Communication derived from the Latin word communis.

That process of transferring thoughts,

feelings or information from one person to another.

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Communication is the process of transferring thoughts, feelings or information from one person
to another.(G.A Bennars, J.E Otieno Boister .R, J.A.1994)

It is the exchanging information and the transmission of meaning. (Okumbe .J.A.1998)

It is the process of exchanging information between people through symbols, signs or behavior.

Communication involves both transference and understanding of meaning. This then means that
it can occur where two or more persons are involved.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

There are largely 4 types of communication

1. Verbal communication.

This is the oldest way of transferring information or messages from one person to another by
word of mouth. Announcements by senior to junior staff and commands and directives by word
of mouth and all forms of verbal communication.

2. Non-verbal Communication.

This is a type of communication from one person to another without the use of spoken word. It is
illustrated by the use of tonal variations, posture, slamming the door, wadding or shaking the
head, clapping hand and frowning. (Facial expressions).

Non-verbal communications are almost indications of motives, feelings and sentiments. They are
reaction to something which has affected our feelings.

3. Written Words.

All forms of written materials fall under this category. They include newsprint, books,
magazines, letter written, circulars, memoranda and posters.

4. Electronic Devices.

Various types of electronic devices for communication are quite recent developments in the
process of communication. They include radio, television, telephone, video, cassettes and tapes.

The greatest advantage of these methods of communication is that the messages are sent very
fast to many people across the word.
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is the process which involves several elements.

It is these elements that express what happens when one is passing on an idea to another person.
In all case the process begins with

-The source and ends up with the receiver or respondent.

These elements are:-

a) The source / sender: This is the originator of the message. He encodes the message by
translating ideals into a systematic set of symbols or language.

b) The channel / medium: This is the medium through which the message is transmitted. It
refers to the method/methods used to deliver the message. It is either formed, when it is
established by the organizational structure or informed, when it is established by the
organizational structure or informal, when it is not the official medium.

c) Decoding the message: This is making sense of the message transmitted. The receiver attaches
the meaning to the meaning so that the intention is fully understood.

d) The receiver /audience/respondent-this is any person who receives, decodes, comprehends and
attaches meaning to the communication.

e)Feedback- This a feedback from the receiver in return to any communication. It forms the final
link in the process of communication. It takes the form of verbal response, gesturing, questioning
or no response at all.

f) Noise –These are any factors or detractors that interfere with the exchange of the message or
the communication process. Noise is classified into;

• Physical noise e.g shouting, noise from equipment among others.

• Physiological noise e.g hearing disorder, hunger, Illness among others.
• Psychological noise e.g anxiety, emotions, hostility among others

g) Environment - this refers to the place and time that communication takes place. It influences
the way we act towards others e.g one can change posture, manner of speaking or attire.

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

A simplified communication process consists of the sender or communicator who encodes and
sends a message to a receiver. The receiver decodes it and responds in some ways either verbally
or behaviorally. The sender encodes the message by translating ideas into a system set of
symbols or language. The encoded message is affected in four ways;
 1. If the source doesn’t have a requisite skills. Then the message will not reach the receiver
in the form required.
2. The attitude of the sender will influence their behaviour since different people hold
predispositions of ideas on various topics or issues.
3. The knowledge source about the topic affects the encoded message. The message will be
affected by both too little and too much knowledge.
4. The sociocultural system within which the source operates will affect the encoded
message. This is because the beliefs and values people attach to ideas are influenced by
their sociocultural background. The transmitted message is then decoded by the receiver
when he/she interprets it, the receivers decoding ability depends on his/her skills,
knowledge and the sociocultural system. The message is the actual, physical product
from the source. The message transmit is affected by the code or group of symbols we
use to transfer meaning. The content of the message itself and the decisions. The source
makes in selecting and arranging both codes and the contents. The message passes
through a channel which would either be formal or informal. Feedback is the final link
in the communication process. It helps in evaluating how successful. The message has
been transmitted as was originally intended.

There are 3basic types of feedback:

• Informational
• Corrective
• Reinforcing

Information feedback: The receiver simply provides information to the source.

Corrective feedback: The receiver responds by giving his/her opinion about the message.

Reinforcing feedback: The receiver acknowledges the receipt of the message of responding
either positively (if the message is good) or negatively (if the message is bad).

Lastly there is Noise which interferes with the smooth flow of the communication process.
Effective communication depends on our understanding of the dynamics underlying the
communication process. Due the complex nature of the communication it is usually presented in
a modern form in order to understand the relationship between the various elements.

A model in this case can be defined as a simplified diagrammation representation of a

complicated or abstract phenomenal
THE PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

1. Cummunication is a process.

It has to be initiated from a source onto a respondent. Once communication is made it exists in
its original form. This original form is known as the maiden form. Once communication is made
one cannot claim to make the same maiden communication a second time. Should this happen
atleast some elements of that communication will change. Therefore the communication
becomes a different one. Communication as a process is a concept whose critical element is the
changing nature of its occurrence and therefore change is its characteristic. To characterize the
process nature of communication David Mortenson describes it as:-

1. Dynamic meaning that it changes and moves forward at the same time

2. Interractive meaning that communication occurs between two or more people.

3. Proactive meaning that communication produces result that can make a difference.

4. Irreversible meaning that once a message has been communicated it cannot be erased. It is an
event which has occurred and must be allowed.

5. Contextual meaning that communication makes sense and is only understood in the
surrounding in which it occurs. The meaning of the message may be different depending on who
or where said

2. Communication is Involvement.

It does not occur in a vacuum. It involves the sender, the receiver, the process and the
environment. Hence there must be a willing sender and a willing receiver and a common ground
for communication to take place.

3. Communication Ethics.

This has important effect on both the short and the long term of communication. Hence one must
uphold ethical behavior in communication which includes:

• Being honest with facts.

