-2. Weather stations indicated in Figure 2-3. In addition to the location, the elevation
(m.a.s.l); the average, minimum and maximum annual accumulated precipitation (mm·y-1;
the number of years considered by the time series (# Years); and the number of years in
which no precipitation was recorded (Dry Years) are presented. .......................................... 12
Table 3-1. Analysis of certified sediment MESS-3, from the National Research Council of
Canada ............................................................................................................................................. 12
Table 3-2. Categories of classification of Igeo (Müller, 1979). ........................................................ 14
Table 3-3. Critical range and grades of CI, E and PERI (Håkanson, 1980). ............................... 15
Table 4-1. Summary of the area, the relative area with respect to the basin and RAF of the
geological units with reported chemistry, in the different study basins. Env.: environment;
Sym.: Symbol. ................................................................................................................................. 17
Table 4-2. Average concentration of the elements of interest of the geological units with
chemistry reported in other publications. a: Brown (1991); b: Mpodozis et al. (1995) c:
Mpodozis et al. (1996); d: Kay et al. (1994); e: Naranjo et al. (2019); f: Richards et al. (2001);
g: Schnurr et al. (2007); h: Trumbull et al. (1999); i: Walker et al. (1991); j: Fuentes et al.
(2018); k: Jara et al. (2021); l: Coloma et al. (2017); m: Díaz-Alvarado et al. (2017); n:
Rodríguez et al. (2016); o: Rodríguez et al. (2019); p: Marschik et al. (2003). ...................... 18
Table 4-3. Local background (LB; geochemical composites) for each of the basins studied. .. 19
Table 4-12. Metal concentrations in distinct matrices used background in this study.
Concentrations values in mg·kg-1 (ppm). ................................................................................... 27

ii
Index of Figures
Figure 2-1. Map with northern Chile DEM based on 7.5-arc-second Global Multi-resolution
Terrain Elevation Data (GMTED2010) dataset (Danielson and Gesch, 2011), between 25º
and 28ºS. The main morphostructural units of the Central Andes and the basins with the
respective sampled sites are presented. ........................................................................................ 5
Figure 2-2. Geological map at a scale of 1:1000000 (SERNAGEOMIN, 2003), between 25º and
28ºS. Volc.-Sed.: Volcanosedimentary. In the symbology, the outcrops that represent an
area ≥ 1% of the basins are indicated, together with lagoons (Lag) and meadows (Vega).
The detail of the symbology (i.e., the legend) is shown in the Table 2-1. .............................. 6
Figure 2-3. Map with the climatic zones of northern Chile (Sarricolea et al., 2017) and isohyets
(DGA, 1987) between 25º and 28ºS. Climates: BSk: cold semi-arid; BSk(s): cold semi-arid
with winter rain; BSk'(s): cold semi-arid with winter rain and oceanic influence; BWh(s):
hot desert with winter rain; BWk: cold desert; BWk(s): cold desert with winter rain; ET:
tundra; ET(s): tundra with winter rain; ET(w): summer rain tundra climate; EF: ice cap;
EF(w): ice cap with summer rain. Weather stations (Table 2-2) (white and yellow circles)
(https://explorador.cr2.cl/). ........................................................................................................ 11
Figure 4-1. Mean metal content measured in sediment samples of coastal aquatic systems (CS)
of study region. Values expressed in mg·kg-1 (ppm). Lines on bars: Standard deviation
(S.D.)................................................................................................................................................ 20
Figure 4-2. Mean metal content measured in sediment samples of High-Andean aquatic systems
(HAS) of study region. Values expressed in mg·kg-1 (ppm). Lines on bars: Standard
deviation (S.D). .............................................................................................................................. 22
Figure 4-3. Mean Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) of coastal systems based in local background
(LB) values. ..................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 4-4. Mean Contamination Index (CI) of coastal systems based in local background (LB)
values. .............................................................................................................................................. 24
Figure 4-5. Mean Potential Ecological Risk (E) of coastal systems based in local background
(LB) values. ..................................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 4-6. Mean Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) of High-Andean systems based in local
background (LB) values. ............................................................................................................... 25
Figure 4-7. Mean Contamination Index (CI) of High-Andean systems based in local background
(LB) values. ..................................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 4-8. Mean Potential Ecological Risk (E) of High-Andean systems based in local
background (LB) values. ............................................................................................................... 26
Figure 4-9. Geoaccumulation index (Igeo) of 5 studied coastal systems of northern Chile: LB:
Local Background, based on the calculation of compounds from basins (this study); AD:
Background concentration measured in aeolian dust of the Mejillones and Caldera bays
(Valdés and Tapia, 2019); Shale: Background concentration measured in average shale;
Background concentration measured in marine sediments of uncontaminated bays (Valdés
and Tapia, 2019); UCC: Background concentration measured in Upper Continental Crust
(Rudnick and Gao, 2014). ............................................................................................................ 28

iii
Figure 4-10. Geoaccumulation index (Igeo) of 9 studied High-Andean systems of northern Chile:
LB: Local Background, based on the calculation of compounds from basins (this study);
AD: Background concentration measured in aeolian dust of the Mejillones and Caldera
bays (Valdés and Tapia, 2019); Shale: Background concentration measured in average shale;
Background concentration measured in marine sediments of uncontaminated bays (Valdés
and Tapia, 2019); UCC: Background concentration measured in Upper Continental Crust
(Rudnick and Gao, 2014). ............................................................................................................ 29
Figure 4-11. Map with the location of tailings (SERNAGEOMIN, 2020) between 25º and 28ºS.
Holocene volcanoes from Global Volcanism Program (2013). ............................................. 31

iv
Metallic content in sediments of the High-Andean and coastal aquatic systems of the
Atacama region, northern Chile (25º-28º S): An environmental evaluation based on the
calculation of local backgrounds

Abstract
From the content of Al, Cu, Fe, Pb and Zn in the sediments of 9 High-Andean aquatic systems
(HAS) (lagoons and salt flats) and 5 coastal systems (CS), of the Atacama Region in northern
Chile (between 25º and 28º S), it is intended to carry out an environmental evaluation through
different indices of environmental quality, together with a new proposal for the calculation of
local backgrounds (LB). The proposed LB is lithogenic, coming from a pristine primary source,
and its calculation is based on the basins or areas that influence the aquatic systems, the
geological units that outcrop them, considering their respective geochemistry, and the surface of
these units, using open-source geographic information systems (GIS) software such as QGIS.
The environmental assessment carried out indicates that the most affected systems are Chañaral
and Ramada (both CS), with high concentrations of Cu and Pb. These high metallic contents
would be of anthropogenic origin, due to activities related to the mining industry, which has
deposited around 170 tailings (registered) throughout the Atacama Region. Finally, the good
environmental health of the high Andean systems, revealed by the environmental assessment,
invites us to promote their protection and conservation, before the growing mining activity
disturbs them, since these systems are unique and fragile.

1. Introduction
The Atacama Desert is located on the western margin of South America, stretching from the
Pacific Ocean to the central Andes, in northern Chile (Rech et al., 2006). It is known for its arid
to hyper-arid climate (Dunai et al., 2005; Clarke, 2006) and for its scarcity of water (Rutllant et
al., 2003; CR2, 2022). This distinctive climate is the result of the confluence of a subtropical high
pressure zone, the cold coastal Humboldt current (Rutllant et al., 2003; Clarke, 2006), as well as
the Andean rain-shadow effect and the considerable distance (>2,000 km) with respect to the
Amazonia-Atlantic moisture source (Houston and Hartley, 2003). These climatic and geological
factors mean that the northern coast of Chile is characterized by a general lack of continental
water sources (perennial rivers), since between 22° S and 28° S only the Loa and Copiapó rivers
are found. Meanwhile, the High-Andean, on the eastern edge of the Atacama Desert, is
characterized by the presence of endorheic basins at altitudes >3,000 m.a.s.l. (25-29° S) (Valdés
et al., 2022), and for being a territory that is very sensitive to changes in humidity since it is
located between the tropical and extratropical rain belts (Grosjean et al., 1995).
Another distinctive feature of the Atacama Desert is the presence of cities and/or towns that
are largely associated with mining activities. These activities have contributed to the increase of
pollutants and/or metals in this region, due to the treatment, storage and transportation of
mining products, together with other associated services and activities related to the industry
(Valdés et al., 2015; Tapia et al., 2018c). In fact, only in the study area, more than 20 mines
and/or metal processing plants (Cu and/or Fe concentration plants, lixiviation-solvent
extraction-electrowinning [LX-SX-EW] plants to produce Cu cathodes, concentrate smelter and

1
refinery to produce Cu cathodes, and a gold ore processing plant to produce doré metal, among
others), a non-metallic mine (limestone mine to feed lime plant) (SONAMI, 2022) and 4
operational desalination plants (Campero et al., 2021) are recognized, in conjunction with
abandoned infrastructure, such as the Chañarcillo mineral loading port (Muñoz et al., 2022). In
addition, on the coast there are numerous ports, whether yachting, artisanal or industrial fishing,
which constitute a source of various metals and organic pollutants for marine environments (Yu
et al., 2017), while in the High-Andean there are various projects approved and in process for
the extraction of Li in salt flats (SEA, 2022), as is already the case with the Salar de Atacama.
Ecologically, sediments are important components of the aquatic habitat and are also a reservoir
or sink for pollutants, thus they play an relevant role in maintaining the trophic status of any
body of water (Singh et al., 1997). Heavy metals are one of the most common contaminants,
since these, in addition to sediments, may accumulate in microorganisms, aquatic flora and fauna
(Deniseger et al., 1990; Cooke et al., 1990; Valdés and Tapia, 2019). Unlike countries such as the
United States, New Zealand or Australia (Burton, 2002), Chile does not have environmental
regulations regarding sediments, thus leaving aquatic sediments outside of any type of control.
In this way, studies on the metal content in this type of environment are extremely important to
lay the foundations when carrying out environmental evaluations, and necessary for new
regulation establishment.
Studies related to the metal content in aquatic environments in northern Chile are scarce –from
a regional point of view–, have a local focus and are concentrated practically on the coast,
covering the sediment, water, and biological matrix (Valdés and Tapia, 2019). The coastal areas
where studies like these have been carried out are Mejillones (Valdés et al., 2005; Valdés et al.,
2008; Valdés and Sifeddine, 2009; Valdés, 2012; Guiñez et al., 2015), Antofagasta (Salamanca et
al., 2000; Lépez et al., 2001; Salamanca et al., 2004; Valdés et al., 2010; Valdés et al., 2011;
Calderón and Valdés, 2012; Castro and Valdés, 2012; Valdés et al., 2014a; Valdés et al., 2015),
Chañaral (Fariña and Castilla, 2001; Lee et al., 2002; Ramírez et al., 2005; Lee and Correa, 2005;
Medina et al., 2005; Stauber et al., 2005; Andrade et al., 2006), y Caldera (Castillo and Valdés,
2011; Castillo et al., 2019). According to Valdés and Tapia (2019), the results of all the studies
show some degree of impact of anthropic origin in the marine environment, since the metal
content is above international guidelines.
Meanwhile, in the high Andes, investigations of this type are even more scarce, barely
recognizing those of: Grosjean et al. (1997) and Tapia et al. (2018a) in 4 aquatic systems of the
Atacama Region (Laguna Negro Francisco, Salar de Pedernales, Salar de Maricunga and Laguna
Verde); Urrutia et al. (2002) in Lago Chungará, Arica and Parinacota Region; Cerda et al. (2019)
in Laguna Inka Coya, Antofagasta Region; and, recently, the article by Valdés et al. (2022), who
carry out an environmental evaluation in 21 aquatic systems of the high Andes of the Atacama
Region. However, and in recognition of the efforts to understand this remote and unique area,
mention must be made of Risacher et al. (1999), who carried out a huge hydrogeochemical study
in 52 Chilean high Andean salt flats (“salares”), based on salinity and dissolved majority chemical
species (Na, Mg, Cl, K, Ca, SO4, for example); a study which was later synthesized in two review
papers (Risacher et al., 2003; Risacher and Fritz, 2009).
One of the methodologies commonly used to differentiate between the anthropic and natural
occurrence of a certain element is to compare its content in a sample with the concentration in
a geochemical background (Birch, 2017). Although there is more than one definition for this
concept in the literature (Reimann and Garrett, 2005), one of the simplest is given by OSPAR
(2008): 'the background concentration is the concentration of a contaminant at a “pristine” or “remote” site

2
based on contemporary or historical data'. Meanwhile, the backgrounds can be global averages,
determined in pristine areas within the same ecosystem or by estimating the source material
(Birch, 2017). Global values are usually used, such as average upper crust metal concentrations
(Reimann and De Caritat, 2005; Reimann and Garrett, 2005). However, the main criticism of
the use of global values is that they do not consider regional variability, chemical and mineral
heterogeneity, and more importantly, they do not represent local background concentrations
(Birch, 2017).
In the same vein, it is evident that the morphological and geochemical features of natural systems
respond to the interaction processes of different scales, both temporal and spatial (global,
continental, regional, local, among others). However, the characteristics that make systems
distinctive with respect to others, within the same regional –or large-scale– context, are precisely
the local –or smaller-scale– factors. In this way, for the evaluation of natural systems, factors
and/or elements of a magnitude like the system being analyzed should be included. In this same
sense, it is expected that an environmental assessment based on the estimation and use of local
backgrounds is more appropriate than one that only considers global backgrounds, since the
first method integrates the local variability and heterogeneity of the systems.
In the present investigation, a new methodology is proposed for the estimation of local
background, based on the calculation of compounds from the weighting between the average
chemistry of geological outcrops, of a given zone, and its surface area. By virtue of the
compounds and the use of different environmental quality indices, it is intended to carry out an
environmental evaluation in 9 High-Andean aquatic systems (lagoons and salt flats) and 5 coastal
systems, in the Atacama Region, considering the content of Al, Cu, Fe, Pb and Zn from its
sediments.

