Communication, Process, Objectives, and Functions

What is Communication?
• Communication is an English word. It is developed from the Latin word
communis.
• Communis means ‘to share.’ So, it can be said that “Communication is that
process in which people try to exchange views with each other through
general awareness.”
• Communication is the process of transferring or sharing of information
between two or more people.

Definitions of Communication
• Communication is a process by which information is exchanged between
individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior. –
Merriam-Webster
• Communication is the sharing of ideas and feelings in a mood of mutuality.
– Edgar Dale
• Communication is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants
to create understanding in the mind of another. It involves a systematic and
continuous process of telling, listening and understanding. – Louis A.
Allen
• The word Communication describes the process of conveying messages
(facts, ideas, attitudes and opinions) from one person to another, so that
they are understood. – M. W. Cummings
• Communication is the process by which we understand others and in turn
endeavor to be understood by them. It is dynamic, constantly changing and
shifting in response to the total situation. – Anderson
• Communication is a process involving the selection, production and
transmission of signs in such a way as to help a receiver perceive a
meaning similar to that in the mind of the communicator. - Fotheringham
• Communication is that process in which two or more person mutually
exchange ideas, facts, feelings, etc. in such a way that everyone
understands it. Sender and receiver coordinate by means of messages.
- J. Paul Leagans
 Communication is the process whereby speech, signs, or actions transmit
information from one person to another. This definition is concise and definitive
but doesn’t include all the aspects of communication. There are other definitions,
which state that communication involves transmitting information from one party
to another. This broader definition doesn’t require that the receiving party obtain
a full understanding of the message. Of course, communication is better when
both parties understand... but it can still exist even without that component.

Characteristics of Communication
a. Exchange of Ideas between two or more persons: It can be more or less
expressive depending upon the personality of the encoder(sender).
b. It is a Process: Each message is part of a process and does not occur in
isolation. This means that the meaning attached to a message depends on
what has happened before and in the present context. For example, your
boss’s response to your request for promotion will depend on your past
relationship with him, as well as his mood at that particular moment.
c. Continuous Process: It involves an interchange of thought or information
among persons and is a systematic and continuous process in most cases
where a sender and a receiver are involved. When the component of
“feedback” is added to it the process of communication becomes
“continuous” or “cyclic.”
d. Anticipatory Excitement: Anticipation is defined as the feeling of
excitement about something that is going to happen in the near future.
Sometimes before communication, a communicator has to face
anticipatory excitement. E.g., When a student is asked to give a speech in
front of the whole class and teacher.
e. It is Unavoidable: It is impossible to not communicate, since we
communicate unintentionally all the time, even without the use of words.
Our body language, the way we dress, the importance we give to arriving
on time, our behavior, and the physical environment in which we work, all
convey certain messages to others.
f. It could be Verbal or Non-verbal: Communication could be through the
use of words in spoken or written form, or through the use of body
language such as gestures and facial expressions.
Communication is successful when the receiver interprets the meaning in
the same way as that intended by the sender. The receiver does not always attach
the same meaning to a message as the sender. When the message is wrongly
interpreted, the communication is a failure.

