Politics

The Enlightenment has long been seen as the foundation of modern Western political and
intellectual culture.[47] The Enlightenment brought political modernization to the West, in terms
of introducing democratic values and institutions and the creation of modern, liberal
democracies. This thesis has been widely accepted by scholars and has been reinforced by the
large-scale studies by Robert Darnton, Roy Porter, and, most recently, by Jonathan Israel.[48][49]
Enlightenment thought was deeply influential in the political realm. European rulers such as
Catherine II of Russia, Joseph II of Austria, and Frederick II of Prussia tried to apply
Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as enlightened
absolutism.[14] Many of the major political and intellectual figures behind the American
Revolution associated themselves closely with the Enlightenment: Benjamin Franklin visited
Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and
brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia; Thomas Jefferson closely followed European
ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of
Independence; and Madison incorporated these ideals into the U.S. Constitution during its
framing in 1787.[50]

Theories of government