• Respecting your own and others integrity.
• One must have concern for one’s own and others welfare when communicating.
4. Clarification of goals of communication.

We must be clear of our objectives in communication. A well stated goal has the following
characterizes.

• They are clear and precise.

• They are simply stated.
• They are reasonably achievable.
• They are audience based.
• They are concise.

5. The purpose of Communication.

This determines the content that every communication should be clear about the purpose of the
communication and once this is determined only the content that serves the purpose should be
communication.

6. Mastery of content.

One must know and understand the subject and the methods of communication well enough in
order to be effective. Good mastery of content will be of use if the method is in appropriately
applied.

7. The communicator’s personality and experience

This modifies and shapes the message in any one communication because communication arises
out of experience. The more experienced one is the more flexible and versatile he/she becomes.
This is because experience determines what is important and worth considering in any given
situation.

8. The communicator’s image of the Audience and understanding the of the message.

Contextually the gravity of the message will depend on by whom and where because some
contextual features affect the outcome of the message more than others.

9. A source communication with multiple audiences in making occasions. This is so because all
people are different and as such there are many audiences as there are people. It is important
therefore to note that the source will at time communicate to the intended and unintended
audience. A factor that affect the perception of the message because the two groups are different
in purpose.
10. Communication increase commitment.

To raise or reduce a person’s commitment to various aspects of life one requires communication.
By stating our position publicly one increase commitment to it and y so doing we reduce
opposition to the position stated.

11. Principle of perceived and Actual feedback controls the shaping of the message in all
interpersonal encounters which maybe of either of the following ways.

a)Verbal -either intentional or overheard .

b) Body language

c) Para Language.

The Purpose and Importance of Communication.

1. The primary goal of communication is to transfer information to participant in such a way that
maximum amount of the message is understood and retained.

2. Communication skills help one share ideas and experiences, find at about things than interest
than express oneself.

3. Communication also helps one develop verbal and non-verbal skills which are essential in the
expression of feeling and lusights.

4. It enables one make themselves known to others build friendships and create other types of
satisfying relationships.

5. It helps us recognize variable comprehend and internalize them inorder to make informed
decision about our work and social lives.

6.It helps to control the behavior of staff in an organization for instance it is through
communication that such staff are inducted into the various aspect of their jobs and other
organizational and employment regulations.

7. Communication provides a release for the emotional expression of feeling and for fulfillment
of social needs of inclusion control and affection through it people in an organization show their
satisfaction or share their feelings of frustrations with both their work related activities and social
aspect of their lives.

8. Through written communication, speech work and advertisements as means of communication

people can be influenced or persuaded to choose certain ideas, goods or services in preferences
to others that are offer
Factors Affecting Communication

1. Self Image:

Self image determines how an individual values themselves and consequently how that affects
one owns communication . High self-esteem leach to feelings of self worth, confidence, and
adequacy. Hence enhancing communication.

i. High esteem allows one to:

ii. Express positive and negative feelings.
iii. Handle criticism
iv. Manage conflict
v. Confront challenges.

Low self-esteem on the other hand leach to inferiority. Low self worth and difficulties in
communication .This condition hinders a person‘s ability to:

• Express themselves
• Accept themselves
• Accept constructive criticism.
• Admit wrong doings or failure.

2. Clarity of expression:

For communication to occur one must use clear expressions to state what they want to state.

3. Listening:

NB; There is more than hearing in listening because it is an intellectual and emotional process
that decode physical and emotional input in search of meaning and understanding. Very few
people are good listeners. Thus contributing to the observation that 75% of oral communication
is misunderstood or often quickly forgotten.

4. Managing feelings:

Many people have difficulties in communication because they cannot handle their feelings or
emotions. To correct this people should be aware of their emotions, accept them and balance
them with other aspects of their lives.
5. Willingness to learn:

This enables communicators to learn others, their style of communication and about themselves.
In this case the communication exercise is the potential learning experience which effective
communicators use in order to correct their mistakes and develop new ways of communicating.

6. Self disclosure is the ability to talk openly truthfully and fully about oneself in order to
enhance communication. It is a mutual process where a person is willing to disclose to another
person when appropriate.

NB: The more two people know about each other the more effective and efficient can be.

Inorder to facilitate and understand the interpersonal communication process Joseph Luff and
Harrington Ingham came up with the concept of johari (Johari) window as illustrated.

JOHARI WINDOW (JOE HARRY=JOHARI)

OPEN to public and self and BLIND

others (Unknown self

HIDDEN UNKNOWN
To others but known to self To self and others

NB:

a)OPEN Window-this represents shared information i.e feelings and information that a person
has disclosed.

b) Blind window-this represents those traits of a person that are known to others but not to self
e.g behaviour, maunerisms.

c) HIDDEN window –represents the self that one doesn’t want to share with others e.g anxieties
(fears)

d) UNKNOWN Window- These are the traits that are unknown to all i.e the self and others for
e.g unexplored potential, the uncurious needs, hidden motivations.
VALUES OF SELF DISCLOSURE

1. It is a symptom of healthy personality.

2. It reduces stress and other physical illnesses
3. It helps nurture peace in a person.
4. It is vital to mental health.
5. It leads to understanding and enhancement of interpersonal relationships.
6. It leads to self discovery

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

Distortion – the deliberate alternation of a message as it passes from one person to another.

There are many barriers among them:

1. Distortion – This refers to the alliteration of the message as it passes from one point to
another in the communication channel.

It arises as a result of imprecise language, misinterpretation of the message, social distance

between the sender and the receiver and poor choice of symbols and channel. Distortion of a
message can also occur by design when people do not want to either heal the message or be party
to bad news.

2. Filtering – is the process by where the sender manipulate the information so that it can be
received more favourably by the receiver, sometimes the subordinates filter the information so
the superiors can only know the positive things happening in an organization if an origination
has many hierarchical levels, then the intensity of filtering is quite high.