2. Study Area
2.1. Geology
The Atacama Desert between 25°S and 28°S, in northern Chile, comprises five major continental
morphostructural units (Figure 2-1), from west to east: Coastal Cordillera (or Coastal Mountain
Range); Central Depression (or Intermediate Valley); Precordillera (or Foothills); Pre-Andean
Depression (or Salt Flats Valley) –including the endorheic basin studied–; and Western
Cordillera (Arriagada et al., 2006; Kay and Coira, 2009). The Coastal Cordillera is largely
composed of Jurassic to Middle Cretaceous igneous (intrusive) and sedimentary outcrops; the
Central Depression consists of a basin filled by Oligocene to Pliocene sediments; the
Precordillera is composed of Paleozoic basement and Mesozoic to Eocene volcanic and
sedimentary rocks; the Pre-Andean Depression is filled by Miocene to Holocene sediments; and
Western Cordillera consists of an active magmatic arc, formed by a series of Pliocene to
Holocene stratovolcanoes where peaks reach over 6,000 m, which marks the western limit of
the high Andes (Figure 2-2) (Stern, 2004; Clarke, 2006; Arriagada et al., 2006; Kay and Coira,
2009; Tapia et al., 2018b).
In order to obtain a representative background of the basins, a composite for each basin is made
from the geochemistry of geological unit published in different studies in the region (Walker et
al., 1991; Brown, 1991; Kay et al., 1994; Mpodozis et al., 1995; Mpodozis et al., 1996; Trumbull
et al., 1999; Richards et al., 2001; Marschik et al., 2003; Schnurr et al., 2007; Rodríguez et al.,

3
2016; Coloma et al., 2017; Díaz-Alvarado et al., 2017; Fuentes et al., 2018; Naranjo et al., 2019;
Rodríguez et al., 2019; Jara et al., 2021); which correspond mainly to igneous outcrops.

2.2. Climate
According to the Köppen-Geiger climatic classification (Sarricolea et al., 2017), the north of
Chile between 25º and 28ºS is composed from west to east by: a cold semi-arid zone with winter
rain and oceanic influence (BSk'(s)); a cold desert with winter rain zone (BWk(s)) that to the
north becomes cold desert (BWk), alternated with a hot desert with winter rain climate (BWh(s))
in coastal zones and valleys; a cold semi-arid zone with winter rain (BSk(s)) with specific tundra
zones with winter rain (ET(s)); a cold semi-arid zone (BSk); a tundra zone (ET); and a ice cap
climate (EF) to ice cap climate with summer rain (EF(w)) in areas that exceed 6,000 m.a.s.l.
(Figure 2-3). In particular, the coastal zone is dominated by the BWk(s) climate north of 26.5ºS,
and by the BSk'(s) climate south of said latitude, with rainfall that does not exceed 10 mm y–1.
Meanwhile, the High-Andean endorheic basin contains the BSk, ET, ET(w), EF and EF(w)
climates, with the ET climate predominating, and is delimited by the 100 and 200 mm y–1
isohyets (DGA, 1987) (Figure 2-3).

4
Figure 2-1. Map with northern Chile DEM based on 7.5-arc-second Global Multi-resolution Terrain Elevation Data (GMTED2010) dataset (Danielson and Gesch,
2011), between 25º and 28ºS. The main morphostructural units of the Central Andes and the basins with the respective sampled sites are presented.

5
Figure 2-2. Geological map at a scale of 1:1,000,000 (SERNAGEOMIN, 2003), between 25º and 28ºS. Volc.-Sed.: Volcanosedimentary. In the symbology, the outcrops
that represent an area ≥ 1% of the basins are indicated, together with lagoons (Lag) and meadows (Vega). The detail of the symbology (i.e., the legend) is shown in the
Table 2-1.

6
Table 2-1. Legend, surface area and relative percentage, respect to the studied basins, of the geological map units of Figure 2-2. Sym.: Symbol. In red, the units with a
superficial representation of less than 1% of the studied basins are indicated.
Caldera-
Pan de Azúcar Chañaral Salada High-Andean
Ramada
Area % Area % Area % Area % Area %
Sym. ID Period Description
[km2] Basin [km2] Basin [km2] Basin [km2] Basin [km2] Basin
Sedimentary Outcrops 2056 35.29 2927 44.15 3823 50.74 1294 63.25 4619 29.57
Alluvial deposits, subordinately colluvial or lacustrine:
Qa Pleistocene-Holocene 997 17.12 832 12.54 1136 15.08 539 26.35 2419 15.49
gravel, sand, and silt.
Qe Pleistocene-Holocene Aeolian deposits: fine to medium sands with bioclastic 428 7.35 2 0.03 0 0.00 459 22.44 - -
intercalations in both active and inactive dunes and
barchans.
Pl1m Pleistocene Estuarine fluvial coastal marine sedimentary 318 5.46 3 0.05 - - 236 11.55 - -
sequences: coquinas, coquinaceous conglomerates,
sandstones and conglomerates arranged in emerged
terraced levels.
MQs Miocene-Quaternary Evaporite deposits: sulfates, chlorides, carbonates, and - - - - 4 0.06 - - 857 5.49
fine detrital levels, locally with borax and/or lithium. - - - - - - - -
MP1c Late Miocene-Pliocene Clastic sedimentary sequences of piedmont, alluvial, 280 4.81 572 8.62 1587 21.07 37 1.80 1146 7.34
colluvial or fluvial: conglomerates, sandstones, and
siltstones.
M1c Early-middle Miocene Continental sedimentary sequences of alluvial, - - 1268 19.12 475 6.30 - - 196 1.26
pediment or fluvial fans: gravel, sand, and silt with
interbedded ignimbrites.
Limestones, calcarenites, sandstones, marls and
Ki1m Lower Cretaceous (Neocomian) 32 0.55 - - 40 0.54 23 1.10 - -
coquinas.
JK1m Upper Jurassic-lower Cretaceous Coastal or platform marine sedimentary sequences - - - - 98 1.30 - - - -
J1m Jurassic-Neocomian Carbonate and clastic marine sedimentary sequences: - - 98 1.47 - - - - - -
limestones, shales, calcareous sandstones, para-
conglomerates, gypsum levels and subordinate
volcanic intercalations.
Littoral or platform sedimentary sequences: cushion
Ji1m Lower-middle Jurassic - - 66 1.00 440 5.84 - - - -
basalts.
TrJ1m Triassic-lower Jurassic Littoral and transitional marine sedimentary sequences: - - 88 1.33 42 0.55 - - - -
quartziferous sandstones, orthoconglomerates,
fossiliferous limestones, calcareous shale and siltstone
with subordinate volcanic intercalations.
Volcanosedimentary Outcrops 201 3.45 932 14.06 1199 15.91 12 0.60 383 2.45
OM2c Oligocene-Miocene Continental volcanosedimentary sequences: basaltic to - - - - - - - - 383 2.45
dacitic lavas, epiclastic and pyroclastic rocks.
Ks2c Upper Cretaceous Continental volcano-sedimentary sequences: epiclastic - - 315 4.75 566 7.52 - - - -
and pyroclastic rhyolitic rocks, andesitic and trachytic
lavas.
J2m Jurassic - - 100 1.51 217 2.88 - - - -

7
 Caldera-
Pan de Azúcar Chañaral Salada High-Andean
Ramada
Area % Area % Area % Area % Area %
Sym. ID Period Description
[km2] Basin [km2] Basin [km2] Basin [km2] Basin [km2] Basin
Marine volcanic and sedimentary sequences: lavas and
breccias, andesitic and basaltic, limestone and
fossiliferous marine sandstone.
J3i Jurassic Continental and marine volcanic sequences: lavas and 201 3.45 517 7.80 415 5.52 12 0.60 - -
basaltic to andesitic agglomerates, rhyolitic tuffs, with
sandstone intercalations, marine limestone and
continental conglomerates.
Igneous Outcrops 2686 46.11 2469 37.24 2189 29.06 530 25.90 9766 62.52
Volcanic Outcrops 41 0.71 1590 23.99 1186 15.74 33 1.62 9544 61.10
Ignimbrites and pyroclastic flow deposits, locally
Q3t Quaternary - - - - - - - - 294 1.88
welded.
Q3i Quaternary Stratovolcanoes and volcanic complexes: basaltic to - - - - - - - - 789 5.05
rhyolitic lavas, andesitic-basaltic to dacitic domes and
pyroclastic deposits.
P3i Pliocene Volcanic centers: andesitic to dacitic lavas, domes and - - - - - - - - 1017 6.51
pyroclastic deposits, pyroclastic cones and basaltic to
andesitic-basaltic lavas.
Ms3t Late Miocene Dacitic to rhyolitic ignimbrites and pyroclastic - - - - - - - - 366 2.34
deposits associated with stratovolcanoes.
Ms3i Late Miocene Volcanic centers and sequences: lavas, domes, and - - - - - - - - 2520 16.13
pyroclastic deposits, of intermediate composition
(andesitic to dacitic), with alluvial intercalations,
associated with epithermal Au-Ag deposits.
M3t Early-middle Miocene Ignimbrites and dacitic to rhyolitic pyroclastic - - 417 6.30 3 0.05 - - 780 4.99
sequences associated with collapse calderas.
M3i Early-middle Miocene Partially eroded volcanic complexes and volcanic - - 178 2.68 43 0.57 - - 2867 18.35
sequences: lavas, breccias, domes and pyroclastic rocks
of intermediate composition (basalt-andesitic to
dacitic).
OM3 Oligocene-Miocene Intermediate to acid volcanic sequences and centers: - - - - 63 0.84 - - 633 4.05
lavas, breccias, domes and andesitic to rhyolitic
pyroclastic rocks.
E3 Eocene Continental volcanic sequences and centers: basaltic to - - 78 1.18 - - - - - -
andesitic lavas and breccias with intercalations of
pyroclastic rocks and rhyolitic domes.
PE3a Paleocene-lower Eocene Acid continental volcanic sequences and complexes: - - 4 0.06 385 5.11 - - - -
dacitic to rhyolitic pyroclastic domes and rocks
associated with collapse calderas.
PE3i Paleocene-lower Eocene Continental volcanic sequences and complexes: lavas - - 516 7.78 298 3.95 - - - -
and domes, andesitic-basaltic to dacitic, with
intercalations of pyroclastic and epiclastic rocks.
JK3 Upper Jurassic-lower Cretaceous 41 0.71 186 2.81 360 4.78 33 1.62 - -

8
 Caldera-
Pan de Azúcar Chañaral Salada High-Andean
Ramada
Area % Area % Area % Area % Area %
Sym. ID Period Description
[km2] Basin [km2] Basin [km2] Basin [km2] Basin [km2] Basin
Volcanic sequences: basaltic to rhyolitic lavas, domes,
breccias and andesitic to dacitic agglomerates with
continental and marine clastic intercalations.

TrJ3 Triassic-lower Jurassic Continental and transitional volcanic sequences: lavas, - - 211 3.18 14 0.18 - - - -
domes, breccias, basaltic to rhyolitic with sandstone
and conglomerate intercalations.
CP3 Carboniferous-Permian Volcanic sequences: lavas, domes, tuffs, and andesitic - - - - 20 0.27 - - 278 1.78
to rhyolitic breccias with intercalations of sandstones,
conglomerates, and limestones.
Intrusive Outcrops 2645 45.41 879 13.26 1003 13.31 497 24.28 222 1.42
+ + Eg Eocene Granodiorites, tonalites and quartz diorites of - - 173 2.61 72 0.96 - - - -
hornblende and biotite, diorites and monzodiorites of
pyroxene and biotite; dacitic and rhyolitic porphyries.
+ + Pag Paleocene Pyroxene and biotite monzodiorites, granodiorites and 9 0.15 31 0.47 101 1.34 - - - -
granites of hornblende and biotite; dacitic and rhyolitic
porphyries, associated with copper porphyry-type
mineralization and breccia chimneys.
+ + Ksg Upper Cretaceous Monzodiorites, granodiorites, gabbros and diorites of - - - - 156 2.07 12 0.57 - -
pyroxene, biotite and hornblende; andesitic and
dioritic porphyries.
Late lower Cretaceous-early upper Diorites and monzodiorites of pyroxene and
+ + Kiag 678 11.63 71 1.07 102 1.35 92 4.48 - -
Cretaceous hornblende, granodiorites, monzogranites of
hornblende and biotite.
+ + Kibg Early lower Cretaceous Pyroxene, hornblende and biotite monzodiorites and 712 12.22 49 0.74 206 2.74 238 11.66 - -
diorites, granodiorites and tonalites.
+ + Jsg Middle-upper Jurassic Quartz monzodiorites, diorites and granodiorites of 630 10.82 121 1.82 199 2.64 32 1.58 - -
biotite, pyroxene and hornblende.
+ + Jig Lower Jurassic Diorites, gabbros and monzodiorites of pyroxene, 617 10.59 17 0.26 - - 93 4.56 - -
quartz diorites and granodiorites and tonalites of
hornblende and biotite.
+ + TrJg Triassic-Jurassic Granodiorites, monzogranites, monzodiorites, diorites - - - - - - 29 1.43 - -
and gabbros of pyroxene and hornblende;
syenogranites.
+ + Trg Triassic Leukocratic granites, monzo and syenogranites of - - 235 3.55 63 0.83 - - - -
biotite and muscovite, granodiorites and diorites of
biotite and hornblende, hypabyssal porphyries.
+ + CPg Carboniferous-Permian Plutonic bodies: granites, granodiorites, tonalites and - - 181 2.74 104 1.38 - - 222 1.42
diorites of hornblende and biotite, locally of
muscovite.
Metamorphic Outcrops 752 12.91 222 3.35 134 1.78 210 10.25 0 0.00
DC4 Devonian-Carboniferous 752 12.91 222 3.35 134 1.78 210 10.25

9
 Caldera-
Pan de Azúcar Chañaral Salada High-Andean
Ramada
Area % Area % Area % Area % Area %
Sym. ID Period Description
[km2] Basin [km2] Basin [km2] Basin [km2] Basin [km2] Basin
Metasandstones, phyllites and, to a lesser extent,
marbles, cherts, metabasalts and metaconglomerates;
metaturbidites with "mélange" facies.

