REVIEW

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Textronics—A Review of Textile-Based Wearable

Electronics
Nauman A. Choudhry, Lyndon Arnold,* Abher Rasheed, Imtiaz A. Khan,
and Lijing Wang*

aesthetics, but a paradigm shift in recent

Textronics contribute a significant part of Internet-of-Things (IoT), which years has caused the textiles we are in con-
empowers added functionalities by connecting smart clothing in a secure way for tact with, to become smart.[1] The new gen-
diverse applications. For the development of flexible and stretchable textile-based erations of textiles can sense, react, and
adapt to external stimuli, and can generate
electronics, a conductive material (yarn, fabric, etc.) must be used, and fabri-
and store energy, and information.[2,3]
cation techniques play a vital role that significantly influences electronic textiles’ E-textile is a cross between the world of tex-
properties. Textile-based sensors, electrodes, and other devices seem to be the tiles and electronics, and is introducing a
favorite choice for continuous wearable monitoring due to their low cost, flex- shift, from textiles with static functionali-
ibility, and ease of embedding. Integrating smart capabilities into textiles provides ties to textiles that exhibit dynamic
substantial benefits in the fields of healthcare, sports, automobile, and military. features.[4] As textiles and electronics engi-
neering merged, they introduced a new
These developments have a profound influence on the Fourth Industrial
field called Textronics, as shown in
Revolution (4IR). This Review presents an in-depth study of the current state of Figure 1. Textronics is not just “textiles plus
the art in the area of textile-based electronics. The design, development, and electronics” but textile itself as a sensor that
evaluation techniques are discussed. Certain limitations and research gaps are can sense and react to the world around
also addressed regarding this emerging field. Critically, this Review is more them; this qualifies it to be called “textile-
application focused and indicates how the recent developments in electronic based.” The technology of textile-based
wearable sensing contributes a significant
textiles will soon impact our lives. As these areas have typically been neglected in
part to the Internet-of-Things (IoT), which
previous reviews, additional knowledge to the existing literature is provided by is the most important element of the
bridging the gap between the academic research and commercialization of Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). A
wearable Textronics. report from Cientifica Research, Smart
Textiles and Wearables: Markets,
Applications, and Technologies,[5] exam-
ines the markets for textile-based wearable
technologies and how smart textiles are creating a 4IR for the
1. Introduction
textiles and fashion industry worth more than $130 billion by
Through the ages, textiles are known to service the two primary 2025. The 4IR has the potential to raise global income levels
functions, protecting our body from the environment, and and improve the quality of life.[6] According to their behavior,
e-textiles can be classified as intelligent systems,[7] and the intel-
ligence functions come with the addition of electronic compo-
N. A. Choudhry, L. Arnold, L. Wang nents that are integrated into the textile structure.
Centre for Materials Innovation and Future Fashion (CMIFF)
School of Fashion & Textiles Integrating electronic components and circuits into textiles
RMIT University can be distinguished in three different levels: textile-adapted, tex-
25 Dawson Street, Brunswick, VIC 3056, Australia tile-integrated, and textile-based.[8] The first and simplest level of
E-mail: lyndon.arnold@rmit.edu.au; lijing.wang@rmit.edu.au integration is to mount electronic devices onto a garment, e.g.,
A. Rasheed the first wearable computer by Edward Thorp in 1961.[9] In earlier
Department of Clothing
School of Engineering & Technology
developments, space for a headphone cord was provided inside a
National Textile University garment, or the handsfree was preinstalled so the user could eas-
Sheikhupura Road, Faisalabad 37610, Pakistan ily connect an MP3 player or other musical devices to enjoy
I. A. Khan music on the go. The first level of integration is where a sensor
School of Engineering was externally attached to the garment. In the second level, inter-
RMIT University Bundoora connections between electronic components and textiles are cre-
264 Plenty Road, Mill Park, VIC 3082, Australia
ated, e.g., metal snap buttons to switch the electronic device on
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article and off. Stiff copper wires are replaced by conductive yarns,
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.202100469. which provided a conductive path and improved the wearing
DOI: 10.1002/adem.202100469 comfort.[10] In the products with the second level of integration,

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Electronics
Textiles
TEXTRONICS
Figure 1. The emergence of Textronics.