3. Omission – This occurs when only part of the intended message is passed onto the receiver.
People may omit part of the message either because they fear the retributive consequences of
their mistakes or because they are unable to grasp the entire message.

4. Selective Perception - This occurs when receiver selectively see and hear based on their
motivation experience and background and other personal characteristics.

5. Timeless – Message stimulate action it is therefore important that the transmission of a

message be well timed in order that appropriate action be taken promptly by the receive.

6. Language – The communication language should take into account. The disparities between
people or group in an organization. Language influence by age, education and the cultural
background of both the sender and receiver.

7. Self Image – High self esteem leach to feelings of self worth, confidence and adequacy
consequently leaching to good communication. Low self esteem leads to inferiority, low self
worth and difficulty in conversation.
8. Listening - Poor listening results to inability to decode the message transmitted by the sender
hence hindering communication. This message transmitted is misunderstood or forgotten.

9. Managing Feelings – Many people have difficulties in communication because they cannot
handle their feelings or emotions. People should therefore be aware of their emotions, accept
them and balance them with other aspects of their lives.

GUIDELINES TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

1. Use language that is understandable to both the sender and the receiver. Words and signs used
in both verbal and non-verbal communication must be familiar.

2. Timing is important in communication- Once decisions have been made those involved for
implementing must be informed In time.

3. Leaking office messages prematurely is wrong – find a convenient time for declaring or
passing official information.

4. Understanding the receivers’ response is important before action or communication can be

taken.

ORGANISATION COMMUNICATION

This refers to communication that takes place among groups of people within organizations. In
organizational communication. There are 3 general directions in which a message can flow.
There are:

1. Downward communication
2. Upward communication
3. Horizontal/lateral communication

DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION

This is used to direct and influence activities of staff who occupy the lower hierarchical levels. It
is superior-subordinate communication type. Downward communication helps managers to:

a) Give specific task directives about job instructions.

b) Give information about organizational procedure and practices
c) Tell the staff about their performance.
d) Help in the socialization of the staff.

UPWARD COMMUNICATION

This is used by managers to receive feedback from subordinate staff. It helps managers to know
what the various people in the organization feel about it in terms of both progress areas requiring
improvement. Some examples of upward communication include.
 a) Performance reports by heads of department and others occupying lower cadres
(positions).
b) Grievance procedures for collective bargaining agreements.
c) Suggestion boxes.
d) Employee attitude surveys.

Horizontal / Lateral communication

This is the type of communication which takes place among members of work groups at the
same level. It is used co-ordinating activities between departments and units. It is very important
in any organization because it helps departments or departmental heads to co-ordinate tasks,
solve problems, share information and resolve conflicts.

READING SKILLS

Reading is the process of constructing meaning through the dynamics interaction among:

• The readers existing knowledge.

• The information suggested by the written language
• The context of the reading situation

We have several objectives of reading:

- To acquire information
- To get instructions
- To broaden our general knowledge
- To be informed among other things.

Purpose for Reading.

The following are some of the important purpose of communication:

-Reading for pleasure of entertainment especially when we read novels, storybooks, newspapers,
cartoons, or other light reading materials. This kind of reading helps a person to relax while at
the same time get informed.

-Reading for general information- This is intended to get one to acquire as much information as
possible, hence know how to survive in different situations.

-Reading for instructions or direction- This is common in the western world that is fast catching
up with the lifestyle in the developing world. People today are appropriately using goods they
buying by reading the directions that are attached to every consumer package.
-Reading for Academic Purpose – For one to be an achiever in the scholarly world they have to
be effective readers. Through reading one acquires mastery of knowledge, the ability to do
library research and report on the report on the project one is conducting.

NB/: Effective reading involves interpretation and understanding in order to make sense of what
one reads. Remember that the meaning one reader may put in a piece of reading is determined by
such factors as:

- Ones background.
- Experience of the subject.
- Emotional appeal of the subject.
- The readers’ intellectual ability.

Types of Reading.

The style of reading one adopts will depend on factors as:

- The purpose of reading

- The individual’s intellectual skill
- The ability to understand and interpret what on reads

The following are some of types of reading.

a. SURVEY- This means to scan the main parts of the text you are going to read. It includes
looking at the title, headings of paragraphs, introduction and conclusion and any extra
information that may be represented in boxes on the page. It involves taking a general view in
determining the relevance of the reading materials and whether the materials will serve the
purpose for which reading is designed. Doing this give one some basic understanding of what the
text is about and helps them know what to expect when they read in more detail. Surveying helps
the reader satisfy the following questions:

1. Is the material relevant to the topic am interested in?

2. Is all of the relevant or only part of it? Which part?
3. Is the material by a reputable writer whose judgment can be trusted?
4. Is the material up to date? When was it published?
5. Is the material too far above or far below the level being studied?
b. SKIMMING – This is quickly running one’s eyes across a whole text to get the gist. It is used
when a reader wants to get a quick glimpse of the text within a short time. It gives the readers the
advantage of being able to predict the purpose of the passage or the main topic.

c. SCANNING – The mean quickly searching for some particular pieces of information I a text.
It is rapid search of important information in a given reading material. The tendency is to ignore
all the other information except the one of interest. The purpose of it is to extract certain specific
information without reading the whole text.

d. Light reading –This is the type of reading that we can apply when reading papers and novels
for leisure. It doesn’t involve any article assessment or appraisal of the material one is reading. It
is normally fast and superficial.

e. Word by word reading -This is a style used by beginners reading when they are reading for
the first time and in attempt to understand each word at a time.

f. Intensive Reading – It is a concentrated through and comprehensive reading style. It is used

when one want to understand the contents of the reading deeply. It is intellectually involving.
Since the reader will be trying to evaluate how the ideas involved could be applied or adapted to
different situations. It is also analytical and interpretive.

d. Extensive Reading –This means reading widely in order to gain knowledge in as broad a field
as possible. In this type of reading one doesn’t have to read for academic purposes, rather one
reads out of interest and therefore is not restricted subject wise.