Smaller Outcrops 130 2.23 79 1.20 188 2.50 - - 772 4.94

Others - - - - - - - 81 0.52
Lag - Lake or lagoon. - - - - - - - - 64 0.41
ψ ψ Vega - Vegas/Meadows. - - - - - - - - 16 0.10

100.0
Basin 5825 100.00 6630 100.00 7533 100.00 2045 100.00 15621
0

10
Figure 2-3. Map with the climatic zones of northern Chile (Sarricolea et al., 2017) and isohyets (DGA, 1987) between 25º and 28ºS. Climates: BSk: cold semi-arid; BSk(s):
cold semi-arid with winter rain; BSk'(s): cold semi-arid with winter rain and oceanic influence; BWh(s): hot desert with winter rain; BWk: cold desert; BWk(s): cold desert
with winter rain; ET: tundra; ET(s): tundra with winter rain; ET(w): summer rain tundra climate; EF: ice cap; EF(w): ice cap with summer rain. Weather stations (Table
2-2) (white and yellow circles) (https://explorador.cr2.cl/).

11
Table 2-2. Weather stations indicated in Figure 2-3. In addition to the location, the elevation (m.a.s.l); the average,
minimum and maximum annual accumulated precipitation (mm·y-1; the number of years considered by the time
series (# Years); and the number of years in which no precipitation was recorded (Dry Years) are presented.

Elevation # Dry
Nº Station Latitude Longitude Mean Max Min
(m.a.s.l.) Years Years
1 Aguas Verdes [DGA] -25.4000 -69.9633 1,560 31.4 95.5 0 29 12
2 Tal-Tal [DGA] -25.4047 -70.4819 9 32.9 64 0 32 5
3 Las Vegas [DGA] -26.6781 -69.6656 2,250 36.0 274 0 34 3
4 Caldera [DGA] -27.0692 -70.8156 15 47.4 134 0 24 10
5 Pastos Grandes [DGA] -27.1142 -69.5642 2,260 27.3 150 0 50 5
Desierto De Atacama Caldera Ap.
6 -27.2639 -70.7742 204 28.1 129 0 68 11
[DMC]
7 Copiapo [DGA] -27.3772 -70.3308 385 13.3 150 0 47 7
8 Elibor Campamento [DGA] -27.7167 -70.1953 750 17.1 201 0 41 8
9 Los Loros [DGA] -27.8317 -70.1119 940 14.6 224 0 48 5
10 Jorquera En La Guardia [DGA] -27.8364 -69.755 2,000 35.2 164 0 51 3
11 El Totoral [DGA] -27.9022 -70.9575 150 9.8 169 0 32 11
12 Lautaro Embalse [DGA] -27.9783 -70.0033 1,110 9.2 206 0 58 3

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Sampling and Laboratory Procedures
A total of 42 sediment samples were collected from 14 aquatic systems in the Atacama Region,
northern Chile. 27 of these samples belong to 9 High-Andean aquatic systems, and 15 of them
to 5 coastal systems (subtidal sediments). The methodology used for sampling and transportation
in this study can be reviewed in detail by examining works of Valdés (2012) and Valdés et al.
(2022). º
Already in the laboratory, the samples were dried at 40 ºC and then separated for metal analyses.
The fraction <63 microns of the sediment was separated in a sieve shaker Retsch rot up, model
AS Basic 200. After that, about 0.2 and 0.5 g of the sieved fraction was digested in a Mars Xpress
microwave digester, according to the EPA 3052 method (EPA, 1996). Finally, metal contents
were measured in a Shimadzu 6300 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer, by flame technique.
A mixture of air-acetylene (C2H2) gases was used to read Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, Zn and nitrous oxide-
acetylene (N2O-C2H2) for Al. The technique was validated with the reading of metals in MESS-
3 reference material, certified by the National Research Council of Canada (Table 3-1).
Table 3-1. Analysis of certified sediment MESS-3, from the National Research Council of Canada

Metal Measured value Observed value

Cu 32.36 33.9 ± 1.6
Zn 156.6 159 ± 8
V 238.24 243 ± 10
Al 75.75 85.9 ± 2.3
Fe 42.95 43.4 ± 1.1
Cd 0.23 0.24 ± 0.01
Ni 45.31 46.9 ± 2.2
Pb 20.36 21.1 ± 0.7
As 21.43 21.2 ± 1.1
Mo 2.53 2.78 ± 0.07

12
3.2. Composite Calculation for the Local Background (LB)
To obtain a local background (LB) that is representative of the geochemistry of the study areas
(SA), it is proposed to build a composite from the weighting between the average chemistry of
the geological outcrops in the SA and the surface area factor of these (that is, the ratio between
the area of the outcrop and the total area of the outcrops with available chemistry; outcrops
without chemistry are excluded from this calculation). In this way, the concentration of the
element M of the compound (Eq. 1) is defined by:
#

𝑀! = $ 𝑀" ∗ 𝑅𝐴𝐹" Equation 1

"$%

Where: MC is the concentration of the element M in the compound; and Mi and RAFi are the
average concentration of the element M and the relative surface area factor, in the geological
unit or outcrop i, respectively.
Meanwhile, the relative surface area factor (RAFi; Eq. 2) is obtained by:
𝐴"
𝑅𝐴𝐹" = Equation 2
∑#"$% 𝐴"

Where: Ai is the surface area of the geological unit or outcrop (with available chemistry) i.
As we do not have our own chemical data for rock outcrops within the SA, these are obtained
and compiled from the geochemistry reported in papers. Meanwhile, the area of the geological
outcrops is calculated using the free software QGIS 3.10, through the $area function of the
field calculator, available in the Attribute table of the shapefile layer –in this case, the shapefile layer
corresponds to the geological map to scale 1:1,000,000 of SERNAGEOMIN (2003) that
contains the geological outcrops–.
If not all the elements of interest are available for each geological outcrop or not all outcrops are
considered within the SA, for the calculation of the composite, the chemistry of the composite
must be considered as the minimum or basal content of each element.
For data reported as below the detection limit of the elements of interest, an element content
equal to half the detection limit is considered; in order not to overestimate the data above the
detection limit, within the same geological unit.

3.3. Environmental Evaluation

Due to the lack of guidelines for sediment quality in Chilean legislation, the metal content of this
matrix is evaluated with different environmental indices commonly used in scientific studies.
These are:
3.3.1. Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo)
The Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) was calculated using equation 3, according to Müller (1979).
𝐶#
𝐼&'( = 𝑙𝑜𝑔) Equation 3
1.5 ∗ 𝐵#

13
Where Cn is the current element concentration and Bn is the background concentration.
According to the contamination scale proposed by Müller (1979), the results of Igeo are classified
(Table 3-2).

Table 3-2. Categories of classification of Igeo (Müller, 1979).

Igeo Category Sediment quality
>5 6 Extremely polluted
4-5 5 Heavily to extremely polluted
3-4 4 Heavily polluted
2-3 3 Moderately to heavily polluted
1-2 2 Moderately polluted
0-1 1 Not polluted to moderately polluted
<0 0 Not polluted

3.3.2. Degree of Contamination Index (CI)

The degree of Contamination Index (CI) (Eq. 4) is evaluated according to Håkanson (1980).
𝐶+"
𝐶*" = Equation 4
𝐶,"

Where 𝐶!" is the Contamination Index (CI) for element i, 𝐶#" is the measured concentration of
element i in sediments, and 𝐶$" is the background concentration for element i. The systems are
classified according to scale proposed by to Håkanson (1980) and showed in Table 3-3.

3.3.3. Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI)

Like the CI, the calculation of the Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI) was proposed by
Håkanson (1980), and is shown in equation 5.

𝐸*" = 𝑇*" ∗ 𝐶*" Equation 5

Where 𝐸!" is the Potential Ecological Risk (E) for a single element i and 𝑇!" is the toxicity response
factor for the element i.
Where 𝑇!" for Cu=5, Pb=5 and Zn=1 (Håkanson, 1980).
According to the contamination scale (Table 3-3) proposed by Håkanson (1980), the results of
𝐸!" were classified.
Finally, the Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI) was calculated as the sum of 𝐸!" , and was
categorized according to the classification of Håkanson (1980) (Table 3-3).

14
 Table 3-3. Critical range and grades of CI, E and PERI (Håkanson, 1980).

Grades Grades of ecological Grades of ecological

CI E PERI
contamination risk of a single metal risk of all metals
Low
CI < 1 𝐸 < 40 Low risk PERI < 150 Low ecological risk
contamination
Moderate Moderate ecological
1 ≤ CI ≤ 3 40 ≤ 𝐸 < 80 Moderate risk 150 ≥ PERI < 300
contamination risk
Considerable Considerable
3 ≤ CI ≤ 6 80 ≤ 𝐸 < 160 High risk 300 ≤ PERI > 600
contamination ecological risk
Very high Very high ecological
CI ≥ 6 160 ≤ 𝐸 < 320 Very high risk PERI ≥ 600
contamination risk
𝐸 ≥ 320 Extremely high risk

4. Results and Discussions

4.1. Composites Geochemistry (Local Backgrounds; LB)
The first step in obtaining the geochemical compositions is to calculate the area of both, basins
and of the geological units (Table 2-1). Evidently, the High-Andean basin corresponds to the
one with the largest area (15,621 km2). Meanwhile, of the coastal basins, the one containing
Chañaral is the one with the largest area (7,533 km2), followed by Pan de Azúcar (6,630 km2) and
Caldera-Ramada (5,825 km2), while the basin containing Bahía Salada is the one with the smallest
area (2,045 km2).
Regarding the type of geological environment of the outcrops (Table 2-1), the High-Andean
basin is mainly volcanic (~63%); Salada, Chañaral and Pan de Azúcar are mostly sedimentary
(~63%, ~51% and ~44% of the basin, respectively); while Caldera-Ramada is dominated by
intrusive outcrops (~45%). The distribution of the dominance of geological environments for
each basin is explained by the location of these, or the largest area covered, with respect to the
morphostructural units (see section 2.1). That is to say: Salada and Caldera-Ramada are located
mainly in the Coastal Cordillera (composed of intrusive and sedimentary rocks); the largest area
covered by Chañaral and Pan de Azúcar is found in the Central Depression (a basin filled by
sediments), while the High-Andean basin is located in the Pre-Andean Depression (filled by
sediments); which in turn is flanked to the west by the Precordillera (composed of volcanic,
sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks) and to the east by the Western Cordillera (an active
magmatic arc).
Unfortunately, the information concerning the chemical composition of geological formations
of Atacama Region is still scarce (Valdés et al., 2022), which would directly affect the
representativeness of the geochemical composition of basins dominated by sedimentary
outcrops. This could be explained as, in general, sedimentary rocks are not usually studied
chemically –because the important thing about this type of outcrops is the environment or the
processes that form them, and chemistry is not the most useful to elucidate this (because it

15
mainly gives clues to its origin)–, unlike igneous rocks (intrusive or volcanic) in which chemistry
is important –because it provides information on the source of origin–. Notwithstanding the
above, Table 4-1 shows the area percentage of the geological units with respect to the basin and
the RAF, for outcrops with a representativeness greater than 1% of the basin and that have
reported chemical information in other papers. Thus, the areal representation of the chemical
compounds by basin is as follows: Caldera-Ramada is ~58%; Pan de Azúcar ~22%; Chañaral
~10%; Salada 34%; and the High-Andean basin with ~63%.
Meanwhile, the average concentration of the elements of interest of the geological units with
chemistry reported in other publications is presented in Table 4-2. Likewise, Table 4-2 details
the publication and the geological unit/formation from which they were obtained synthesized
chemical data. Finally, by virtue of the RAF and the average chemistry per geological outcrop,
the composites are calculated for each of the study basins, which are presented in Table 4-3.
For its part, one way to strengthen and increase the representativeness of the local bottom would
be to chemically sample and analyze specimens of the units that outcrop in the area of interest
and not just rely on reported chemistry. Likewise, the use of geological maps with greater detail,
for example with scales of 1:100,000, such as the maps of the geological charts of Chile
(Mpodozis et al., 2012; Mpodozis et al., 2018; Naranjo et al., 2019, among other), favoring the
identification of compositionally more heterogeneous units, where the objective would be to
chemically characterize all its members or constituents. Another variable to consider is the
erosion rate of the different lithologies, as this is essential to understand the flows of matter
towards the ocean or another depocenter (Moosdorf et al., 2018). One way to include this
variable in the background calculation would be to consider the erodibility index (EI) proposed
by Moosdorf et al. (2018), which seek to represent the relative erosion potential of different
lithological classes, based on the erodibility of acid plutonic rocks. In this way, the authors assign
an erodibility index of 1.0 to acidic plutonic rocks, while lithologies such as basic volcanic rocks
or unconsolidated sediments are assigned 1.4 or 3.2, respectively (i.e., a contribution of
sediments or an erosion rate of 40% to 320% more than an acidic plutonic rock). For the
methodology proposed in this study, these indices could be incorporated into the RAFi
calculation, as a weight of Ai; which is illustrated in equation 6.
𝐴" ∗ 𝐸𝐼"
𝑅𝐴𝐹" = # Equation 6
∑"$% 𝐴" ∗ 𝐸𝐼"

Where: EIi is the erodibility index of the geological unit or outcrop i.