the sensors and other electronic devices are embedded inside the
garment with Velcro tapes, belts, or stitching, etc.[11] Most wear-
able monitoring systems where electronic components (sensors,
storage devices, antennas, etc.) were embedded into the textiles,
provided flexibility but lacked other textile properties such as
bending flexibility and shear.[12] These concepts and products
were never meant to provide the actual integration of electronics
into textiles but only the combination of two. The third level of
integration is the design and development of electronic elements
within the textile structure, so they do not interfere with the gar-
ment’s textile properties, e.g., functional fabrics[13] and yarns.[14]
Here, the textiles and technology merged and the garment itself
became a sensor. The wearable electronics with the third level of
integration are also known as “textile-based,” which is mentioned
as Textronics in this Review.
Textile-based wearable systems are made up of fibers, yarns,
and fabrics having inherent sensing properties. Once a garment
is constructed with these functional textiles, what we wear
becomes the sensor. This is the most complex of all the three
levels and one that is under investigation by many researchers.
These days, smart clothes have become literally “smart;” textile-
based wearable electronics have changed the perception of smart
from the combination of electronics and textiles to the actual
integration, i.e., Textronics.
There are various gadgets available in the market to detect
heart rate, step count, and provide fitness level assessments.
Some of the popular wearable tech products are smartwatches,
wrist bands, and chest straps capable of monitoring human phys-
iological parameters. One of the important reasons why research-
ers are interested in e-textiles is that textiles are more adaptable,
flexible, and comfortable to wear for every age and gender.
Humans can adapt to wearing smart shirts and trousers more
easily than sticking hard electronics onto their bodies when per-
forming daily activities. In addition, e-textiles are more custom-
izable than any other smart wearable products. It is easy to
develop several colors and sizes in a smart shirt, but complicated
and expensive operations are involved in the manufacturing of a
smartwatch. Textiles provide large surface areas for sensing,[15]
and they are not just limited to one specific part of the body
where the sensor is attached.[16] Rather than sticking all the sen-
sors on the wrist or chest, e-textiles provide more sensor place-
ment options than any other wearable gadgets.
These days, people are very interested in tracking how their bod-
ies are functioning to change their habits and live healthier lives
based on the information. Monitoring vital signs, muscle activities,
and other physiological parameters through textiles is one of the
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most userfriendly approaches to keep track of the human body
and know how it is performing. Different sensors need to be com-
bined under one system to complete the task; this thought gives
rise to the concept of developing textile-based sensors and electro-
des. The production methods include but are not limited to knit-
ting,[17] weaving,[18] coating,[19] embroidery,[20] and sewing.[21]
Smart clothing is not just about sensing, but once they sense a
change, they can keep us warm or cool according to the environ-
ment,[22–24] help prevent muscle drag while running,[25] can be anti-
microbial, or have sweat-wicking properties.[26] Compared with the
traditional clothing, smart textiles have additional active features
which provide unique properties and applications.
The development and integration of textile-based sensors, elec-
trodes, heaters, energy generators, supercapacitors (SCs), and signal
communication devices into wearables have attracted considerable
interest because of their potential smart clothing applications. Many
projects have been initiated in the past few years to develop different
prototypes of textile-based wearable technology.[27,28] These develop-
ments will considerably improve the quality of life and can be
remotely controlled to track the personal health status and physical
state of a wearer. Textronics will have a long-lasting effect in the
fields of healthcare and fitness, sports, military, and fashion due
to its flexibility, seamless integration, and connectivity.
Application-focused developments, where the researchers
designed, developed, and integrated Textronics for real-time meas-
urements, were not often covered in detail by previous studies. An
attempt has been made to positively review the latest literature
related to textile-based wearable electronics and their applications
in major fields. This article will also showcase concise knowledge
regarding the evaluation of textile-based wearable electronics,
which is another crucial parameter that must be considered before
the commercialization of smart clothing on a broader scale.