Efficient reading

For one to be an efficient reader they must develop good reading habit. These are the habits that
enable a reader to read with comprehension effectively. An efficient reader avoids the following
bad reading habits.

1. Trying to understand every word that you read and consulting. The dictionary from time to
time as you read, this habit interferes with comprehension and slow one down as they read.
Whenever they stop to check the word in the dictionary.
2. Vocalisation. (Sounding out) or moving the lips as you read. This will slow your reaching to
speaking pace and as a result make you an ineffient reader.

3. Retrogression – This means reading forward and backwards. This will hinder your
comprehension and reading speed.

4. Pointing the text you are reading with a finger or pencil to help the eye movement is not only
slow by also clumpsy.

THE SQ3R SCHEMA OF READING

The SQ3R scheme of reading would help learners to pick what they need from written text,
record it and be able to remember and use it at an appropriate time. It helps them be actively
involved in the reading process in order to understand most effectively. The letters SQ3R stand
for the following reading activities:

S-Survey -) Through it one is able to select reading material appropriate for one’s purpose.

Q-Question -) Most often people read first and then look at the question at the end of the text.
This is not the best way to read. If possible read questions provided for you first. This will help
you know what specific information to look for.

Question are designed to focus on the main points, Therefore if you read to answer these
question you will be focusing on the main points in the text. This will help you read a goal in
mind, that of answering specific questions –

1st R-Read-) Once you have an idea of what the text is about and what the main points might be,
start reading. You are at liberty to disagree or alter or give your own view about /of what you
have read. In this you can follow suggestions.

• Do not use a dictionary the first time through the text.

• Try to understand as much as you can from the context.
• Makes notes as you read.
• Make note of places you don’t understand or the words that era under.
• Go through the text a second time.
• Try to answer the question:
2ndR-Recite -) Writing down the answer to questions from the text and saying that these answers
will help you remember the information. One good way to do this is to discuss the information
with a friend. Try summerise the main points you have learned from the reading and add to
knowledge from the comments and responses of the person you are talking with.

3rdR-Review-)Inorder to remember information its important to review weeks later.This means to

go over something again.This will help you keep the information fresh in your mind especially
when faced with an inpending examination.

a.) Efficient reaching will involve the following in the part of the reader
Awareness- Do not treat the books you read as the same thing.Be aware of the type of
material you are reaching so that you don’t read irrelevant material.
b.) Adapt- The way you read should be adjusted for the type of book you read .Don’t start
reaching until you have decided the book is suitable.Switch your style of reaching to suit
the task before hand. If you are to adapt to intensive reading when reading for academics
and light reading for entertainment.
c.) Purpose- Decide the reason for reading the book before you begin be prepared to
concentrate and take water.
d.) Selection- Choose your reading material carefully. Choose the types of books which will
be of most use to you.
e.) Switching –Switching from one way of reading to another when it is necessary.This is
very useful when selecting books or doing research for a project.

STUDY READING SKILLS

1. Reading Materials

They are different types of books and reading matter. Help yourself by learning to spot the
differences. Notice the differences between books for beginners, intermediate and advanced
levels. Choose reading materials to suit your level of study levels.

2. Concentration

If you are new to study start out with short periods of reading. Have a break between each period
of reading .This will prevent you becoming tired and therefore you will remember more.
3. Take notes

Always read with a pencil in hand. Make notes or even summary of what you have read. Always
make a note of anything that strikes as interesting.

4. Efficiency

Try to avoid back skipping whilst reading. This is the habit of letting your eye jump back to
earlier passages.

5. Lighting

Always read with a strong light shining on to the page. Reading in poorly lit rooms will make
you become drowsy. You might also develop eye strain and headaches.

6. Summarizing

Summarize the content of each topic read. Make a list of the principal issues or events. Write
your own comment on the book if it is yours.

Make notes on the contents as you go away.

7. Selection

Be selective in your use of background reading materials. Go to library and preview the books
you want to use. Skim read your selections and only chooses these which are going to be useful.
Reject any which are not directly related to your subject.

8. Thoroughness- Study one or two books thoroughly is better than looking quickly at several.
Reading carefully will make you gain deep understanding of the subject.

9. Memorising -if you need to memorise –make outline notes and draw up a list of essential
tops. This can be used to remind you during revision. Making people remember things better
when they write them down.

10. Multiple Reading- Some subjects require multiple reading of the book. You might be
following by a thorough reading in detail. One strategy of thorough reading is called SQ3R.
LIBRARY

A library can be defined as a place where people can access information. Libraries can be
categorized into several types dependent on

a) Target Group where we have

Academic library

Target Public library

Special library

b) Technology- whereby we have traditional or conventional libraries which deal with

printed forms of resources and digital libraries which deals with e-formatted resource (e-
electronic)

Traditional/convention libraries

Technology

Digital Libraries

ROLES OF A UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

• It is a reservoir of recorded knowledge.

• It provides learners with technics for accessing vital information.
• It helps in organizing information in a local order so that learners can retrieve it will ease.
• Libraries provide users friendly atmosphere where learning can take place without the
influence of external detractors.
• Facilitates acquisition and ********* of learning materials to learners
What do you find in a Library

Library materials fall under a broad categories

a) Reference materials
b) Call materials

Reference Materials are those materials which library users are not allowed taking away from
the library. They may be books, magazines and unpublished manuscripts or any other
publications which must read from the library. Other publications of which the library doesn’t
have many copies but which are in high demand are also kept in the reference section of the
library. I addition a library may choose to keep some kind of literature in a special reference
section called Africana Section. Library materials in this section are especially useful where one
wants to find material for a research paper.