16
Table 4-1. Summary of the area, the relative area with respect to the basin and RAF of the geological units with reported chemistry, in the different study basins. Env.:
environment; Sym.: Symbol.

Basin Caldera-Ramada Pan de Azúcar Chañaral Salada High-Andean

Total Area (km2) 5825.1 6629.9 7532.9 2045.3 15620.8
Outcrop Area Basin Area Basin Area Basin Area Basin Area Basin
ID Sym. RAF RAF RAF RAF RAF
Env. (km2) Area % (km2) Area % (km2) Area % (km2) Area % (km2) Area %
Volcanic Q3t - - - - - - - - - - - - 294.1 1.88 0.03
Q3i - - - - - - - - - - - - 789.5 5.05 0.08
P3i - - - - - - - - - - - - 1017.3 6.51 0.10
Ms3t - - - - - - - - - - - - 366.2 2.34 0.04
Ms3i - - - - - - - - - - - - 2519.8 16.13 0.26
M3t - - - 417.4 6.30 0.29 - - - - - - 780.2 4.99 0.08
M3i - - - 177.8 2.68 0.12 - - - - - - 2866.7 18.35 0.29
OM3 - - - - - - - - - - - - 633.0 4.05 0.06
CP3 - - - - - - - - - - - - 277.6 1.78 0.03
Plutonic Kiag + + 677.6 11.63 0.20 70.8 1.07 0.05 101.9 1.35 0.14 91.6 4.48 0.13 - - -
Kibg + + 711.7 12.22 0.21 - - - 206.5 2.74 0.28 238.5 11.66 0.34 - - -
Jsg + + 630.1 10.82 0.19 121.0 1.82 0.08 198.8 2.64 0.27 32.3 1.58 0.05 - - -
Jig + + 617.0 10.59 0.18 - - - - - - 93.2 4.56 0.13 - - -
TrJg + + - - - - - - - - - 29.3 1.43 0.04 - - -
Trg + + - - - 235.4 3.55 0.17 - - - - - - - - -
CPg + + - - - 181.4 2.74 0.13 104.0 1.38 0.14 - - - 221.5 1.42 0.02
Metamorphic DC4 752.2 12.91 0.22 221.8 3.35 0.16 134.4 1.78 0.18 209.6 10.25 0.30 - - -
With Chem. 3388.6 58.17 1425.5 21.50 745.5 9.90 694.6 33.96 9766.0 62.52

17
Table 4-2. Average concentration of the elements of interest of the geological units with chemistry reported in other publications. a: Brown (1991); b: Mpodozis et al.
(1995) c: Mpodozis et al. (1996); d: Kay et al. (1994); e: Naranjo et al. (2019); f: Richards et al. (2001); g: Schnurr et al. (2007); h: Trumbull et al. (1999); i: Walker et al.
(1991); j: Fuentes et al. (2018); k: Jara et al. (2021); l: Coloma et al. (2017); m: Díaz-Alvarado et al. (2017); n: Rodríguez et al. (2016); o: Rodríguez et al. (2019); p: Marschik
et al. (2003).

Environment Metamorphic Plutonic Volcanic (Andesitic-Dacitic) Volcanic Pyroclastic Volcanic (Dacitic-Rhyolitic)

ID DC4 CPg Trg TrJg Jig Jsg Kibg Kiag OM3 M3i Ms3i P3i Q3i CP3 M3t Ms3t P3t Q3t
Devonian- Carboniferous- Middle-upper Early-lower Early-upper Oligocene- Early-middle Carboniferous- Early-middle
Age Triassic Triassic-Jurassic Lower Jurassic Late Miocene Pliocene Quaternary Late Miocene Pliocene Quaternary
Carboniferous Permian Jurassic Cretaceous Cretaceous Miocene Miocene Permian Miocene

Domo
Pastillitos, Vn.
Pastillos, Vn.
Villalobos,
Las Tazas Domo Cadillal,
Algodones
Plutonic Sierra Atacama Co. Puntiagudo
Pan de Azúcar Plutonic Vn. Piedra Vn. Sierra Ignimbrites:
Complex, Diorite, La de la Isla, Vn. Ignimbrites: Río
Complex, Complex, Paradra, Vn Cerros Nevada, Co. Wheelwright, Co. El Solo, Vn.
Sierra Borracha La Laguna, Vn. Negro, San
Chañaral Relincho Las Ánimas Vn. Cerros Cerro Tridente, Colorados, Azufrera de los Ignimbrites: Laguna Verde, El Fraile,
Samples Las Tortolas Pedernales Carrizal Bajo Áspera Plutonic Monzodiorite, Ojos de Andrés,
Complex, Plutonic Plutonic Bravos, Domo Vn. Aguas- Colorado Cuyanos, Vn. La Tabla Fm. Plato, Quebrada León Muerto, Nevado Tres
from: Fm. Batholith Complex Complex, La Pajas Blancas Maricicunga, Vn. Trinchera West,
Cerros del Complex, Complex Pantanillos Blancas, Vn. Plomizo, Vn. Laguna, Cordón Vicuña, La Ola Parinas, Cruces Volcanic
Brea Diorite, Granodiorite, Chaco, Vn. Pedernales
Vetado Flamenco Azufre, Azufre Dos-Puntas de Azufre, Vn. Trinchera, Complex
Sierra Copiapó Cerro-Blanco, West, Grande
Complex Plutonic Norte Bayo Cyclop
Chicharra Batholith Vn. Cerro
Complex
Diorite Colorado, Vn.
Leon-Muerto,
Vn. Doña Inés,
Loma Doña
Inés

Reference j a a, k l k, l, m, n, o k, l k k, p d, i b, d, g, h, i b, d, g, h g, h g, h f g g g c, e
Element Unit
Al % 7.77 7.97 7.58 6.24 8.83 8.42 8.52 9.52 9.77 9.36 9.22 9.03 9.06 8.53 8.35 7.24 7.84 8.05
Fe % 8.51 2.02 1.72 0.94 4.38 5.34 2.18 4.76 4.26 4.06 3.74 4.69 4.92 3.22 2.18 0.63 1.69 2.78
Cu ppm N.A. 3.25 4.50 2.70 58.42 49.87 19.63 68.14 11.50 35.44 34.50 36.67 36.80 203.33 10.00 7.11 6.74 18.00
Pb ppm 11.85 15.50 17.45 20.50 7.59 11.61 3.62 20.43 6.50 9.56 11.08 10.93 10.18 18.26 14.38 17.46 18.60 38.33
Zn ppm 94.00 45.00 33.96 31.60 55.33 87.61 23.76 62.74 84.50 84.88 88.17 87.00 96.00 38.86 62.20 52.13 45.71 76.56
Al ppm 77690 79724 75835 62405 88296 84208 85164 95179 97679 93624 92184 90317 90582 85302 83494 72438 78447 80518
Fe ppm 85090 20223 17168 9419 43777 53393 21805 47596 42603 40646 37437 46869 49231 32234 21841 6250 16882 27839

a: Brown (1991) ; b: Mpodozis et al. (1995) c: Mpodozis et al. (1996); d: Kay et al. (1994); e: Naranjo et al. (2019); f: Richards et al. (2001); g: Schnurr et al. (2007); h: Trumbull et al. (1999); i: Walker et al. (1991); j: Fuentes et al. (2018); k: Jara et al. (2021); l: Coloma et al. (2017); m: Díaz-Alvarado et al. (2017); n: Rodríguez et
al. (2016); o: Rodríguez et al. (2019); p: Marschik et al. (2003).

18
 Table 4-3. Local background (LB; geochemical composites) for each of the basins studied.
Caldera- Pan de
Element Unit Chañaral Salada High-Andean
Ramada Azúcar
Al % 8.59 8.28 8.42 8.36 9.03
Fe % 5.09 3.70 4.49 4.82 3.72
Cu mg·kg-1 37.66 16.12 28.50 26.00 34.10
Pb mg·kg-1 11.02 14.10 11.19 9.94 11.93
Zn mg·kg-1 64.77 65.31 61.74 57.64 81.04
Al mg·kg-1 85,900 82,751 84,171 83,646 90,283
Fe mg·kg-1 50,885 37,007 44,941 48,203 37,249

4.2. Sediments
Of the samples analyzed, the order of global abundance of metals in sediments is
Fe>Al>>Cu>Pb>Zn. Within the coastal systems (Figure 4-1), Ramada presents the highest
average values of Fe and Al (5,070 and 5,025 mg·kg-1, respectively), while Chañaral exhibits the
highest Cu and Pb contents (343.3 and 46.6 mg·kg-1, respectively) and the minors of Zn (21.6
mg·kg-1). For its part, Bahía Salada shows the highest content of Zn (89.7 mg·kg-1) and the lowest
of Cu and Fe (36.2 and 419 mg·kg-1, respectively). Meanwhile, Caldera exhibits the lowest
contents of Pb and Al (8.0 and 444 mg·kg-1, respectively).
The mean Cu content measured in the five coastal systems is within the range of concentrations
previously recorded both in the bays studied and in other bays of Chile (Ramírez et al., 2005;
Valdés and Castillo, 2014; Valdés and Tapia, 2019). The only exception is Chañaral, where values
of up to 1,600 mg·kg-1 have been measured, as a result of the historical deposition of waste from
copper mining; dumping that has been carried out even directly in the coastal zone (Ramírez et
al., 2005).
In particular, the impact of mining activity in Chañaral has been evaluated by various studies.
Among them, Andrade et al. (2006) showed that although the deposition of waste in the coastal
area of Chañaral ceased more than 30 years ago, the contribution of Cu from coastal deposits to
ocean waters remains high, causing the levels of dissolved Cu in these waters to be higher than
those reported in any other marine environment. In the same vein, Lee et al. (2002), Ramírez et
al. (2005), Lee and Correa (2005), Medina et al. (2005), and Stauber et al. (2005) indicate that the
high content of Cu in both water and sediments has a direct effect on the low population density
and the low diversity of organisms present on the beaches of Chañaral.
The mean Pb contents of Chañaral and Ramada are within the ranges previously reported for
these systems and are also very similar to those recorded in Bahía Concepción (40.1 mg·kg-1 of
Pb) in central-southern Chile, where there is a high degree of industrialization (pulp and paper
industry, coal mining and wood processing industries) (Salamanca et al., 1988). However, these
values are lower than those reported in Bahía San Jorge (or Bahía de Antofagasta) (Pb content
between 90 and 200 mg·kg-1; Valdés et al., 2010; Valdés and Tapia, 2019), where Pb is stockpiled
and shipped since 1943 (Valdés et al., 2010).
Regarding Zn, Bahía Salada exhibits an average content like that recorded in Bahía Concepción
and Bahía San Jorge (91.8 and 106.3 mg·kg-1 of Zn, respectively), both with a high degree of
industrial anthropic intervention (Salamanca et al., 1988; Calderón and Valdés, 2012).
Particularly, in the Bahía San Jorge, the high content of this metal are associated with Zn
concentrate shipping activities, as occurs with Pb (Calderón and Valdés, 2012). Regardless of the

19
above, Zn can enter the aquatic environment because of industrial activities, effluent discharges,
and surface runoff (Boxall et al., 2000).

Figure 4-1. Mean metal content measured in sediment samples of coastal aquatic systems (CS) of study region.
Values expressed in mg·kg-1 (ppm). Lines on bars: Standard deviation (S.D.).

For their part, both Fe and Al are major elements and main components of the continental crust
(Rudnick and Gao, 2014; Winter, 2014). Both elements are contributed to marine environments
from terrestrial sources, either by fluvial or wind transport, due to erosion, and also from
anthropogenic sources (Dean et al., 1997; Tagliabue et al., 2017). Despite the wide range of mean
concentrations of Al exhibited by the sediments of the five coastal systems studied (between 400
and 5,000 mg·kg-1 approx.), these contents are within those previously reported and, even, the
maximum concentrations are equivalent to that exhibited by sediments categorized as
uncontaminated, such as those of the Flamenco and Obispito bays, in the Atacama Region
(Valdés and Tapia, 2019).
Regarding the High-Andean systems (Figure 4-2), Laguna del Bayo exhibits the highest average
content of Fe (12,799 mg·kg-1) and the lowest of Pb (16.6 mg·kg-1), Laguna del Negro Francisco

20
shows the highest content of Al (10,881 mg·kg-1), Salar de Agua Amarga shows the highest Cu
content (96.2 mg·kg-1), Laguna Verde shows the highest Pb content (53.5 mg·kg-1) and the lowest
Al and Cu contents (1,353 and 11.3 mg·kg-1, respectively), while Salar de la Isla has the highest
content of Zn (39.8 mg·kg-1). Meanwhile, the lowest contents of Fe (3,999 mg·kg-1) and Zn (16.2
mg·kg-1) are exhibited by Salar de la Azufrera and Salar de Maricunga, respectively.
Particularly, the high content of Pb in Laguna Verde could be due to the geological features of
its sub-basin, since, of the High-Andean systems studied, it is the only one that is surrounded by
volcanoes (Figure 4-11), making the hot springs are one of the tourist attractions of this site.
Studies at the Merapi volcano in Indonesia show that precipitates from volcanic fumaroles
present concentrations of Pb up to 103 times (3 orders of magnitude) the contents exhibited by
the rocks of the same volcano (Symonds et al., 1987; Kavalieris, 1994). While, in a local context,
fumarolic deposits from the Lastarria volcano, located in the Antofagasta Region, exhibit Pb
contents (291 mg kg-1) of up to 10 times the Pb present in rocks from the same volcano (Pb
content equal to 16 mg kg-1) (Aguilera et al., 2016). Therefore that it is not surprising that sites
connected with volcanic systems can present an enrichment in this element.