The rest of the article is structured as follows: Section 2 reviews
all the different types of wearable Textronics, fabrication proce-
dures, and characterization techniques. Research publications
which demonstrate the embedding of developed textile-based sen-
sors into garments for real-time testing are discussed to offer some
helpful insights for the practical wearable electronics applications.
Section 3 gives an overview of wearable electronics applications in
sports, healthcare, military, and fashion. It also presents some of
the most promising commercial applications for wearable elec-
tronics. Section 4 describes the evaluation of Textronics and their
importance in terms of wearability, including performance.
Finally, Section 5 is a short conclusion discussing some limita-
tions, market trends, and possible future developments.
2. Types of Wearable Textronics
When integrated into textiles, electronics can keep track of our
body and communicate with other devices to make everyday
tasks more manageable. Figure 2 shows the types of wearable
Textronics that are thoroughly discussed in this section.
2.1. Textile-Based Sensors
Wearable technology is trending most actively in the digital world
today and sensors are its key elements. The sensors detect the
change in the environment; this change can be physical,
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Piezo-electric
Resistive Capacitive
Textile-based
sensors
Temperature Strain
Electro-chemical
Textile-based Textile-based
communication electrodes
TEXTRONICS
Textile-based
Heating
energy
storage textiles
Energy
harvesting
textiles
Figure 2. Types of wearable Textronics.
chemical, or any other form which it is designed to sense. In
contrast, actuators send information about the change detected
by the sensor to the wearer or external device. Electronic sensors
and actuators are made of inorganic materials or metals, either
solid or encased in solid housings,[29] thus, making it a challenge
to embed in textiles. In addition, they lack flexibility, washability,
fatigue failure, and wearing discomfort. These limitations and
some other associated technical issues have created a need to
develop new materials and engineering techniques to fuse both
fields, electronics and textiles.
There are two kinds of sensors, active and passive. The active
sensors can convert the input energy into measurable output sig-
nals without any external power source, whereas the latter
requires an external power supply to function. Most of the
textile-based sensors are passive. Two types of textile-based
wearable sensors that are being widely researched are electrome-
chanical and electrochemical. Electromechanical sensors gener-
ate an electric signal when a mechanical force is applied to them
while the latter respond to chemical changes. For example, strain
sensors and pressure sensors are used to detect respiration rate,
pulse, muscle activities, and gestures of a wearer,[26] caused by a
mechanical force or the stretch of the body. In contrast, a pH
sensor can be used to sense the change in sweat,[30] while a
biomolecular sensor can detect changes in glucose or lactate.[31]
Researchers are also working on smart clothing with embedded
textile-based sensors to detect body temperature, vital signs, and
other chemical changes.
2.1.1. Pressure Sensors
The mechanism of textile-based pressure sensors can be divided
into resistive, capacitive, and piezoelectric.[32–34] They produce an
electric signal when a compressive mechanical force is applied.
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These sensors are usually made from fabrics coated with conduc-
tive polymers[35] or knitted with conductive yarns.[36] They
change their resistance, capacitance, or generate an electric
charge in response to the applied mechanical stress.
Depending upon their application, these sensors play a vital role
in achieving the best functional and sensing performance in a
wearable. There has been significant progress in developing
textile-based pressure sensors over the past decade because of
the numerous advantages they possess, such as high flexibility,
low cost, and ease of embedding into wearables.
Piezoresistive sensors alter their shape when compressed,
causing the contact area between the conductive material to
change, resulting in resistance changes. Compared with the
other wearable pressure sensors, piezoresistive-based pressure
sensors are studied extensively because of their simple structure
and uncomplicated manufacturing process. Moreover, these sen-
sors consume less power and have a wide range of medical[37]
and sports[38] applications. Zhang et al.[39] developed a textile-
based piezoresistive sensor capable of detecting human motion
in real time. They stacked different layers of thiolated graphe-
ne@polyester (GSH@PET) fabrics over each other to develop
a multilayer sensor structure. They also proved that these pres-
sure sensors could exhibit a large detection range (0–200 kPa),
high sensitivity, and fast response time (159 ms). In another
research, a paper-based piezoresistive sensor was demonstrated
to monitor human physiological health with promising
results.[40] The sensor, developed through a screen-printing tech-
nique using a conductive silver paste, showed quick response
time and recovery. Tian et al.[41] fabricated a pillow-shaped 3D
hierarchical pressure-sensitive sensor to observe the respiratory
rate and human-extended sleeping motion, using knitted fabric
coated with conductive silver components and a polypropylene
fiber assembly.