Call Materials There are those which you may borrow and take away to use at home. They are
usually kept in the open shelves. However when you have time to read in the library you can
read your call materials and leave them there if you do not find it necessary to continue reading
them at home.

THE LIBRARY CLASIFICATION SYSTEMS

In order for a reader to find their source materials easily and quickly, libraries use known
classification systems to organize materials. They use definite internationally acknowledged
methods for arranging their materials. These classifications systems are called Index systems.
There are 2 kind of library classification system, namely:

a) The Dewey Decimal System which gets its name from its inventor melvil Dewey. It employs
the decimal system (or base ten systems) in which numbers are expressed by the combinations of
the ten digits ranging from 0-9 as follows

G 000 – 099 General

P 100 – 199 Philosophy and psychology

R 200 - 299 Religion

S 300 - 399 Social sciences

L 400 - 499 Language

S 500 - 599 Science

A 600 -699 applied science and useful arts

F 7 00 - 799 Fine arts

L 8 00 -899 Literature

H 900 -999 History

b) The history of congress classification system.

This divides knowledge into roughly 18 major classes. The subject areas are shown by letters e.g
A, B, C, D e.t.c as follows.

A- General works
B- Philosophy and Religion
C-
D-
E- History C-F History
F-
G-
H- Geography
I- Social sciences
J- Political science
K- Political science
L- Law
M- Education
N- Music
O- Fine art
 P- Language and literature

Q- Science

R-Medicine

S-Agriculture

T-Technology and engineering

U-Military science

V-Naval science

Z-Bibliography and library science

THE LIBRARY CATALOGUE

A catalogue is a list of books in a particular library arranged according to some definite plan.
Its purpose is to enable one find a book if they have any of the following information :

a. Name of the author

b. The title of the book
c. The subject

Library catalogues usually exist in the form of cards. The catalogue cards are arranged in trays
with some indication of which cards are to be found in each tray. There are two types of library
catalogues, namely:

i. The author title catalogue

ii. The subject title catalogue

Information found on a catalogue card

The card gives the following information

• The name of the author or editor

• The call number indicating what subject the book is about-the number is also
important as a shelf mark to show the location of the book in the library.
 • The title
• Where it was published, the name of the publisher and the date of the publication.
• Number of pages-if you see for example (1*299) it means the book has 9
introductory pages and 299 pages of main text.

NB: - The Author title cards are arranged in one alphabetical sequence A-Z.

- The difference between the Author title catalogues and subject title catalogues is that
with title catalogues, the title comes before the author. For example.

BT Ahizer,Thomas, J.J
Author
83.5 The Gospel of Christian Atheism, London.
Title A43 Collins,1967
catalogues
157 P
1. Death of God Theology, I. Title.

Subject Death of God Theology

BT AHizer , Thomas, JJ
TitleCatalogue
83.5 The Gospel of Christian Atheism, London
A43 Collins, 1967
1. Death of God Theology, I. Title.

THE LIBRARY SEEVICES

1. General Reading information. materials can be offered which comprise mainly of text books
and Audio visual information materials which may be offered for use outside the library
premises.

2. Reference collection. These are materials for use in the library only.
3. Serials. These are the journals and other periodical publications arranged alphabetically by
title in the library. The Daily newspapers are also located in this section. All bound serials ARE
NOT for borrowing and should only be read in the library.

4. Short loan collection- Thee comprise of books selected by lecturers in consultation with
library staff. They are books which are considered to be in great demand too few to satisfy the
heavy demand of the user, so they are loaned on short periods of time.

5. Africana Collection- This stock compromise of materials written by researchers for example
thesis and other rare collections. These unique materials are borrowed but only read in the
library.

6. Audio Visual Information Materials - This is a collection of non-book information materials

such as cassettes, CD’s, video tapes e.t.c.

7. Seating Facility – The library provides a conducive environment suitable for reading and also
offers facilities to enable user’s comfortable utilization of the materials.

8. Training – The library provides education and training in the form of user education and
information skills acquisition to facilitate users maximum exploitation of the library resources.

Others Services

1. Lending services which include lending resource sharing quick reference, specialized research
and access to information technology.

2. Recall of information materials on loan.

3. Renewal of borrowed information material.

4. Reservation.

5. Resource sharing

6. Reprographic services.

7. Electronic services.
Some Bad Habits You Need To Avoid.

1. Noise Making- does disturb serious people with work to do in the library by pushing desk
around or engaging in noisy conversations with other idle friends.

2. Selfish use of books and publications- some library users are notorious for pulling out papers
or even whole books chapters. That are crucial in a subject they are studying. Some have a habit
of making marks in books by underlining parts of them or making personal comments on the
margins. Some others have a habit of hiding library books by putting them at some place where a
person guided by the index from the catalogue cannot find them. All this is very unkind to other
readers.

3.Trying to steal library materials-does not only expose you to the risk of losing your library
membership, It can also expose you to the bigger risk of going to jell for theft or attempted theft
which can put an end to you studies altogether.

How To Document Your Sources (REFERENCING)

As student and scholars the assignment and the work we produce are based on the work of
others. What we write uses information we find in textbooks, journals, the internet, lecturer notes
and in talking with other people. As students we are obliged to acknowledge these sources of
information and ideas. If we do not it will be dishonest for us. Scholars use systematic methods
to acknowledge their sources. These include:

• Modern language association (MLA)

• The America psychological association (APA)
• The Harvard citation system.

A scholar can use any of those to cite in text or bibliographically

The APA in-Text Documentation

In APA system only the author’s last name is used in the document a whole and within in –text
citations in particular.
*If the author’s name is mentioned in the text most often an author’s last or surname appears in
the text with the date (year) of publication following in parenthesis.

Example Mwachiduda (1957) provides a practical detailed approach to job hunting.