Effective Communication
• Effective communication is fundamental to the success of any enterprise.
• Effective communication is all about conveying your message to other
people clearly and unambiguously. It's also about receiving information
that others are sending to you, with as little distortion as possible.
• And it's a process that can be fraught with error, with messages muddled
by the sender, or misinterpreted by the recipient. When this isn't detected,
it can cause tremendous confusion, wasted effort, and missed opportunity.
In fact, communication is only successful when both the sender and the
receiver understand the same information as a result of the communication.
• Effective Communication must have:
1. Completeness: The message must be completed in a way that the
receiver is able to understand it.
2. Correctness: The message conveyed should be authentic and
correct.
3. Clarity: Effective communication demands that the message is
communicated clearly without any ambiguity.
4. Conciseness: It should give a lot of information clearly and in a few
words; it should be brief but comprehensive.
5. Understanding: Effective communication presupposes that the
sender and the receiver have a good understanding of the message
being conveyed.
6. Effective Listening: It means acknowledging the thoughts of the
communicator by the receiver of the message, reflecting on the
same, and then asking open-ended questions.
7. Two-way Communication: A vital feature of effective
communication is that it should be two-way. Only one-way transfer
of information with the receiver of information being passive is
considered ineffective communication.
Semiotics: It is an investigation into how meaning is created and how meaning
is communicated. Its origin lies in the academic study of how signs and symbols
create meaning.
The difference between a symbol and a sign is that a symbol can convey
a deeper and more complex meaning than a sign. A sign is an indicator or marker
for something very specific, very concrete, and, in general, unambiguous in
meaning. Road markers are called signs because they usually convey something
very specific – the speed limit, stop sign, street name, etc.
A symbol conveys a message of deeper meaning and is open to interpretation. A
picture containing a dove could be meant to convey a message about peace, or it
could be a picture of a bird. A ring worn on the finger could mean a commitment
to another person in marriage, and marriage itself means different things to
different people, but it may also be just a piece of jewellery.

The Communication Process

Communication is the process of passing information and understanding

from one person to another. The communication process involves six basic
elements: sender (encoder), message, channel, receiver (decoder), noise, and
feedback. Supervisors can improve communication skills by becoming aware of
these elements and how they contribute to successful communication.
Communication can break down at any one of these elements.
The sender initiates the communication process. When the sender has
decided on a meaning, he or she encodes a message and selects a channel for
transmitting the message to a receiver. To encode is to put a message into words
or images. The message is the information that the sender wants to transmit. The
medium is the means of communication, such as print, mass, electrical, and
digital. As a sender, the supervisor should define the purpose of the message,
construct each message with the receiver in mind, select the best medium, time
each transmission thoughtfully, and seek feedback.
An external stimulus prompts the sender to send a message. This prompt
may arrive in a number of ways: letter, email, fax, etc. As the sender thinks of the
ideas for the message, he also reacts to the various conditions in his external
environment – physical surroundings, weather, noise, discomforts, cultural
customs, and others. Next, the internal stimuli have a complex influence on how
the sender translates ideas into a message. When the sender encodes, his own
world of experience affects his choice of symbols – mental, physical,
psychological, and semantic. Attitudes, opinions, emotions, experience, likes and
dislikes, education, job status, and communication skills may also influence the
way the sender communicates the ideas. Also especially important are the
perception and consideration of the receiver’s viewpoint, needs, skills, status,
mental ability, and experience.
The channel is the path a message follows from the sender to the receiver.
Supervisors use downward channels to send messages to employees. Employees
use upward channels to send messages to supervisors. Horizontal channels are
used when communicating across departmental lines, with suppliers, or with
customers. An informal channel is the grapevine. It exists outside the formal
channels and is used by people to transmit casual, personal, and social
interchanges at work. The grapevine consists of rumours, gossip, and truthful
information. The supervisor should pay attention to the grapevine, but should not
depend on it for accurate information.
The receiver is the person or group for whom the communication effort is
intended. Noise is anything that interferes with communication. Feedback ensures
that mutual understanding has taken place in communication. It is the transfer of
information from the receiver back to the sender. The receiver decodes or makes
out the meaning of the message. Thus, in the feedback loop, the receiver becomes
the sender and the sender becomes the receiver. The receiver, as well as the
sender, are influenced by non-verbal factors such as touch, taste, and smell. All
these factors demand interpretation, according to individual experiences.
Models of Communication
1. Aristotelian Model:

It is a speaker-centric model of communication. It mainly focuses on the

speaker and speech. It can broadly be divided into five primary elements:
Speaker, Speech, Occasion, Audience, and Effect. The speaker has the
most important role in this kind of communication model as he is the only
one active. It’s a speaker’s role to deliver a speech to the audience. The
role of the audience is passive, influenced by the speech. This makes the
communication process one way, from speaker to receiver. The speaker
must organise the speech beforehand, according to his audience and
situation(occasion.) The speech must be such that it can persuade or
influence the audience.