Different types of conductive materials (yarns/fabrics) have
been studied to develop textile-based piezoresistive sensors in
the past few years. In general, they can be divided into intrinsi-
cally conductive and specially treated conductive yarns and fab-
rics. Intrinsically conductive yarns are based on metal yarns or
filaments, and most often, they consist of stainless steel (SS),
nickel, copper, aluminum, etc.[42] Similarly, fabrics that are con-
structed by the metal yarns are known as intrinsically conductive
fabrics, for example, copper mesh or SS knitted fabrics.[43]
Specially treated conductive yarns or fabrics gain their conduc-
tivity through additional processing steps, such as printing, coat-
ing, etc. Carbon-based conductive coatings are among the
popular ones.[44,45] Figure 3a,b shows an intrinsic conductive
yarn and fabric, whereas Figure 3c,d shows an example of a spe-
cially treated conductive yarn and fabric.
Stitched-based piezoresistive sensors have been developed
using SS yarns through a sewing machine.[46] The sensors are
capable of monitoring human vital signs and muscle activity
when embedded inside a garment. The work described a novel
fabrication technique to create textile-based wearable sensors
based on a force sensing resistor (FSR) concept. Similarly, a
yarn-based force sensor was developed by Parzer et al.,[47] where
metallic yarns were coated with a carbon-based conductive
polymer solution to improve the pressure sensitivity.
Moreover, a graphene-based resistive pressure sensor was
reported and used to detect the human pulse rate and elbow
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Figure 3. a) SS yarn. b) SS fabric. c) Reduced graphene oxide (rGO)-
coated yarn. d) rGO-coated fabric.
movements.[48] Lou et al.[49] dip-coated polyester fabric in a gra-
phene oxide (GO); the coated fabric with a large detection range
and high sensitivity can be used as the pressure sensor in plantar
measurement and gait-analysis applications. The easy-to-built
characteristics, high responsivity, and repeatability of piezoresis-
tive sensors have made them the promising candidate for next-
generation wearable sensing.[50] Figure 4 shows some examples
of textile-based pressure sensors.
Capacitive sensors show a change in capacitance when pres-
sure is applied. These sensors are based on the principle of a
parallel-plate capacitor, where a dielectric material is sandwiched
between the plates. As the distance between plates is altered
through an external force, the change in capacitance is observed.
Capacitive pressure sensors are very responsive, highly sensitive,
and have a wide dynamic detection range. The sensitivity of the
capacitive pressure sensors can be improved by altering the sur-
face area, thickness, or other properties of the dielectric material
used between the conductive plates.[51,52]
In recent years, many researchers reported the fabrication of
textile-based capacitive pressure sensors for wearable applica-
tions. Lee et al.[53] demonstrated sensors that can be embedded
into woven gloves and clothes to control machines wirelessly and
form highly intuitive human–machine interfaces. They coated
Kevlar fibers with poly styrene-block-butadiene styrene (SBS)
polymer, followed by applying silver nanoparticles (AgNPs).
The conductive fibers showed excellent electrical resistance of
0.15 Ω cm
1 and good bending stability. A poly(dimethylsilox-
ane) (PDMS) coating was used as a dielectric layer on the surface
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Figure 4. a) Conductive thread-based embroidered pressure sensor.
b) Stitched pressure sensor.
of two conductive fibers stacked perpendicularly over each
other. The capacitive sensor exhibited high sensitivity and excel-
lent fatigue resistance over 10 000 cycles. The same design was
used in another research study[54] where the developed sensor
was woven into the fabric to analyze gentle finger touch
(<10 kPa) using a capacitance readout circuit. The SBS/
AgNP composite was coated on Twaron fibers to make them
conductive, and the fibers were then further coated with
PDMS and glucose particles as a microporous dielectric layer.