* When the author’s name doesn’t appear in the text itself it appears in the parenthetical citation
followed by a coma and the date of publication.

Example interactive fiction permits readers to more freely through a text and to participate in its
authorship. (Mwachiduda ,1957) or (Bolter, 2001).

NB: If you cite the same source a second time without a paragraph, the year of publication may
be omitted.

*When a work has two authors always cite both names every time the source is cite the text.

Example Nzoki and wambua (1993) define a team as a small number of people without
complimentary skills.(p.45)

NB: If the authors names appear in the text itself connect those names with the word And

However if the authors names appear parenthetically connect them with an ampersand (₰) .

Example A team is defined as a small number of people with complementary skills who are
committed to a common purpose (Nzoki and Wambua 1993, P.45)

*When you cite for the first time a work with 3, 4 or 5 authors cite all authors.

Example Cogdill, Fanderdai, Kilborn and Williams (2001) argue that making back channel
overtly available for study.

Again if the authors appear parenthetically rather than in the text itself connect the final two
names with a coma and an ampersand. In all subsequent citations includes only the name of the
first author followed by et al (Latin for and others)

Example Cogdill et al(2001) assert that….” (P.109)

*If a work has 6 or more authors cite the last name of the author followed by et al in all citations.
Example Adkin et.al (2001) studied the use of collaborative technology during a multinational
civil-military exercise.

*If a document includes sources by 2 authors with the same last name, include the first and
middle initiate of each author in all text citations.

Example R.P. Allen (1994) and D.N. Allen (1998) have both studied the effects of email
monitoring in the workplace.

*When citing 2 or more sources by different authors within the same citation, place the authors
names in parenthesis in alphabetical order followed by the year of publication and separated by a
semi colon.

Example Hyper text significantly changes the process of information retrieval. (Bolter 2001;
Bush 1945; London 1997)

*If no author is identified use an abbreviated title instead followed by the date. Use quotation
marks around articles or chapter titles and underline book, periodical, brochure and report titles.

Example the use of customer Relationship management (CRM) systems has grown substantially
over the past five years as companies attempt to adapt to customer needs and improve their
profitability (making CRM work)

*If the quotation is long (40 words or more) it should be formatted as a block and the parenthesis
should appear after the final punctuation mark.

Example

Bolles (2001) argues that the most effective job hunting method is what he calls the creative job
hunting approach; figuring out your best skills and favorite knowledge and the searching any
employer that interests you before approaching. That organization and arranging through your
contacts, to see the person there who has the power to hire you for the position you are interested
in. This method faithfully followed leads to a job for 86 out of 100 job hunters who try it. (O. 57)
Treatment of N on-recoverable And Recoverable Electronic Sources

Non-recoverable.

Personal communication (letters, interviews, e-mail) these are cited in the text of the paper rather
than in the reference list at the end. Provide the initials ad the last name of the author. When
citing an email or latter. Provide the date the communication was sent. When citing an interview
provides the date the interview occurred.

Example

Letter – J.M. Mwenda (letter to the editor, Nov 17, 2000) notes misapplication as the source of
poor product results.

G. Eshiwani (personal interviews, March 3rd, 2001) indicated that an environmental task force is
being established to evaluate the most pressing problem and strategies for address them.

Recoverable Electronic Sources

When citing recoverable electronic sources in text for example sources that have an internet
address use the author – date method. Also when quoting or paraphrasing source materials from
an internet source include either the paragraph number or (n.p) for no page, directly following
the quote or the paraphrase.

Example Wigand and mwaruta. (1995) predict an evolution from manufacturer controlled value
chains to electronic markets (n. p) .

NB: When quotating or citing from the internet remember to include the date the information

Example : Ali (2009) the library Date retrieved 22nd October 2009

http//:library of congress system.com.

Punctuation with an APA.

Books:

The author sur name is written followed by a coma then the first name or initials.
Example: Mwashangaza, E. (1990)

The year of publication can be written after the author’s name or after the publisher.

Example: Athman, A. (2009) River Between. Mombasa: East Africa publishers.

Don’t capitalize preposations.

After the title the town of publication follows. The first letter of the name of the town most be
capitalized. The name is followed by a full colon e.g Nairobi:

Publisher: After the colon the name of the publisher of the book follows. This is followed by a
fullstop.e.g. Nairobi: cana publishers.

Punctuating titles of Articles

NB: Articles in periodicals or magazines are presented in a similar manner as a book titles.
However since the article that appear in the periodicals are edited by other people, we must also
show;

a) The title of the periodical and the title of the article.

b) The author of the article and the editor of the periodical.

Example:

Chuan, L. (2003). “Chinese Herbal Medicine,” in parents no. 2002, 15 Nairobi: Stellah Consult
ltd

Rehal, M. (2004). “Reining I Defiant children,” in Eve no. 28, 58,-59, Nairobi: Oakland Media.

The Harvard Citation System.

a) Books

Begins with name of author or authors, year of publication, title of books, publisher, city

Example
Buress, N. (2007). Good study Pearson Education Sydney.

Wallace A, Schirato T and Bright P. (1999) Beginning University:

Thinking, Researching and Writing for success, Allen and Union, St. Leonard’s, NSW.

NB: The state or county should be provided for a relatively unknown place of publication.

b) Work other than a first edition

Begin with author, year of publication, title of book, edition no. publisher, city in that order.

Example

Marshall, L$ Rolland F. 2006. A Guide to learning independently, 4th edition, Pearson

Education French forest, NSW.

c) Website

For websites includes whatever you can from the author site date, name and sponsor of date, date
of viewing and URL between brackets.

Example

Dobbie, G. (2003) National University of Singapore, accessed 3rd sept 2004 http://www.cdtl.
nus.edu.sg/huk/mar 2001/team l..ntm

d) Dictionaries and Reference work

Include the title, the year of publication, the publisher and where the work was published.