2. Berlo’s Model of Communication:

 It is also called the S-M-C-R Model of communication. In 1960, David
Berlo postulated this model of communication from Shannon Weaver’s
Model of Communication (1949). He described factors affecting the
individual components in the communication making the communication
more efficient. The model also focuses on encoding and decoding which
happens before the sender sends the message and before the receiver
receives the message respectively. Berlo’s model has mainly four
components to describe the communication process. They are sender,
message, channel, and receiver. Each of these components is affected by
many factors as shown in the diagram above.

3. Schramm’s Model of Communication:

Wilbur Schramm, a well-known communication theorist, developed a

straightforward communications model in his book “The Process and
Effects of Mass Communications.” In the model, Schramm showed as
Aristotle did, that communication always requires three elements – the
source, the message, and the destination. Ideally, the source encodes a
message and transmits it to its destination via some channels, where the
message is received and decoded. Schramm’s Model of Communication
was postulated by Wilbur Schramm in 1954, where he suggested that
communication is a two-way process where both sender and receiver take
turns to send and receive a message. This model was adapted from the
theories of another theorist Osgood, so it is also known as the Osgood
and Schramm Model of Communication or Encode-Decode Model of
Communication. Thus, encoding and decoding are the two most important
factors of effective communication without which information can never
flow between two individuals.
 4. Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication:

In 1948, Claude Shannon was an American mathematician and electronic

engineer and Warren Weaver was an American scientist both of them together
wrote an article in “Bell System Technical Journal” called “A Mathematical
Theory of Communication” also called as “Shannon-Weaver model of
communication”. This model is specially designed to develop effective
communication between sender and receiver. Also, they found factors that affect
the communication process called “Noise”. At first, the model was developed to
improve technical communication. Later, it was widely applied in the field of
Communication. The model deals with various concepts like information source,
transmitter, noise, channel, message, receiver, information destination, encode,
and decode.

In its entirety, the communication process involves understanding, sharing, and

meaning. We can also add two more elements to the essential six elements of the
communication process: Environment and Context.

The feedback can be of two types:

Positive feedback shows that the message is understood and the conversation has
to be continued.

Negative Feedback shows that the message has not been conveyed as intended.

A communication channel is a type of media that is used to transfer a message

from one person to another. Some of examples of communication channels are:
 1. Oral: Face-to-face conversations, etc.

2. Written: Memos, Letters, etc.

3. Electronic: E-mail, Teleconferencing, etc.

Context is the circumstances surrounding a message. The circumstances might

include the setting, the value positions of the people, and the appropriateness of
a message. This means considering the audience, the forum under which the
communicator is speaking, the era, accepted norms, etc influence the process of
communication.

We can also define a model of communication according to the path it takes. For
example,

a. Linear Model: It is a one-way model to communicate with others. It

consists of the sender encoding a message and channelling it to the receiver
in the presence of noise. Drawbacks – the linear model assumes that there
are a clear-cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no
feedback from the receiver. For example, a letter, email, text message,
lecture, etc.

b. Interactive Model: It is two linear models stacked on top of each other.

The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then
becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This
model has added feedback. It indicates that communication is not a one-
way but a two-way process.

c. Transactional Model: It assumes that people are connected through

communication; they engage in a transaction. Firstly, it recognizes that
each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly,
it recognises that communication affects all parties involved. So,
communication is fluid and simultaneous. For example, talking/listening
to friends. While your friend is talking, you’re constantly giving them
feedback on what you think through your facial expressions and/or verbal
 feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking. This
model has the added concept of noise.

Objectives of Communication

The objectives of communication are dynamic and ever-changing. Some of the

common objectives of communication are:

• Conveying the right message: The main objective of communication is

to convey the right message to the right person, i.e., to the person for whom
it is meant. The message conveyed should be well understood and accepted
by the receiver in the right perspective.

• Coordination of effort: It is an effective tool for coordinating the

activities of different persons engaged in running a business. Coordination
without communication is a remote possibility. Individuals can only come
to know what others are doing and what is expected of them only through
communication.