21
Figure 4-2. Mean metal content measured in sediment samples of High-Andean aquatic systems (HAS) of study
region. Values expressed in mg·kg-1 (ppm). Lines on bars: Standard deviation (S.D).

Also, geochemically Pb is a pollutant with high volatility (Weis, 2016), so it is easily transported
by air masses and deposited by cold condensation in high-altitude environments (Urrutia et al.,
2002). In this way, part of the Pb recorded in the High-Andean aquatic sediments could come
from the intense industrial activity developed in the central valley of the Atacama Region.
Likewise, other metals released into the atmosphere, such as Cu and Zn, can be transported long
distances both in the form of aerosols and particles (Hur et al., 2007; Colbeck, 2009; Spiro et al.,
2013). Due to the above, pollutants can accumulate in environments far from the sources, such
as the oceans (Chance et al., 2015; Birch, 2017), mountainous areas (Yang et al., 2010; Bacardit
et al., 2012; Bing et al., 2016) and the polar regions (Shotyk et al., 2003; Hur et al., 2007).
On the other hand, Urrutia et al. (2002) reported average concentrations of 21.51, 4.1 and 40.61
mg·kg-1, for Cu, Pb and Zn, respectively, in surface sediments of Lago Chungará (18.3ºS; 69.2ºW;
4,517 m.a.s.l.), in the Arica y Parinacota region. However, the aquatic systems of the High-
Andean Atacama studied here average different concentrations, these being higher in Cu and
Pb, with average values of 58.30 and 28.22 mg·kg-1, respectively; but lower in Zn, with an average
content of 26.75 mg·kg-1. For the sedimentary record of the last 1,000 years of the Laguna Negro
Francisco, Grosjean et al. (1997) report average values between 20 and 30 mg·kg-1 for Zn, and
between 8,000 and 12,000 mg·kg-1 for Fe. These results are equivalent to those obtained in this
study, since the Laguna Negro Francisco presents average contents of Zn and Fe of 20.6 and
11,850 mg·kg-1, respectively. Tapia et al., (2018a) studied the content of metals in sediments of
Laguna Verde and the Pedernales and Maricunga salt falts, reporting mean Cu concentrations of
178 mg·kg-1, while this study reports mean values of 44.4 mg·kg-1, for the three same systems.
The differences between the results could be explained by the spatial location of the basins,
making the geological and compositional properties of the basins different, in addition to the
variability associated with eventual heterogeneities in the sampling, in the case of the comparison
between the same High-Andean systems considered.
As already mentioned, copper mining is the main industry in northern Chile, reason why it is
possible that a fraction of that recorded in the High-Andean sediments comes from this activity
and its wastes (Figure 4-11). In this same line, previous research carried out in central lagoons
of Chile by von Gunten et al. (2009) support the hypothesis that the excess Cu, recorded in a
sediment core taken in the Laguna Alto-Andina El Ocho(34.0ºS; 70.3ºW; 3,250 m.a.s.l.), comes
from the atmosphere, since this signal coincides with the beginning of the operation of the first
industrial smelters in 1907 AD. Furthermore, the substantial increase in Cu deposition, recorded
in the sediments from the 1960s onwards, is related to the increase in copper mining in central
Chile. For their part, Cerda et al. (2019) show similar evidence in a sedimentary core from Lake
Inca Coya (22.3°S; 68.6°W; 2,516 m.a.s.l.), in the Antofagasta Region, which presented a
substantial increase in Cu content from the middle of the 20th century onwards, in accordance
with the growth of the mining industry in this region.
Finally, when comparing the globality of the data by type of system, it is observed that the High-
Andean systems present higher average contents of Fe (8,685 mg·kg-1) and Al (6,114 mg·kg-1)
(Figure 4-2) than those exhibited by the coastal systems (Fe concentrations and Al equal to
3,027 and 2,830 mg·kg-1, respectively; Figure 4-1), because possibly the terrigenous contribution
in the first systems is higher; therefore, in the first instance, a local background of lithogenic

22
origin would be appropriate for these aquatic systems. In contrast, coastal systems show average
concentrations of Cu (131.9 mg·kg-1) and Zn (51.3 mg·kg-1) (Figure 4-1) that exceed those
shown by High-Andean systems (Cu and Zn concentrations equal to 58.3 and 26.8 mg·kg-1,
respectively; Figure 4-2). Meanwhile, both systems present practically equivalent Pb contents,
although in the High-Andean systems this is slightly higher (28.2 versus 22.6 mg·kg-1).

4.3. Environmental Assessment of Sediments

4.3.1. Coastal Systems
According to the Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) (Figure 4-3), the coastal systems of Caldera and
Bahía Salada are classified as not polluted (Igeo ≤ 0), for any of the elements studied. Likewise,
the elements Zn, Fe and Al are categorized as not polluted in all the coastal systems studied.
Meanwhile, Ramada and Pan de Azúcar exhibit moderately polluted Cu levels (Igeo between 1
and 2), while Ramada and Chañaral present Pb levels in the same category. Particularly, Chañaral
is the system that, under this index, shows the highest degree of contamination, being
categorized as heavily polluted for Cu (Igeo = 3.0).

Figure 4-3. Mean Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) of coastal systems based in local background (LB) values.

Regarding the Contamination Index (CI) (Figure 4-4), the Caldera and Bahía Salada systems show
moderate contamination for Cu (CI = 1.18 and 1.39, respectively), while the latter system
exhibits the same degree of contamination for both Zn and Pb (CI = 1.56 and 1.40 respectively).
For their part, Pan de Azúcar and Ramada show important CIs, with considerable contamination
for Cu (CI = 3.76 and 4.64, respectively) and, in the case of Ramada, it is also for Pb (CI = 3.11).
Meanwhile, the most worrying levels are exhibited by Chañaral since it presents a very high
contamination in Cu (CI = 12.05) and a considerable contamination in Pb (CI = 4.17). Elements
such as Fe, Al and Zn show low contamination (CI < 1) in all systems, except for Zn from Bahía
Salada.
Independent of the individual contamination levels of each element and system, in the case of
the evaluation through the Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI) (Figure 4-5), all the coastal
systems exhibit a low ecological risk (PERI < 150), with all the metals evaluated (Cu, Pb and
Zn) showing a low risk (E < 40), except for Cu in Chañaral, where Cu (E = 60.23) is classified

23
as moderate risk. However, it is important to consider that the PERI calculated for the systems
is a minimum, since elements that are usually included as Cd and Ni were not part of this study,
reducing the final assessment of the PERI.

Figure 4-4. Mean Contamination Index (CI) of coastal systems based in local background (LB) values.

Figure 4-5. Mean Potential Ecological Risk (E) of coastal systems based in local background (LB) values.

4.3.2. High-Andean Systems

When evaluated through environmental indexes, the High-Andean systems show a better quality
of their sediments compared to the coastal systems. For example, using the Igeo (Figure 4-6),
only the Pb in Laguna Verde (Igeo = 1.57) shows a level of moderately polluted (1 < Igeo < 2),

24
while the rest of the systems and elements are classified as not polluted to moderately polluted
(0 < Igeo < 1) or as not polluted (Igeo < 0). Particularly, for all the systems, Zn, Fe and Al are
classified as not polluted, while by calculating the CI (Figure 4-7) they are classified as low
contamination (CI < 1). Using this index, all the systems show moderate contamination (1 < CI
< 3), both for Cu and Pb, except for Laguna Verde, which is low contamination in Cu (CI =
0.33) and considerable contamination in Pb (CI = 4.48).

Figure 4-6. Mean Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) of High-Andean systems based in local background (LB) values.

On the other hand, regardless of the levels of contamination, when evaluating the ecological risk
of single metals (E; Figure 4-8), all the elements show a low risk (E < 40); while when
considering the sum of the metals, the 9 systems studied are classified with a PERI of low
ecological risk (PERI < 150; Figure 4-8). However, it should be considered that the PERI
calculated for the systems is a minimum, since Cd and Ni, among other elements, have not been
analyzed.
Finally, regarding the results of the evaluation in the Atacama Region, the coastal systems present
a higher degree of contamination (Igeo; CI) than the High-Andean systems; being the most
affected Chañaral and Ramada, with high concentrations of Cu and Pb.

25
 Figure 4-7. Mean Contamination Index (CI) of High-Andean systems based in local background (LB) values.

Figure 4-8. Mean Potential Ecological Risk (E) of High-Andean systems based in local background (LB) values.

4.3.3. Comparison of Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) Using Other Backgrounds

For valuing the environmental assessment previously carried out, the Igeo is calculated again for
all the systems studied, but this time using other backgrounds such as global lithologies and local
sediments (Table 2-1). Within the global background considered, is the content of metals
present in average shale (Shale), reported by Turekian and Wedepohl (1961), as the mean
concentrations of this lithology of distinct geographical areas around the world. The other global
background is the mean content of metals in the Upper Continental Crust (UCC), estimated and

26
reported by Rudnick and Gao (2014). Meanwhile, one of the local baselines used corresponds
to the mean concentration measured in marine sediments of uncontaminated bays (UB) in
northern Chile, determined by Valdés and Tapia (2019), within which are Pan de Azúcar and
Ramada, among others. The other local baseline corresponds to the concentration measured in
aeolian dust (AD) of the Mejillones and Caldera bays, which is also reported by Valdés and Tapia
(2019). The metals considered for this comparison are Cu, Pb and Zn, because they are minor
or trace elements and because they are the only ones that showed some degree of contamination.
The results of the new Igeo for the coastal and High-Andean systems are presented in Figure
4-9 and Figure 4-10, respectively.

Table 4-4. Metal concentrations in distinct matrices used background in this study. Concentrations values in
mg·kg_1 (ppm).

Upper
Aeolian dust Uncontaminated
Metal Average Shaleb Continental
(AD)a Bays (UB)c
Crust (UCC)d

Cu 92.7 45.0 113.0 28.0

Pb 65.5 8.0 44.9 17.0
Zn 51.7 13.1 34.3 67.0
a, c: Valdés and Tapia (2019); b: Rudnick and Gao (2014); d: Turekian and Wedepohl (1961).

The results of the evaluation in coastal systems (Figure 4-9) show that Cu Igeo of Chañaral and
Ramada is >1, with a maximum of 3 (heavily polluted) and 2 (moderately polluted), respectively,
for the lithogenic backgrounds considered (LB, Shale and UCC), and >0 for all baselines,
indicating that these systems are contaminated with Cu, especially Chañaral. In addition, these
systems also present Pb Igeo between 1 and 2 (moderately polluted), considering the Shale and
LB (estimated by this study). Meanwhile, Zn Igeo >1, with Shale as background, in 4 of the 5
coastal systems studied (all except Chañaral), showing that this lithology overestimates Igeo Zn.
Regarding the High-Andean systems (Figure 4-10), only the Pb Igeo Shale in Laguna Verde
shows values >2 (moderately polluted), and >1 with the rest of the lithological baselines (LB
and UCC). Of the rest, the only Igeo >1 correspond to: Cu Igeo UCC in Salar de Agua Amarga;
Pb Igeo Shale in de la Azufrera, de Agua Amarga, de la Isla, Salar de Pedernales and Salar de
Maricunga and in the Laguna Negro Francisco; and Zn Igeo Shale in the salar de la Isla. While,
the Igeo calculated from the baselines of the local coastal sediments, AD and UB, are <0 for all
the High-Andean elements and systems studied.
There is no doubt that of the lithogenic backgrounds used, the one that delivers the most realistic
results, regardless of the value of the environmental index, is the LB, since it considers the
regional variability contributed by the chemical heterogeneities of the surrounding geological
units, as discussed and recommended by other authors (Reimann and Garrett, 2005; Birch,
2017), unlike global backgrounds, which suppress and do not reflect local features, and may
arbitrarily underestimate or overestimate environmental indices.

27
Figure 4-9. Geoaccumulation index (Igeo) of 5 studied coastal systems of northern Chile: LB: Local Background,
based on the calculation of compounds from basins (this study); AD: Background concentration measured in
aeolian dust of the Mejillones and Caldera bays (Valdés and Tapia, 2019); Shale: Background concentration
measured in average shale (Turekian and Wedepohl, 1961); Background concentration measured in marine
sediments of uncontaminated bays (Valdés and Tapia, 2019); UCC: Background concentration measured in Upper
Continental Crust (Rudnick and Gao, 2014).

28
Figure 4-10. Geoaccumulation index (Igeo) of 9 studied High-Andean systems of northern Chile: LB: Local
Background, based on the calculation of compounds from basins (this study); AD: Background concentration
measured in aeolian dust of the Mejillones and Caldera bays (Valdés and Tapia, 2019); Shale: Background
concentration measured in average shale (Turekian and Wedepohl, 1961); Background concentration measured in
marine sediments of uncontaminated bays (Valdés and Tapia, 2019); UCC: Background concentration measured in
Upper Continental Crust (Rudnick and Gao, 2014).