Example

Advanced English Dictionary (1999) Collins Glasgow United Kingdom.

e) Unpublished work such as Lecture Notes and Lectures

Name of author, date the note were given, title of the notes, the place or college the notes were
given.
Example

Mwawasi,B , 22nd October (2009) Harvard citation system. Kenya Methodist University
Mombasa campus.

f) Chapter or Article in an Edited Book

Begin with Author, year of publication, chapter title in book edited, title of book, edited number
(unless it is the first publication / edited), publisher, city and the page numbers.

Example

1. Puruis R 1994 “Writing Essays “ in D Saunders (edu) making the grade Blackwell,
Oxford pp 141-53.
2. Watts M 2006 “team Term Papers and Presentations” in W.E Becker,, M Watts and SR
Becker (edu) Teaching Economics: more Alternatives to chalk and talk, Edward Elgar,
Cheltenham, U.K, PP150-70.

g) Book With No Author Indication

Begin with the title of the book, edition number (unless it is the first edition) the year, publisher,
city.

Example

Style Manual for author, Editor, Printers 6th Edition 2002

REV, Snoops and company (Snoops and co.) John Witey and Sous New York.

h) E-Book

Begin with author, year, title of the book, publisher, date retrieved, name of database or URL in
brackets > (URL).

Example
 1. Gerwick CG 2007 Construction of marine and offshore structures, CRC Press retrieved
17 April 2008 Enguct Base database.
2. Waiver RK 200 Ending Welfare as we know it. Know it. Brookinds institution Press
retrieved 23rd may 2008 <http://Books.google.com/book?id=058 Rezone >

i) Journal Article.

Begin with Author, year, title of article in quotes. Title of journal, volume no. issue no., page
numbers.

Example

Clay G 2003 “Assignment Writing Skills,” Nursing standard Volume 17. No. 20, pp 47-52.

j) Journal Article retrieved Via Database.

Begin with author, year, and title of article in quotes, title of journal, volume no. issue no., page
numbers, date retrieved, and name of database.

Example

Roberts GE. (2004). Municipal Government Benefits Practices and Personal Outcomes: result
from a national survey, Public personal Management, vol 33, no. 1, pp1-22 retrieved 18th July
2004. Business source preming database.

k) Journal Article retrieved online (not from Data base)

Begin with the auther, the year, title of the article in quotes, volume number, issue number or
page or paragraph number (s) if available and the date retrieved and the URL in pointed triangles
(<URL>)

Example

Richardson J S (2004) “Content Area Literary Lessons Go Hi-Tech,”

Reading Online, vol and No., retrieved 1 st August 2004.

<www.readingonline.org/article/art-index asp? HREF/articles/richardson

l) Newspapers Articles with Authors

Bigin with author, the year, title of the article in single quotation marks, title of newspaper, day
month, page number (s).

Example

Mboga C (2009). “Dyslexics may take a different route but we get there in the end’ the standard,
13 April, p.15.

m) Newspaper Article retrieved from Database

Begin with author. The year, title of article in quote, title of newspaper ,day, month, page number
(s),date retrieved and the name of the database.

Example

Priest, A. (2007). “Expression of the interesting,” The Nairobi 10th October, p.34 retrieved 29th
April 2008 News bank Database.

n) Group or Organisation as Author

Give the name of group or organization, year of publication, the title, the publisher, the city.

Example

Kenya Bureau of statistics (2000). Labour mobility Kenya Government printer Nairobi.

o) Films, DVDs, Videos and CD-ROMs

Begin with the tile of the program, followed by the year, type of recording, producer, city in the
order.

Example

College writing made easy (2009) video recording Kenya Methodist University, Mombasa.

p) Television and Radio Programs

Begin with title of program, the year, type of recording, broadcaster, city and then date.
Example

Mother-in-law (2009) Television recording, citizen, Nairobi

Waridi (2009) Television program Citizen T.V Nairobi 4th August.

q) Work by the same Author Published in the Same Year

In your reference list order these works alphabetically according to the title of the work and use
the letters A,B,C (among others) after the publication date to distinguish between them in your
citations.

Example

1. Scutt J A 2003 a “future access-discrimination and the Disability Discrimination Act”

Access, vol-5.w.3 pp6-10.
2. Scutt JA 2003 b “without precedent: sex/Gender discrimination in the High Court
Alternative Law Journal Vol 28, no.2 pp74-77.

WRITING SKILLS

THE ART OF ESSAY WRITING

The word essay is defined as a literary composition usually prose and short on any subject. It is a
written composition giving expression to one’s own personal ideas or opinions on some topic.

An essay must be a unity, treating in an orderly manner of one subject. It should be concisely
written and not be too long (brevity). The style should be simple, direct and clear (concise). It
should have individuality or show the personal touch of the writer.

The Purpose of Writing

Thornton (1990) observed that mastery of the writing system is the greatest gift schools
(universities) can bestow on those who pass through them because it is upon the student’s ability
to write that judgments with the most important consequences are made:
 a) You quality as a student will be measured mainly through written academic work.
b) It is only through the way you write that other academisions can tell whether you are a
clear or poor thinker.
c) Writing involves interpretation. Discrimination between relevant and irrelevant ideas,
important and less important ideas, logical conclusion and generalizations among others.
The purpose of writing is thus to aid all this.
d) You writing is also a reflection of your reading habits. People who write well are usually
those who read well for a variety of purposes.