• To get or give information

• To ask for or give instructions or advice or suggestions

• To make requests or to persuade other people to agree with us

• Motivation and Morale

• Cultural Promotion

• Integration

• Sometimes, we communicate with the intention of complaining, or

warning; but unfortunately, we do this angrily and get into arguments. If
 we learn to complain and warn in an acceptable and constructive manner,
our serious intention can be conveyed quite effectively without damaging
relationships. In order to caution, counsel, clarify, appraise, evaluate,
reprimand, organize, and numerous other such objectives, we make use of
communication.

Functions of Communication

1. Emotive Function: To communicate the inner state of mind and emotions.

For example, ‘Oh My God! Oh no!’

2. Directive Function: This function seeks to affect the behaviour of others,

for example, ‘Fetch me a glass of water, please.’

3. Phatic Function: This is to open the channel of communication or check

that it is working. For example, ‘Hello, is it Ram?’ or ‘Can you hear me,
Mrs. Patel?’ This function establishes, acknowledges, or reinforces social
relations.

4. Poetic Function: This refers to the aesthetic function of language and

focuses on ‘the message for its own sake.’ Thus, it is basically the essence
of the message. For example, euphony (pleasantness of sounds in speech
and pronunciation) is an application of this function. This poetic function
of language can be used when one says ‘Ashoka the Great,’ instead of ‘the
great Ashoka,’ which essentially has the meaning.

5. Referential Function: It refers to any message that is constructed to

convey information.

6. Metalinguistic Function: This function focuses attention on the code of

language itself. When language is used to speak about language, for
example, in grammar or a dictionary, the metalinguistic function has been
employed. This activity can be unconscious. For example, ‘The use of both
will or shall is correct in modern usage.’
7. Contextual Function: It facilitates the creation of a particular kind of
context. It sets the tone. For example, ‘Right! Let’s start the meeting now.

8. Heuristic Function: Here, we use language to gain knowledge, learn, and

explore the environment. A child uses language to learn. This may be in
the form of questions and answers or the kind of running commentary that
frequently accompanies children’s play.
 Types of Communication

In one way, communication can be classified based on relationship element:

1. Intrapersonal Communication: It is communication within an individual

almost all the time, including talking to oneself, listening to oneself, and
relating to oneself. It includes individual reflection, meditation,
contemplation, and even praying to God. We conceptualize and formulate
our thoughts or ideas before actually indulging in overt communication.
Muttering ‘Oh My God!’ ‘Oh No,’ ‘Wow,’ and ‘Thank God,’ are a few
common examples of intrapersonal communication.

2. Interpersonal Communication: It is also termed dyadic

communication. It is a universal form of face-to-face routine
communication between two people, both- while sending and receiving
messages. It may be formal or informal, verbal or non-verbal. It takes place
anywhere by means of words, sounds, facial expressions, gestures, and
postures. It is an effective communication situation because you receive
immediate feedback. Due to the proximity between the sender and the
receiver, interpersonal communication has an emotional appeal, too. It can
motivate, encourage, and coordinate work more effectively than any other
form of communication. The efficacy of interpersonal communication
depends very much on the mutual relationship between two partners in
communication, their status, roles, and skills. It has a greater scope of
grapevine.

Interpersonal communication can be further subdivided into formal

(meeting and conference) or informal (private discussion with family
members or friends) communication.

3. Group Communication: Group communication is influenced by several

heterogeneous factors, such as age, sex, education, and economic, social,
linguistic, religious, national, regional, and racial differences. The careful
balance of interaction in dyad no longer exists in group communication.
According to Baker, the best size in terms of total interaction and greatest
efficiency is somewhere between five and seven members. Participation
and sharing of information are central to the functioning of a group. A
 group can function on the basis of committees (small groups for a specific
purpose) or conferences (large group and formal). Group communication
is considered effective as it provides an opportunity for direct interaction
among the members of the group and helps in bringing out changes in
attitudes and beliefs.