This resulted in a microporous structure, which helped to
achieve better deformation when the pressure was applied to
the capacitive sensor.
Lei et al.[55] developed a capacitive pressure sensor that could
be used for plantar pressure measurement in a biomechanical
application. Copper-coated polyimide films were used as electro-
des with PDMS as a dielectric layer between them; the developed
flexible sensor was able to measure the pressure up to 945 kPa.
Another capacitive pressure sensor was reported[56] based on a
single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) ink and stretchable
silver paste as electrodes, with the dielectric layer composed of
a polyester/spandex (PET/SP) spacer fabric. The sensor showed
high cyclic stability (>20 000) and quick recovery time (7 ms).
Researchers also integrated the developed sensor inside gloves
and socks to grasp motion monitoring and gait analysis during
walking. In recent research, a dielectric layer of porous PDMS
and conductive tape cloth based on nickel and copper coating
was used to develop textile-based capacitive pressure sensors.[57]
These low-cost and flexible sensors displayed a large pressure
sensing range (>200 kPa), excellent compression property, good
sensitivity, and response time (155 ms). The sensors were inte-
grated into gloves and footwear to detect finger tapping and walk-
ing, respectively, through capacitance change.
Piezoelectric sensors gained the attention in recent years due
to their flexibility, easy electrical signal acquisition, simplistic,
and low-cost fabrication. The piezoelectric-sensitive materials
convert mechanical energy into electric energy. The material’s
positive and negative charges become separated when deformed
by the external pressure causing them to form the potential dif-
ference that determines the magnitude of the pressure applied.
These materials are not only used as pressure sensors in wear-
able applications but also for energy harvesting.
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Yang et al.[58] presented a piezoelectric pressure sensor that
can be integrated into a shoe insole for detecting an impact dur-
ing walking, running, and jumping. The sensor based on poly-
dopamine (PDA)-modified barium titanate (BaTiO3) and
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film showed improved sensing
properties and response time (61 ms). The sensor could effi-
ciently monitor different human motions as a wearable
electronic device when attached to the elbow and finger joints.
In recent years, many contributions toward the research of
self-powered, multifunctional wearable sensors, and e-skins have
been made. An electrospun PVDF nanofiber-based piezoelectric
pressure sensor was developed to monitor the biomechanical
movements in a human finger, elbow, and foot.[59] The fibrous
sensor exhibited excellent sensing, mechanical, and thermal
properties. Wang et al.[60] proposed a highly sensitive piezoelec-
tric sensor for heart beat-to-beat blood pressure measurement.
The sensor was embedded into a wrist strap, directly in contact
with the skin. Systolic blood pressure was measured by pressure
pulse wave signal analysis. The proposed sensor was capable of
continuous and intuitive measurement with high accuracy. Kim
et al.[61] studied the effect of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) on the
dielectric and piezoelectric properties of a ceramic-epoxy nano-
composite. They found that an addition of multiwalled carbon
nanotubes (MWCNTs) conductive fillers enhanced the sensitivity
and output voltage of the piezoelectric pressure sensors. Another
study[62] demonstrated that coating PVDF with MWCNTs
improved the sensor’s conductivity and mechanical properties.
The piezoelectric sensor was held in contact with the human skin
to monitor human motion, including tactile stimulation, finger
joint, and wrist bending.
2.1.2. Strain Sensors
Strain sensors can convert a physical deformation into an elec-
trical signal. These output signals can be in the form of resis-
tance, capacitance or other, depending on the sensor type.
Resistive- and capacitive-based strain sensors are more com-
monly used in textile applications due to their simple fabrication
and ease of embedding.[63–66] These types of sensors can be used
in wearables to sense different human movements and muscle
activities,[67] e.g., respiration,[68] breathing, pulse,[69] etc.