29
On the other hand, the use of lithogenic backgrounds (LB, Shale and UCC) tends to
overestimate the Igeo, while the use of reference values such as the metal content in the
sediments of uncontaminated bays (UB) or aeolian dust (AD) yields more conservative results.
This occurs since the first backgrounds come from a pristine source and do not contemplate
enrichment mechanisms, be both anthropogenic sources of natural marine processes. Within
these natural processes, the accumulation of sensitive redox metals (Mo, As, Re, V, among
others) in marine sediments stands out, due to the intensification of the Oxygen Minimum
Zones (OMZ) (Sifeddine et al., 2008; Salvatteci et al., 2014; Valdés et al., 2014b; Salvatteci et al.,
2016; Castillo et al., 2019; Cardich et al., 2019), or the high levels of Cd in the sedimentary matrix,
due to the fact that the waters are naturally enriched in this element (Takesue et al., 2004), which
occurs particularly in northern Chile (Valdés, 2004; Valdés et al., 2006; Valdés et al., 2014b).
In this sense, to consider the local processes of the studied systems, some authors (Reimann and
Garrett, 2005; Reimann et al., 2005) using as background samples from pollution-free zones with
similar characteristics to those areas that are to be evaluated (for example, geological and climatic
features), in the same way as was done by Valdés and Tapia (2019) in an environmental
evaluation of 15 coastal systems in northern Chile, in which they used as background the metallic
content in sediments of bays considered free-pollution (free of industrial activities)
corresponding to the same study area. However, the average Pb in the UB (Table 4-4) is
equivalent to those recorded in a highly industrialized bay such as Concepción (Salamanca et al.,
1988) (44.9 vs 40.1 mg·kg-1 of Pb, in UB and Concepción., respectively) could be an indicator
that regardless of the fact that these bays do not have industrial activities in their vicinity, these
surface sediments are also affected by the transport and sedimentation of elements from modern
anthropogenic activities (Steinnes and Njåstad, 1995; Blaser et al., 2000), which would also
impact the Cu and Pb contents of aeolian dust (AD) in coastal areas (92.7 and 65.5 mg·kg-1,
respectively; Table 4-4). Thus, the metallic contents in the UB and in the AD would not be
appropriate baselines for the High-Andean systems, since these could not only underestimate
the anthropic contributions, but they are also not systems or areas with similar characteristics.
An example of the above is the Pb content in Laguna Verde, which is more than twice the
average Pb content of the other 8 High-Andean systems (53.5 vs 25.1 mg·kg-1, respectively),
however, the Igeo calculation using UB and AD give values <0, evidencing the notable
underestimation of the environmental assessment by these baselines. Therefore, for these
systems, using more conservative baselines such as local background (LB) would be more
appropriate to carry out environmental evaluations and detect eventual contamination or
anomalous concentrations. Likewise, the LB would be a good baseline to evaluate non-aquatic
sediments in this region, where the vegetation is scarce and the development of soils is limited
(Diaz and Wright, 1965; Carmona and Rivadeneira, 2006; Carevic et al., 2013; Casanova et al.,
2013), making the sediments mainly the product of the erosion of the surrounding geological
units, facilitating the detection of the anthropic contribution by means of the LB proposed here.
While, other authors (Steinnes and Njåstad, 1995; Blaser et al., 2000) advise using as a baseline
the concentrations of elements measured in deep zones or horizons, within the same system
studied, since the upper or shallow portions are probably more affected by the anthropogenic
pollution. An example of this is reflected in the paper by Song et al. (2014), who, through pre-
industrial levels within sedimentary sequences, propose regional background concentrations of
heavy metals for the coastal sediments of the South Korean Sea.
Currently, in Chilean regulations, there is no environmental quality standard that regulates the
content of elements in sediments. Regardless of the political responsibilities in this, one of the

30
greatest difficulties in establishing the maximum limits allowed is the lack of information
regarding the contents that this matrix presented prior to industrial development. Unfortunately,
advances in scientific knowledge of Chile's natural systems, and in particular of their
environmental component, came after anthropic industrial development, so the pristine
signature of the systems has been lost over the years (Valdés and Tapia, 2019). Thus, studies like
this one, where metallic contents are exposed in systems with different levels of industrialization
and alternatives are proposed for the estimation of local backgrounds, are an approach to the
pre-industrial conditions necessary for the determination of an environmental quality standard.

4.3.4. Mining tailings vs. Environmental Evaluation in the Study Area

The Atacama Region, in northern Chile, is recognized for widespread and long-standing mining
activity, one of its main wastes being mining tailings. According to the Registry of Tailings
Deposits in Chile (Catastro de depósitos de Relave en Chile) (SERNAGEOMIN, 2020), in the
Atacama Region there are about 170 of these deposits (Figure 4-11), covering different
resources and metallic associations (Cu, Mo, Au, Ag and Fe), states of activity (active or inactive)
and deposit age. Of the study basins, Chañaral is the one with the highest number of tailings,
with 23, deposited mainly in the Central Depression; followed by Pan de Azúcar with 3 tailings,
deposited in the Coastal Cordillera, about 25 km from the study area, in the main ravine that
flows into the bay. Caldera-Ramada has 2 tailings, one of them being about 500 m south of
Ramada; High-Andean contains only one registered tailing, located ~40 km northwest of the
Salar de Pedernales; while Salada does not present registered tailings.

Figure 4-11. Map with the location of tailings (SERNAGEOMIN, 2020) between 25º and 28ºS. Holocene
volcanoes from Global Volcanism Program (2013).

31
From the environmental evaluation, the most contaminated systems correspond to Chañaral and
Ramada (in that order), and both are affected by high contents of Cu and Pb. To contextualize
the possible source of these elements, it is necessary to point out that the Atacama Region hosts
world-class porphyry Cu-Mo and iron oxide copper-gold (IOCG) deposits (Tapia et al., 2018c).
These types of deposits, in addition to being enriched in Cu, Mo and Au, have a recognizable
chemical signature due to the high content of Pb, Zn, As, Sb, Co, Ag, among other elements
(Cox and Singer, 1987; Sillitoe, 2008). Furthermore, these deposits are strongly associated with
felsic rocks, rich in K-feldspar (Cox and Singer, 1987; Sillitoe, 2008); mineral that usually harbors
Pb, due to the substitution that this element makes for K (Weis, 2016). Therefore, it is not
surprising that the mining waste in this region is loaded with Cu and Pb, which could be an
important source of contamination. Another point to consider is that this region is periodically
affected by floods and mud flows (Vargas et al., 2018; Ortega et al., 2019), due to heavy rainfalls;
events that can remove and transport previously deposited materials to coastal environments,
especially those that have been emplaced near streams.

32
5. Conclusions and Final Comments
The Environmental evaluation based on the calculation of local background (LB) allows
assessing the health status of the aquatic systems, considering the heterogeneity and chemical
signatures typical of smaller-scale systems. This evaluation can be strengthened by doing a
geochemical survey of the geological outcrops in the study area, together with the use of maps
with a higher level of detail (scale 1:100,000, for example) and erodibility factors.
Regarding the results of the evaluation in the Atacama Region, the coastal systems present a
higher degree of contamination than the High-Andean systems; being the most affected
Chañaral and Ramada, with high concentrations of Cu and Pb. Regardless of the degree of
contamination of the 14 systems studied (5 coastal and 9 High-Andean), according to the
elements analyzed (Al, Cu, Fe, Pb and Zn), the ecological risk of these is low (PERI >150),
although this classification must be taken with precautions since elements such as Ni or Cd were
not considered.
The proposed local background (LB) is lithogenic, coming from a pristine primary source, and
does not consider the enrichment mechanisms resulting from natural marine processes, and may
overestimate the environmental value of certain elements naturally concentrated in these
environments. However, for the High-Andean systems, this baseline would be very appropriate,
both to carry out environmental evaluations and to detect eventual contamination or anomalous
concentrations.
The high contents of Cu and Pb would eventually be of anthropic origin, product of activities
related to industries and the great mining activity, which has deposited about 170 tailings in
different areas of the Atacama Region. Meanwhile, the good environmental health of the High-
Andean systems invites us to promote their protection and conservation, before the growing
mining activity disturbs it, since these systems are unique and fragile.
Currently, in Chilean regulations, there is no environmental quality standard that regulates the
content of elements in sediments. Thus, studies such as this one, where metal contents are
exposed in various systems and alternatives are proposed for the estimation of local
backgrounds, are an approach to the pre-industrial conditions, which in turn are necessary for
the determination of a standard of environmental quality.

33
6. References
Aguilera F., Layana S., Rodríguez-Díaz A., González C., Cortés J. and Inostroza M. (2016)
Hydrothermal alteration, fumarolic deposits and fluids from Lastarria Volcanic Complex:
A multidisciplinary study. Andean Geol. 43, 166–196.
Andrade S., Moffett J. and Correa J. A. (2006) Distribution of dissolved species and suspended
particulate copper in an intertidal ecosystem affected by copper mine tailings in Northern
Chile. Mar. Chem. 101, 203–212. Available at:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0025326X04003066.
Arriagada C., Cobbold P. R. and Roperch P. (2006) Salar de Atacama basin: A record of
compressional tectonics in the central Andes since the mid-Cretaceous. Tectonics 25, 1–19.
Available at: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2004TC001770.
Bacardit M., Krachler M. and Camarero L. (2012) Whole-catchment inventories of trace metals
in soils and sediments in mountain lake catchments in the Central Pyrenees: Apportioning
the anthropogenic and natural contributions. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 82, 52–67.
Bing H., Wu Y., Zhou J., Li R. and Wang J. (2016) Historical trends of anthropogenic metals in
Eastern Tibetan Plateau as reconstructed from alpine lake sediments over the last century.
Chemosphere 148, 211–219. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.01.042.
Birch G. F. (2017) Determination of sediment metal background concentrations and enrichment
in marine environments – A critical review. Sci. Total Environ. 580, 813–831. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.12.028.
Blaser P., Zimmermann S., Luster J. and Shotyk W. (2000) Critical examination of trace element
enrichments and depletions in soils: As, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn in Swiss forest soils. Sci.
Total Environ. 249, 257–280. Available at: http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=AN9952001479.
Boxall A. B. ., Comber S. ., Conrad A. ., Howcroft J. and Zaman N. (2000) Inputs, Monitoring
and Fate Modelling of Antifouling Biocides in UK Estuaries. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 40, 898–905.
Available at: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0025326X00000217.
Brown M. (1991) Comparative geochemical interpretation of Permian-Triassic plutonic
complexes of the Coastal Range and Altiplano (25°30′ to 26°30′S), northern Chile. In
Geological Society of America Special Paper 265: Andean Magmatism and Its Tectonic Setting pp. 157–
178. Available at:
https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/405/chapter/3797884/.
Burton G. A. (2002) Sediment quality criteria in use around the world. Limnology 3, 65–75.
Calderón C. and Valdés J. (2012) Contenido de metales en sedimentos y organismos bentónicos
de la bahía San Jorge, Antofagasta, Chile. Rev. Biol. Mar. Oceanogr. 47, 121–133. Available at:
https://scielo.conicyt.cl/pdf/revbiolmar/v47n1/art11.pdf.
Campero C., Harris L. M. and Kunz N. C. (2021) De-politicising seawater desalination:
Environmental Impact Assessments in the Atacama mining Region, Chile. Environ. Sci.
Policy 120, 187–194. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2021.03.004.
Cardich J., Sifeddine A., Salvatteci R., Romero D., Briceño-Zuluaga F. J., Graco M., Anculle T.,
Almeida C. and Gutiérrez D. (2019) Multidecadal Changes in Marine Subsurface

34
 Oxygenation Off Central Peru During the Last ca. 170 Years. Front. Mar. Sci. 6, 1–16.
Available at: https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fmars.2019.00270/full.
Carevic F. S., Carmona E. R. and Muñoz-Pedreros A. (2013) Seasonal diet of the burrowing owl
Athene cunicularia Molina, 1782 (Strigidae) in a hyperarid ecosystem of the Atacama desert
in northern Chile. J. Arid Environ. 97, 237–241. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2013.07.008.
Carmona E. and Rivadeneira M. (2006) Food habits of the barn owl Tyto alba in the National
Reserve Pampa del Tamarugal, Atacama Desert, North Chile. J. Nat. Hist. 40, 473–483.
Casanova M., Salazar O., Seguel O. and Luzio W. (2013) The Soils of Chile. eds. M. Casanova, O.
Salazar, O. Seguel, and W. Luzio, Springer Dordrecht. Available at:
http://www.springer.com/series/8915.
Castillo A. and Valdés J. (2011) Contenido de metales en Cancer polyodon (Crustacea:
Decapoda) en un sistema de bahias del norte de Chile (27°S). Lat. Am. J. Aquat. Res. 39,
461–470. Available at: http://www.lajar.cl/pdf/imar/v39n3/Articulo_3_7.pdf.
Castillo A., Valdés J., Sifeddine A., Vega S.-E., Díaz-Ochoa J. A. and Marambio Y. (2019)
Evaluation of redox-sensitive metals in marine surface sediments influenced by the oxygen
minimum zone of the Humboldt Current System, Northern Chile. Int. J. Sediment Res. 34,
178–190. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsrc.2018.08.005.
Castro G. and Valdés J. (2012) Concentracion de metales pesados (Cu, Ni, Zn, Cd, Pb) en la
biota y sedimentos de una playa artificial, en la bahia San Jorge 23oS, norte de Chile. Lat.
Am. J. Aquat. Res. 40, 267–281. Available at:
http://www.lajar.cl/pdf/imar/v40n2/Articulo_40_2_03.pdf.
Cerda M., Evangelista H., Valdés J., Sifeddine A., Boucher H., Nogueira J., Nepomuceno A. and
Ortlieb L. (2019) A new 20th century lake sedimentary record from the Atacama
Desert/Chile reveals persistent PDO (Pacific Decadal Oscillation) impact. J. South Am.
Earth Sci. 95, 102302. Available at:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S089598111930361X.
Chance R., Jickells T. D. and Baker A. R. (2015) Atmospheric trace metal concentrations,
solubility and deposition fluxes in remote marine air over the south-east Atlantic. Mar.
Chem. 177, 45–56. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marchem.2015.06.028.
Clarke J. D. A. (2006) Antiquity of aridity in the Chilean Atacama Desert. Geomorphology 73, 101–
114. Available at: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0169555X05002023.
Colbeck I. (2009) Environmental Chemistry of Aerosols., Wiley-Blackwell.
Coloma F., Valin X., Oliveros V., Vásquez P., Creixell C., Salazar E. and Ducea M. N. (2017)
Geochemistry of Permian to Triassic igneous rocks from northern Chile (28o-30o15’S):
Implications on the dynamics of the proto-Andean margin. Andean Geol. 44, 147. Available
at: http://www.andeangeology.cl/index.php/revista1/article/view/V44n2-a03.
Cooke J. A., Andrews S. M. and Johnson M. S. (1990) Lead, zinc, cadmium and fluoride in small
mammals from contaminated grassland established on fluorspar tailings. Water. Air. Soil
Pollut. 51, 43–54. Available at: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF00211502.
Cox D. P. and Singer D. A. (1987) Mineral Deposit Models. US Geol. Surv. Bull. 1693. Available
at: https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/b1693.