Features of Academic Writing

Since academic writing is such a formal activity; it is guided by certain standard conventions
(rules). Therefore students do not have the freedom to present ideas in any way they like. In
academic writing a student is expected to do the following:

i. Avoid such personal constructions such as I, you, He, She and Him. One should rely
more on the passive voice as opposed to the Active voice.
Example
• “It was found out” instead of saying “I found out”
• “ The research showed” instead of saying “my research showed”
ii. Avoid contracted forms of words.
Example
Write cannot instead of can’t or won’t, don’t etc
iii. Avoid slang collomialism .
Example
“The poor folks”
“The kids” instead of saying “The children”
“kudos to my university team”
iv. Use the preferred technical terms or jargon instead of general vocabulary.
v. Acknowledge the use of other writer’s ideas in your work.
Example. Mwawasi (2009) points out that…….”
vi. Develop mature arguments in your work as demonstration of serious academic writing.
vii. Be orderly and systematic in your presentation.
viii. Avoid wild proclamations and back all your claims with relevant and plausible data.

NB: Remember you are writing to academics-a very skeptical and difficult audience to convince
so your writing must be convincing.

HINTS ON ESSAY WRITING: Planning Your Essay

1. General Preparation: One of the chief difficulties people face in essay writing is lack of
subject matter to write about. However this may be corrected by reading and by training the
power of observation.

a) Reading: If you want to write good essay you must acquire a love of reading –not simply
reading stories for amusement but reading good books of history, travel biographies and science.
Fill your mind with fine thoughts and accurate information.

b) Observation – keep eyes and ears open and learn from your own experience. Practice writing
short descriptions of what you see in everyday life. Don’t be content with reading other’s people
descriptions of things but see them for yourself. It is surprising what a lot may be learnt from
personal observation.

c) Conversation – listens to peoples conversation, get them talk to you about the things they
know and discuss the subjects that interest you with your friends.

NB: A writer reads, observes and gets people to talk and in this ways he is always enriching his
mind with ideas and knowledge.

2. Special Preparation

a) Defining the Subject – Have clear and accurate information or conception of the subject of
the essay before you attempt to write on it.

b) Collecting Material

i. Subsection 1 – Reading up the subject > the next step will be to think of what you can say
about the subject you want to write about. Some essay may require special information hence
requiring one to do some special reading. One thus has to collect materials for the essay before
they can write about them.

ii. Jot down fleeting thoughts on a piece of paper just as they come into your head without
troubling yourself at this stage about their order or suitability.

iii. Selection – read over the notes you have jotted down to select the points more suitable
for your purpose, cross out the irrelevant points or those that won’t fit.

c) Logical arrangement – Arrange the points selected in a logical order, without it the essay will
be probably badly arranged, disproportioned and full of repetitions and irrelevancies.

i. Make an outline – Sketch out a bare outline of the main points under which you will arrange
your various materials in a natural, convincing and logical order – from a brief introduction to an
effective conclusion

ii. Filling in the online – Arrange the ideas you have collected each under it proper main heading,
rejecting all those not really relevant to your subject or simply repeat other thoughts and taking
care each really belongs to the division in which you place it, you will now have a full guideline
which is to be a guide to your essay writing. Use this outline to produce the final essay.

WRITING THE ESSAY

1. Paragraphs.

Every essay should be divided into paragraphs and each idea or theme should have atleast one
paragraph to itself. A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develop a single point. An
unparagraphed essay looks unattractive and is not easy to read.

The principles of paragraph structure

*Unity- Just as each sentence deals with one thoughts, each paragraph deal with ne topic or idea.
A paragraph is said to have unity when all of it sentences support the main idea expressed in its
topic sentences. When writing try not to include any statements that do not support your
paragraphs main idea.

*Order – This is the logical sequence of thought or development of the subject. Events must be
related in the order of their occurance and all ideas should be connected with the leading idea
arranged according to their importance or order. The sentences in a well written paragraph have a
logical order that best service the main idea and purpose of the paragraph.

*Variety – This means that to avoid monotony the paragraphs of compositions should be of
different lengths and not always of the same sentence constructions.

Apart from these principles, paragraphs have the following elements.

a) Coherence – Paragraph coherence refers to the way sentence stick together to form a smooth
flowing paragraph.

The following methods help writes achieve or build paragraph coherence.

i. Reaping the key words within a paragraph.

ii. Using synonyms or related terms for a key word.
iii. Using pronouns to substitute for the keyword.
iv. Using certain connecting words within a paragraph eg first, then, later etc and the
words that related to the order of importance between ideas e.g However, least
important, for example e.t.c

b) Completeness – to have completeness a paragraph must prove answer or support the topic
sentence. It must include the necessary details to explain and support the topic sentence.

2. Structure of an Essay

An essay is divided into 3 parts:

The introduction.

The Body.

The conclusion.
a) The Introduction – This must be very brief. However it should always be arresting and
pertinent to the subject. I t may consist of a definition or a quotation, a proverb, a very brief story
or general remark leading up to the subject.

b) The Body – This is the essay itself. In arranging the body of the essay, observe proportion. Let
each part have due weight given to it. The paragraph should be well constructed and be related to
one another according to the direction of your outline.

c) The conclusion – Just as the introduction would arouse interest, the conclusion should satisfy
it. A good conclusion may include

✓ A summary of the argument of the essay.

✓ A final conclusion drawn from the subject matter.
✓ A suitable quotation.
✓ A sentence that strikingly expresses the main point you want to drive home.

3. Style in Essay Writing.

Acquire a simple, direct and forceful style in writing. This can be achieved through practice.

Characteristics of a Good Essay

1. Unity – An essay must be a unity, developing one theme with a definite purpose. The
subject must be clear defined in the mind and kept in view throughout.
2. Order – The essay should follow a certain order line of though and come to definite
conclusion. It should not consist of haphazard reflections put down anyhow.
3. Brevity – Essay should not be long. The limit should be about 300 words. A essay should
be brief exercise concisely expressed.
4. Style – The style should be easy, natural and familiar. It must be dignified and literary.
The language and sentence construction should be simple, direct and natural.
5. The personal touch – An essay should reveal the personal feelings and opinions of the
writer. It should have their individuality.