Additionally, communication can also be classified on the basis of channels:

1. Verbal Communication: This kind of communication uses words in the

communication process and in designing and formulating messages.
Verbal communication is further divided into the following types:

a. Oral Communication: In spoken communication, spoken words are

used. It includes face-to-face conversation, speech, telephonic
conversation, video, radio, television, and voice over the internet. In
oral communication, the communication is influenced by the following
factors:

• Pitch and Volume: Pitch is the degree of highness or lowness of

tone, and it depends upon the frequency of sound waves. It is the
key element in the teaching-learning process. One should be loud
enough to be heard. When speaking, one should remember to
change the pitch in his voice as a monotonous voice may become
boring. Excitement is indicated by a high pitch and anger by a
low pitch. Volume depends upon the proximity and number of
people and is measured in decibels.

• Rate: It is the speed at which words are delivered. One should

maintain regularity when speaking because a regular or rhythmic
voice makes you sound more confident. Irregular speech may
show a sign of uncertainty.

• The clarity in Speaking and Articulation: Proper

pronunciation and delivery of words contribute toward the
effectiveness of the message. It also depends upon the clarity of
 thought of the communicator. Pitch, volume, rate, and clarity are
termed components of paralanguage.

The advantages of oral communication are as follows:

• It is spontaneous and natural.

• It is, therefore, easy for others to understand.

• Choice of words generally suits the listeners.

• It is supported by non-verbal communication.

• The communicator is always physically available.

• It can develop a close relationship between the speaker and

the listener.

The limitations of oral communication are as follows:

• Words spoken disappear into thin air and therefore, the

communication is temporary.

• Words are not permanent, unlike written communication.

• What is heard is often forgotten.

• Non-verbal communication that supports oral communication

may not be understood by people from other cultures.

b. Written Communication: In written communication, written signs

and symbols, both in printed or handwritten form, are used. Pictures,
graphs, etc., are used to compliments the written text. The
communicator’s writing skills, style, and knowledge of grammar affect
the quality of the message. In written communication, a message can be
transmitted through e-mail, letter, report, memo, etc. This is the most
commonly used communication in a business organization.

The organization needs to communicate with different stakeholders,

both in internal and external environments, to meet its objectives. Thus,
written communication further has two dimensions: internal and
external. Internal written communication is in the form of memos,
reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals, and emails
specifically for internal communication, i.e., within an organization. E-
mails, the internet, websites, letters, proposals, telegrams, faxes,
postcards, contracts, advertisements, brochures, and newsreels are used
for external communication.

The advantages of written communication are:

• Messages can be edited and revised many times before being

sent, so it minimizes the chances of error.

• Written communication provides an automatic record for every

message sent and can be saved for later study or reference.

• A written message enables the receiver to fully understand it and

send appropriate feedback. It brings in the element of
impersonality and more objectivity.

The limitations of written communication are:

• Written communication may not provide prompt and

spontaneous feedback.

• Written communication may take more time.

• Usually, communication is a mix of both oral and written

formats.
 2. Non-verbal Communication: It is the process of communication through
sending and receiving wordless messages. Non-verbal communication is
all about the body language of the speaker does not making use of words.
Communication other than oral and written, such as body gestures, eye
contact, body language, posture, tone of voice, or facial expressions, is
called non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication helps the
receiver in a better interpretation of a message. It has the following three
elements:

• Appearance: It includes both the speaker and the surroundings.

Clothing, hairstyle, neatness of the speaker, etc., are taken into
account. Surrounding is the ambience of the place where
communication takes place. It includes a room, lighting,
decorations, furnishings, etc.

• Body Language: It includes facial expressions, gestures, and

postures.

• Sounds: It includes voice tone, volume, and speech rate.

The features of non-verbal communication can be divided into two

categories: static and dynamic. They have been discussed below:

a. Static Features

• Distance: The distance one stands from another frequently conveys

a non-verbal message. In some cultures, it is a sign of attraction,
while in others it may reflect status or the intensity of the exchange.

• Orientation: People may present themselves in various ways, such

as face-to-face, side-to-side, or even back-to-back. For example,
cooperating people are likely to sit side-by-side while competitors
frequently face one another.

• Posture: Obviously one can be laying down, seated, or standing.