35
CR2 (2022) Datos de Precipitación. Available at: https://www.cr2.cl/datos-de-precipitacion/
[Accessed June 12, 2022].
Danielson J. J. and Gesch D. B. (2011) Global multi-resolution terrain elevation data 2010
(GMTED2010): U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011–1073., Available at:
https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1073/pdf/of2011-1073.pdf.
Dean W. E., Gardner J. V. and Piper D. Z. (1997) Inorganic geochemical indicators of glacial-
interglacial changes in productivity and anoxia on the California continental margin.
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 61, 4507–4518. Available at:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0016703797002378.
Deniseger J., Erickson L. J., Austin A., Roch M. and Clark M. J. R. (1990) The effects of
decreasing heavy metal concentrations on the biota of Buttle Lake, Vancouver Island,
British Columbia. Water Res. 24, 403–416. Available at:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/004313549090222R.
DGA (1987) Balance Hídrico de Chile.,
Díaz-Alvarado J., Rodríguez N., Rodríguez C., Fernández C. and Constanzo Í. (2017) Petrology
and geochemistry of the orbicular granitoid of Caldera, northern Chile. Models and
hypotheses on the formation of radial orbicular textures. Lithos 284–285, 327–346.
Available at: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0024493717301664.
Diaz C. and Wright C. (1965) Soils of the Arid Zone of Chile., FAO, Rome. Available at:
http://www.fao.org/3/a-27312e.pdf.
Dunai T. J., González López G. A. and Juez-Larré J. (2005) Oligocene–Miocene age of aridity
in the Atacama Desert revealed by exposure dating of erosion-sensitive landforms. Geology
33, 321. Available at: https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology/article/33/4/321-
324/29591.
EPA (1996) Method 3052: Microwave Assisted Acid Digestion Of Siliceous And Organically
Based Matrices. , 20. Available at: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-
12/documents/3052.pdf.
Fariña J. M. and Castilla J. C. (2001) Temporal variation in the diversity and cover of sessile
species in rocky intertidal communities affected by copper mine tailings in northern Chile.
Mar. Pollut. Bull. 42, 554–568.
Fuentes P., Díaz-Alvarado J., Rodríguez N., Fernández C., Breitkreuz C. and Contreras A. A.
(2018) Geochemistry, petrogenesis and tectonic significance of the volcanic rocks of the
Las Tortolas Formation, Coastal Cordillera, northern Chile. J. South Am. Earth Sci. 87, 66–
86. Available at: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1342937X19300255.
Global Volcanism Program (2013) Volcanoes of the World, v. 4.10.0 (14 May 2021). Venzke, E.
(ed.). Smithsonian Institution. Available at: https://volcano.si.edu/gvp_votw.cfm.
Grosjean M., Geyh M. A., Messerli B. and Schotterer U. (1995) Late-glacial and early Holocene
lake sediments, ground-water formation and climate in the Atacama Altiplano 22-24oS. J.
Paleolimnol. 14, 241–252. Available at: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF00682426.
Grosjean M., Valero-Garcés B. L., Geyh M. A., Messerli B., Schotterer U., Schreier H. and Kelts
K. (1997) Mid- and late-Holocene limnogeology of Laguna del Negro Francisco, northern
Chile, and its palaeoclimatic implications. The Holocene 7, 151–159. Available at:

36
 http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/095968369700700203.
Guiñez M., Valdés J. and Castillo A. (2015) Contenido de metales en sedimentos y en Emerita
analoga (Stimpson, 1857), en bahía Mejillones del Sur, Chile. Lat. Am. J. Aquat. Res. 43, 94–
106.
von Gunten L., Grosjean M., Beer J., Grob P., Morales A. and Urrutia R. (2009) Age modeling
of young non-varved lake sediments: Methods and limits. Examples from two lakes in
Central Chile. J. Paleolimnol. 42, 401–412.
Håkanson L. (1980) An ecological risk index for aquatic pollution control.a sedimentological
approach. Water Res. 14, 975–1001. Available at:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0043135480901438.
Houston J. and Hartley A. J. (2003) The central andean west-slope rainshadow and its potential
contribution to the origin of hyper-aridity in the Atacama Desert. Int. J. Climatol. 23, 1453–
1464.
Hur S. Do, Cunde X., Hong S., Barbante C., Gabrielli P., Lee K., Boutron C. F. and Ming Y.
(2007) Seasonal patterns of heavy metal deposition to the snow on Lambert Glacier basin,
East Antarctica. Atmos. Environ. 41, 8567–8578.
Jara J. J., Barra F., Reich M., Morata D., Leisen M. and Romero R. (2021) Geochronology and
petrogenesis of intrusive rocks in the Coastal Cordillera of northern Chile: Insights from
zircon U-Pb dating and trace element geochemistry. Gondwana Res. 93, 48–72.
Kavalieris I. (1994) High Au, Ag, Mo, Pb, V and W content of fumarolic deposits at Merapi
volcano, central Java, Indonesia. J. Geochemical Explor. 50, 479–491.
Kay S. M. and Coira B. L. (2009) Shallowing and steepening subduction zones, continental
lithospheric loss, magmatism, and crustal flow under the Central Andean Altiplano-Puna
Plateau. In Backbone of the Americas: Shallow Subduction, Plateau Uplift, and Ridge and Terrane
Collision Geological Society of America. pp. 229–259. Available at:
https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/202/chapter/3793981.
Kay S. M., Mpodozis C., Tittler A. and Cornejo P. (1994) Tertiary Magmatic Evolution of the
Maricunga Mineral Belt in Chile. Int. Geol. Rev. 36, 1079–1112. Available at:
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00206819409465506.
Lee M. R. and Correa J. A. (2005) Effects of copper mine tailings disposal on littoral meiofaunal
assemblages in the Atacama region of northern Chile. Mar. Environ. Res. 59, 1–18. Available
at: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0141113604000236.
Lee M. R., Correa J. A. and Zhang H. (2002) Effective metal concentrations in porewater and
seawater labile metal concentrations associated with copper mine tailings disposal into the
coastal waters of the Atacama region of northern Chile. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 44, 956–976.
Lépez I., Furet L. and Aracena O. (2001) Población de Emerita analoga (Stimpson 1857) en
playas amarilla y rinconada, Antofagasta: aspectos abióticos, bióticos y concentración de
cobre. Gayana (Concepción) 65, 1–24. Available at:
http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0717-
65382001000100008&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en.
Marschik R., Fontignie D., Chiaradia M. and Voldet P. (2003) Geochemical and Sr–Nd–Pb–O
isotope composition of granitoids of the Early Cretaceous Copiapó plutonic complex

37
 (27°30′S), Chile. J. South Am. Earth Sci. 16, 381–398. Available at:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895981103001044.
Medina M., Andrade S., Faugeron S., Lagos N., Mella D. and Correa J. A. (2005) Biodiversity of
rocky intertidal benthic communities associated with copper mine tailing discharges in
northern Chile. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 50, 396–409. Available at:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0025326X04004461.
Moosdorf N., Cohen S. and von Hagke C. (2018) A global erodibility index to represent sediment
production potential of different rock types. Appl. Geogr. 101, 36–44. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2018.10.010.
Mpodozis C., Clavero J., Quiroga R., Droguett B. and Arcos R. (2018) Geología del Área Cerro
Cadillal-Cerro Jotabeche, Región de Atacama. Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería,
Carta Geológica de Chile, Serie Geología Básica 200: 137 p. 1 mapa escala 1:100.000.
Santiago.
Mpodozis C., Cornejo Peláez P., Kay S. M. and Tittler A. (1995) La Franja de Maricunga: síntesis
de la evolución del Frente Volcánico Oligoceno-Mioceno de la zona sur de los Andes
Centrales. La Franja Maricunga síntesis la Evol. del Frente Volcánico Oligoceno-Mioceno la Zo. sur
los Andes Cent. 22, 273–313.
Mpodozis C., Iriarte S., Gardeweg M. and Valenzuela M. (2012) Carta Laguna del Negro
Francisco, Región de Atacama. Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería, Carta Geológica
de Chile, Serie Geología Básica 145: 30 p. 1 mapa escala 1:100.000. Santiago. Cart. Geológica
Chile, 30.
Mpodozis C., Kay S. M., Gardeweg M. and Coira B. L. (1996) Geología de la región de Ojos del
Salado (Andes Centrales, 27°S): Implicancias de la migración hacia el este del frente
volcánico Cenozoico Superior. XIII Congr. Geológico Argentino, Actas III, 539–548.
Müller G. (1979) Schwermetalle in den sedimenten des Rheins—Veränderungen seit 1971.
Umschau 79, 778–783.
Muñoz P., Hevia-Hormazabal V., Araya K., Maldonado A. and Salamanca M. (2022) Metal
enrichment evolution in marine sediments influenced by oxygen-deficient waters in a
mineral loading zone, Atacama, Chile (27° S). Mar. Environ. Res. 177.
Naranjo J. A., Hevia F., Arcos R. and Polanco E. (2019) Geología de las áreas Nevado Ojos del
Salado y Cerro El Fraile, Región de Atacama. Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería,
Carta Geológica de Chile, Serie Geología Básica 204-205: 96 p. 1 mapa escala 1:100.000.
Santiago.
Ortega C., Vargas G., Rojas M., Rutllant J. A., Muñoz P., Lange C. B., Pantoja S., Dezileau L.
and Ortlieb L. (2019) Extreme ENSO-driven torrential rainfalls at the southern edge of the
Atacama Desert during the Late Holocene and their projection into the 21th century. Glob.
Planet. Change 175, 226–237. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2019.02.011.
OSPAR (2008) Co-ordinated Environmental Monitoring Programme Assessment Manual for contaminants
in sediment and biota., OSPAR Commission. Available at:
https://www.ospar.org/documents?v=7115.
Ramírez M., Massolo S., Frache R. and Correa J. A. (2005) Metal speciation and environmental
impact on sandy beaches due to El Salvador copper mine, Chile. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 50, 62–

38
 72.
Rech J. A., Currie B. S., Michalski G. and Cowan A. M. (2006) Neogene climate change and
uplift in the Atacama Desert, Chile. Geology 34, 761. Available at:
https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology/article/34/9/761-764/129632.
Reimann C. and De Caritat P. (2005) Distinguishing between natural and anthropogenic sources
for elements in the environment: Regional geochemical surveys versus enrichment factors.
Sci. Total Environ. 337, 91–107.
Reimann C., Filzmoser P. and Garrett R. G. (2005) Background and threshold: critical
comparison of methods of determination. Sci. Total Environ. 346, 1–16. Available at:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0048969704007983.
Reimann C. and Garrett R. G. (2005) Geochemical background - Concept and reality. Sci. Total
Environ. 350, 12–27.
Richards J. P., Boyce A. J. and Pringle M. S. (2001) Geologic Evolution of the Escondida Area,
Northern Chile: A Model for Spatial and Temporal Localization of Porphyry Cu
Mineralization. Econ. Geol. 96, 271–305. Available at:
https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/economicgeology/article/96/2/271-305/22053.
Risacher F., Alonso H. and Salazar C. (1999) Geoquímica de aguas en cuencas cerradas, I, II, III Regiones,
Chile. Ministerio de Obras Públicas, Dirección General de Aguas, Technical Report S.I.T. no 51,
Santiago, Chile., Santiago, Chile.
Risacher F., Alonso H. and Salazar C. (2003) The origin of brines and salts in Chilean salars: a
hydrochemical review. Earth-Science Rev. 63, 249–293. Available at:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0012825203000370.
Risacher F. and Fritz B. (2009) Origin of salts and brine evolution of Bolivian and Chilean salars.
Aquat. Geochemistry 15, 123–157.
Rodríguez N., Díaz-Alvarado J., Fernández C., Fuentes P., Breitkreuz C. and Tassinari C. C. G.
(2019) The significance of U–Pb zircon ages in zoned plutons: the case of the Flamenco
pluton, Coastal Range batholith, northern Chile. Geosci. Front. 10, 1073–1099. Available at:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1674987118301518.
Rodríguez N., Díaz-Alvarado J., Rodríguez C., Riveros K. and Fuentes P. (2016) Petrology,
geochemistry and thermobarometry of the northern area of the Flamenco pluton, Coastal
Range batholith, northern Chile. A thermal approach to the emplacement processes in the
Jurassic andean batholiths. J. South Am. Earth Sci. 67, 122–139. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2016.01.010.
Rudnick R. L. and Gao S. (2014) Composition of the Continental Crust. In Treatise on Geochemistry
Volume 4: The Crust (ed. R. L. Rudnick). Elsevier. pp. 1–51. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00301-6.
Rutllant J. A., Fuenzalida H. and Aceituno P. (2003) Climate dynamics along the arid northern
coast of Chile: The 1997-1998 Dinámica del Clima de la Región de Antofagasta
(DICLIMA) experiment. J. Geophys. Res. D Atmos. 108, 4538. Available at:
http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2002JD003357.
Salamanca M. A., Camaño A., Jara B. and Rodríguez T. (2000) Cu, Pb and Zn distribution in
nearshore waters in San Jorge Bay, northern Chile. Gayana (Concepción) 64, 1–11. Available

39
 at: http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0717-
65382000000200009&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en.
Salamanca M. A., Chuecas L. and Carrasco F. (1988) Heavy metal content and distribution in
surface sediments from three areas of chilean coast. Gayana Misc. 9, 3–16. Available at:
https://revistas.udec.cl/index.php/gayana_miscelanea/article/download/7315/6723/16
303.
Salamanca M. A., Jara B. and Rodríguez T. (2004) Niveles de Cu, Pb y Zn en agua y perumytilus
purpuratus en bahia San Jorge, norte de Chile. Gayana (Concepción) 68, 53–62. Available at:
http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0717-
65382004000100005&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en.
Salvatteci R., Gutiérrez D., Field D. B., Sifeddine A., Ortlieb L., Bouloubassi I., Boussafir M.,
Boucher H. and Cetin F. (2014) The response of the Peruvian Upwelling Ecosystem to
centennial-scale global change during the last two millennia. Clim. Past 10, 715–731.
Available at: https://www.clim-past.net/10/715/2014/.
Salvatteci R., Gutiérrez D., Sifeddine A., Ortlieb L., Druffel E., Boussafir M. and Schneider R.
R. (2016) Centennial to millennial-scale changes in oxygenation and productivity in the
Eastern Tropical South Pacific during the last 25,000 years. Quat. Sci. Rev. 131, 102–117.
Available at: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277379115301669.
Sarricolea P., Herrera-Ossandon M. and Meseguer-Ruiz Ó. (2017) Climatic regionalisation of
continental Chile. J. Maps 13, 66–73. Available at:
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17445647.2016.1259592.
Schnurr W. B. W., Trumbull R. B., Clavero J., Hahne K., Siebel W. and Gardeweg M. (2007)
Twenty-five million years of silicic volcanism in the southern central volcanic zone of the
Andes: Geochemistry and magma genesis of ignimbrites from 25 to 27 °S, 67 to 72 °W. J.
Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 166, 17–46. Available at:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0377027307001953.
SEA (2022) Sistema de Evaluación de Impacto Ambiental. Available at:
https://www.sea.gob.cl/ [Accessed June 19, 2022].
SERNAGEOMIN (2020) Catastro de Depósitos de Relaves en Chile (actualización 10-08-2020).
Available at: https://www.sernageomin.cl/datos-publicos-deposito-de-relaves/ [Accessed
March 12, 2022].
SERNAGEOMIN (2003) Mapa Geológico de Chile: Versión digital. Publicación Geológica
Digital, No. 4 (CD-ROM, versión1.0, 2003), Santiago. Available at:
http://www.ipgp.fr/~dechabal/Geol-millon.pdf.
Shotyk W., Goodsite M. E., Roos-Barraclough F., Frei R., Heinemeier J., Asmund G., Lohse C.
and Hansen T. S. (2003) Anthropogenic contributions to atmospheric Hg, Pb and As
accumulation recorded by peat cores from southern Greenland and Denmark dated using
the 14C “bomb pulse curve.” Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 67, 3991–4011. Available at:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0016703703004095.
Sifeddine A., Gutiérrez D., Ortlieb L., Boucher H., Velazco F., Field D. B., Vargas G., Boussafir
M., Salvatteci R., Ferreira V., García M., Valdés J., Caquineau S., Mandeng-Yogo M., Cetin
F., Solis J., Soler P. and Baumgartner T. R. (2008) Laminated sediments from the central
Peruvian continental slope: A 500 year record of upwelling system productivity, terrestrial

40
 runoff and redox conditions. Prog. Oceanogr. 79, 190–197. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2008.10.024.
Sillitoe R. H. (2008) Special Paper: Major Gold Deposits and Belts of the North and South
American Cordillera: Distribution, Tectonomagmatic Settings, and Metallogenic
Considerations. Econ. Geol. 103, 663–687. Available at:
https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/economicgeology/article/103/4/663-687/127987.
Singh M., Ansari A. A., Müller G. and Singh I. B. (1997) Heavy metals in freshly deposited
sediments of the Gomati River (a tributary of the Ganga River) effects of human activities.
Environ. Geol. 29, 246–252.
SONAMI (2022) Mapa Minero de Chile. Available at: https://www.sonami.cl/mapaminero/
[Accessed June 19, 2022].
Song Y., Choi M. S., Lee J. Y. and Jang D. J. (2014) Regional background concentrations of
heavy metals (Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb) in coastal sediments of the South Sea of Korea. Sci.
Total Environ. 482–483, 80–91. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.02.068.
Spiro B., Udachin V., Williamson B. J., Purvis O. W., Tessalina S. G. and Weiss D. J. (2013)
Lacustrine sediments and lichen transplants: Two contrasting and complimentary
environmental archives of natural and anthropogenic lead in the South Urals, Russia. Aquat.
Sci. 75, 185–198.
Stauber J. L., Andrade S., Ramirez M., Adams M. and Correa J. A. (2005) Copper bioavailability
in a coastal environment of Northern Chile: Comparison of bioassay and analytical
speciation approaches. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 50, 1363–1372. Available at:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0025326X04003066.
Steinnes E. and Njåstad O. (1995) Enrichment of metals in the organic surface layer of natural
soil: Identification of contributions from different sources. Analyst 120, 1479–1483.
Stern C. R. (2004) Active Andean Volcanism. Rev. Geol. Chile 31, 161–206. Available at:
http://www.andeangeology.cl/index.php/revista1/article/view/V31n2-a01.
Symonds R. B., Rose W. I., Reed M. H., Lichte F. E. and Finnegan D. L. (1987) Volatilization,
transport and sublimation of metallic and non-metallic elements in high temperature gases
at Merapi Volcano, Indonesia. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 51, 2083–2101.
Tagliabue A., Bowie A. R., Boyd P. W., Buck K. N., Johnson K. S. and Saito M. A. (2017) The
integral role of iron in ocean biogeochemistry. Nature 543, 51–59. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature21058.
Takesue R. K., van Geen A., Carriquiry J. D., Ortiz E., Godínez-Orta L., Granados I., Saldívar
M., Ortlieb L., Escribano R., Guzman N., Castilla J. C., Varas M., Salamanca M. and
Figueroa C. (2004) Influence of coastal upwelling and El Niño-Southern Oscillation on
nearshore water along Baja California and Chile: Shore-based monitoring during 1997-
2000. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 109, 1–14. Available at:
http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2003JC001856.
Tapia J. S., Davenport J., Townley B., Dorador C., Schneider B., Tolorza V. and von Tümpling
W. (2018a) Sources, enrichment, and redistribution of As, Cd, Cu, Li, Mo, and Sb in the
Northern Atacama Region, Chile: Implications for arid watersheds affected by mining. J.

41
 Geochemical Explor. 185, 33–51. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2017.10.021.
Tapia J. S., González R., Townley B., Oliveros V., Álvarez F., Aguilar G., Menzies A. and
Calderón M. (2018b) Geology and geochemistry of the Atacama Desert. Antonie Van
Leeuwenhoek 111, 1273–1291. Available at: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10482-018-
1024-x.
Tapia J. S., Valdés J., Orrego R., Tchernitchin A., Dorador C., Bolados A. and Harrod C. (2018c)
Geologic and anthropogenic sources of contamination in settled dust of a historic mining
port city in northern Chile: Health risk implications. PeerJ 2018, 1–30.
Trumbull R. B., Wittenbrink R., Hahne K., Emmermann R., Büsch W., Gerstenberger H. and
Siebel W. (1999) Evidence for Late Miocene to Recent contamination of arc andesites by
crustal melts in the Chilean Andes (25–26°S) and its geodynamic implications. J. South Am.
Earth Sci. 12, 135–155. Available at:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895981199000115.
Turekian K. K. and Wedepohl K. H. (1961) Distribution of the Elements in Some Major Units
of the Earth’s Crust. GSA Bull. 72, 175–192. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-
7606(1961)72[175:DOTEIS]2.0.CO;2.
Urrutia R., Yevenes M. and Barra R. (2002) Determinación de los niveles basales de metales traza
en sedimentos de tres lagos andinos de Chile: lagos Chungará, Laja y Castor. Boletín la Soc.
Chil. Química 47.
Valdés J. (2004) Evaluación de metales redox-sensitivos como proxies de paleoxigenación en un
ambiente marino hipóxico del norte de Chile. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 77, 121–138. Available
at: http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0716-
078X2004000100010&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en.
Valdés J. (2012) Heavy metal distribution and enrichment in sediments of Mejillones Bay (23°
S), Chile: A spatial and temporal approach. Environ. Monit. Assess. 184, 5283–5294.
Valdés J. and Castillo A. (2014) Evaluación de la calidad ambiental de los sedimentos marinos
en el sistema de bahías de Caldera (27 S), Chile. Lat. Am. J. Aquat. Res. 42, 497–513.
Available at: http://www.lajar.cl/pdf/imar/v42n3/Articulo_42_3_10.pdf.
Valdés J., Guiñez M., Castillo A. and Vega S.-E. (2014a) Cu, Pb, and Zn content in sediments
and benthic organisms from San Jorge Bay (northern Chile): Accumulation and
biotransference in subtidal coastal systems. Ciencias Mar. 40, 45–58. Available at:
http://www.cienciasmarinas.com.mx/index.php/cmarinas/article/view/2318/1469.
Valdés J., Marambio-Alfaro Y., Castillo A., Guiñez M. and Cooper O. (2022) Metal(oid)s content
in High-Andean aquatic systems of the Atacama Desert, Chile: environmental assessment
of extreme ecosystems. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24294-w.
Valdés J., Román D., Alvarez G., Ortlieb L. and Guiñez M. (2008) Metals content in surface
waters of an upwelling system of the northern Humboldt Current (Mejillones Bay, Chile).
J. Mar. Syst. 71, 18–30. Available at:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0924796307000954.
Valdés J., Román D., Dávila P. M., Ortlieb L. and Guiñez M. (2006) Variabilidad estacional de
cadmio en un sistema de surgencia costera del norte de Chile (Bahía Mejillones del Sur, 23o

42
 S). Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 79, 517–535. Available at:
https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0716-078X2006000400010&script=sci_arttext.
Valdés J., Román D., Guiñez M., Rivera L., Ávila J., Cortés P. and Castillo A. (2015) Trace metal
variability in coastal waters of San Jorge Bay, Antofagasta, Chile: An environmental
evaluation and statistical approach to propose local background levels. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 100,
544–554.
Valdés J., Román D., Guiñez M., Rivera L., Morales T., Ávila J. and Cortés P. (2010) Distribution
and temporal variation of trace metal enrichment in surface sediments of San Jorge Bay,
Chile. Environ. Monit. Assess. 167, 185–197. Available at:
http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10661-009-1041-3.
Valdés J., Román D., Rivera L., Ávila J. and Cortés P. (2011) Metal contents in coastal waters of
San Jorge Bay, Antofagasta, northern Chile: a base line for establishing seawater quality
guidelines. Environ. Monit. Assess. 183, 231–242. Available at:
http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10661-011-1917-x.
Valdés J. and Sifeddine A. (2009) Composición elemental y contenido de metales en sedimentos
marinos de la bahía Mejillones de Sur, Chile: evaluación ambiental de la zona costera. Lat.
Am. J. Aquat. Res. 37, 131–141. Available at:
http://www.lajar.cl/pdf/imar/v37n2/Articulo_37_2_2.pdf.
Valdés J., Sifeddine A., Boussafir M. and Ortlieb L. (2014b) Redox conditions in a coastal zone
of the Humboldt system (Mejillones, 23° S). Influence on the preservation of redox-
sensitive metals. J. Geochemical Explor. 140, 1–10. Available at:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0375674214000041.
Valdés J. and Tapia J. S. (2019) Spatial monitoring of metals and As in coastal sediments of
northern Chile: An evaluation of background values for the analysis of local environmental
conditions. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 145, 624–640. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.06.036.
Valdés J., Vargas G., Sifeddine A., Ortlieb L. and Guiñez M. (2005) Distribution and enrichment
evaluation of heavy metals in Mejillones Bay (23°S), Northern Chile: Geochemical and
statistical approach. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 50, 1558–1568. Available at:
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0025326X05002717.
Vargas G., Pérez S. and Aldunce P. (2018) Aluviones y resiliencia en Atacama. Construyendo saberes
sobre riesgos y desastres., Social-Ediciones. Available at:
https://repositorio.uchile.cl/handle/2250/170281.
Walker J. A., Moulds T. N., Zentilli M. and Feigenson M. D. (1991) Spatial and temporal
variations in volcanics of the Andean Central Volcanic Zone (26 to 28°S). In Geological
Society of America Special Paper 256: Andean Magmatism and Its Tectonic Setting pp. 139–156.
Available at: https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/405/chapter/3797878/.
Weis D. (2016) Lead. In Encyclopedia of Geochemistry: A Comprehensive Reference Source on the Chemistry
of the Earth (ed. W. M. White). Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–3. Available at:
http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-39193-9_292-1.
Winter J. D. (2014) Principles of Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. 2nd Ed., Pearson Prentice Hall.
Yang H., Battarbee R. W., Turner S. D., Rose N. L., Derwent R. G., Wu G. and Yang R. (2010)

43
 Historical Reconstruction of Mercury Pollution Across the Tibetan Plateau Using Lake
Sediments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44, 2918–2924. Available at:
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/es9030408.
Yu S., Hong B., Ma J., Chen Y., Xi X., Gao J., Hu X., Xu X. and Sun Y. (2017) Surface sediment
quality relative to port activities: A contaminant-spectrum assessment. Sci. Total Environ.
596–597, 342–350. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.04.076.

44