These are not the elements of posture that convey messages. Are we
 slouched or erect? Are our legs crossed or our arms folded? Such
postures convey a degree of formality and a degree of relaxation in
the communication exchange.

• Physical Contact: Shaking hands, touching, holding, embracing,

pushing, or patting on the back all convey messages. They reflect an
element of intimacy or a feeling of (or lack of) attraction.

b. Dynamic Features:

• Facial Expressions: Facial expressions such as smile, frown, raised

eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all convey information. Facial
expressions continually change during interaction and are monitored
constantly by the recipient. There is evidence that the meaning of
these expressions may be similar across cultures.

• Gestures: One of the most frequently observed but least understood

cues is hand movement. Most people use hand movements regularly
when talking. While some gestures (e.g., a clenched fist) have
universal meanings, most others are individually learned and
idiosyncratic.

• Looking: A major feature of social communication is eye contact.

It can convey emotion, signal when to talk or finish, or aversion. The
frequency of contact may be either interest or boredom.

Visual Communication is also a part of non-verbal communication. As the

name suggests, it is communication through visual aid. It is the communication
of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked at. Primarily
associated with two-dimensional images, it includes signs, typography, drawing,
graphic design, illustration, colour, and electronic resources.

Non-verbal communication is usually used to communicate feelings, likings, and

preferences. It can be categorized into eight types:
i. Proxemics: We can use personal and physical space to communicate
many non-verbal messages including intimacy, affection, aggression, or
dominance.

ii. Paralinguistic: When we speak, other people ‘read’ our voices in

addition to listening to our words. They pay attention to our timing,
pace, tone, loudness, pitch, volume rate, quality, intonation, inflection,
vocalised pauses, etc.

iii. Kinesics: There are many body signals that amplify meaning between
communicators. These include gestures, eye contact, facial expressions,
posture, locomotion, and haptics. In the USA, long eye contact may be
to show respect while in Japan, long eye contact is better to be averted,
it shows disrespect.

iv. Haptics: Haptics refers to how and what touch communicates. Reaction
to unsolicited touch varies from person to person. This may vary
according to culture. Examples are a gentle touch on the forearm, a two-
handed handshake, or a light kiss on the cheek.

v. Phonemics: A phoneme is a unit of sound that distinguishes one word

from another in a particular language. In non-verbal communication, it
refers to the sounds, which are not fully formed words, one makes
during a conversation. For example, ‘hmm,’ a sigh, etc.

vi. Dress and Appearance: The meaning depends upon the situation.

vii. Chromatics: Chromatics is communication through the use of colour.

Colours of clothing, products, or gifts send intended or unintended
messages to the recipient of the message.

viii. Iconic: These systems are used to represent words or linguistic

concepts. We can take examples of different types of
‘emoticons/emojis’ to represent the ideas.
We can also categorize communication based on purpose and style:

1. Formal Communication: In formal communication, certain rules,

regulations, conventions, and protocols are followed while formulating and
communicating messages. It follows an organised structure. It can be
upwards or downwards across hierarchy or authority lines. In formal
communication, the use of the right language and correct pronunciation is
required.

2. Informal Communication: Informal communication channels exist along

with formal communication channels in any organization. It mainly
addresses the social needs of the people engaged in the communication. It
is interpersonal and mainly face-to-face and with the use of gestures. It
happens among friends and family. In informal communication, there are
no formal rules and regulations. A lot of distortion or filtering may take
place in informal communication, and that is termed as grapevine.

Communication can also be divided according to the direction it follows:

1. Vertical Communication: This is basically formal communication. This

can be upwards (bottom-up) and downwards (top-bottom).

2. Lateral or Horizontal Communication: Communication with people at

the same level in a hierarchy of peers and colleagues is termed lateral
communication. This may combine both formal and informal
communication. This is the most effective communication as it is generally
not stalled by a chain of command methods. This can help in building
teams in an organisation. The amount of horizontal communication
depends upon the interdependence of different departments.

3. Diagonal Communication: Diagonal communication is effective as

hierarchical bindings are removed and there is a free flow of information,
cutting across positions or statuses. It facilitates bonding between superiors
and subordinates.