In a resistive form of strain sensor, the resistance of the textile
sensor changes with the applied strain. This is due to the change
in the textile electrode’s area or length upon stretching.[70] For a
capacitive strain sensor, the area or distance between the two par-
allel textile electrodes separated by dielectric material changes,
causing the change in capacitance when stretched.[71] Both these
types have some advantages. Though resistive sensors have a
straightforward sensing structure, the capacitive-based strain
sensors are considered more sensitive and have less hysteresis
with faster response time. One of the drawbacks with a capacitive
strain sensor is that the parallel plate electrode arrangement also
responds to any applied pressure, making it difficult to distin-
guish the signals derived from strain only.
Similar to the pressure sensors, textile-based strain sensors
can be made by coating the existing textiles with conductive poly-
mers[72–74] or using the conductive yarns/threads to fabricate
the sensor through knitting,[75] weaving,[76] or stitching.[77]
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Some studies have shown that coating the textiles with concen-
trated conductive polymer solution can make them stiff.[78]
However, the coated textiles can withstand specific elongation
before they show a significant reduction in their mechanical
properties. Cracks are developed in the coated conductive layer
when stretched beyond a limit. For a textile-based strain sensor,
the conductivity must be retained under stretch.[79] Numerous
studies have been carried out to improve the coating methods
and enhance the strain sensor’s mechanical properties.[80–82]
Textile-based strain sensors have a wide range of applications
in wearables. Li et al.[83] designed and developed a yarn-based
strain sensor that can be integrated into textiles to monitor vari-
ous human motions. The highly sensitive and stretchable wear-
able strain sensor was composed of a polyurethane (PU) core, a
conductive multilayer sheath, and a thin PDMS wrapping layer.
They integrated the developed sensor into medical textile ban-
dages to demonstrate that the sensor can detect the human pulse,
finger bending, and walking by wearing on the wrist, finger, and
leg, respectively. They also integrated the strain sensor into
gloves and effectively controlled a hand robot. Another textile-
based strain sensor was developed to monitor human joint
motion by wearing it over the elbow and knee.[84] The sensor
was fabricated using a screen-printing method where silver nano-
wire ink was transferred onto a stretchable textile. It exhibited a
wide working strain range of 120%, high sensitivity, and excel-
lent durability up to 2000 cycles. These types of sensors can be
embedded in sportswear for rehabilitation, coaching, and injury
prevention.
Stretchable and wearable strain sensors also have potential
healthcare applications; they are used to detect breathing, respi-
ration rate, heart pulses, etc. Jun et al.[68] proposed a capacitive
strain sensor to monitor respiratory signals from the chest dur-
ing walking and running. A knitted strain sensor was developed
to create a respiration belt using silver-plated nylon yarns.[85] The
working mechanism of the sensor is based on the separation of
the conductive contact points in response to the applied strain.
Real-time testing was carried out on the human body to monitor
the respiration rate under dynamic conditions with promising
results.
2.1.3. Temperature Sensors
Temperature is a fundamental physical parameter and one of the
most important vital signs for humans. On-body temperature
measurement is a relaxed and unobtrusive approach to deter-
mine the changes in human health. Textile-based temperature
sensors embedded into wearables provide continuous remote
measurements. This is important for various health monitoring
applications, for example, investigating conditions such as non-
freezing cold injuries, detection of foot ulcers, and Raynaud’s
disease.
Temperature sensing yarns or fibers are mostly used to con-
struct the textile-based sensing structure through weaving, knit-
ting, or stitching. Recently, a few p-types conducting polymers
like poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene):polystyrene sulfonate
(PEDOT:PSS) gained the interest of many researchers. The
textile-based temperature sensor was developed by dip-dyeing
the cotton thread in a semiconductive polymer (PEDOT:PSS)
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solution.[86] The fabricated thread-type temperature sensor
showed good sensitivity under a wide temperature range and
could be used in sewing or weaving to develop cloth. Another
PEDOT:PSS-based temperature sensor was developed on a
Kapton (polyimide) film and cotton textiles to detect the temper-
ature difference of 0.1  C. They demonstrated that the flexible
textile-based temperature sensor has potential wearable
applications.[87]
Lugoda et al.[88] proposed temperature sensing socks using
specialized knitting yarns. They emphasized that proper contact
of the temperature sensor with human skin is essential for accu-
rate measurements. Similarly, a smart sock was designed to pro-
vide real-time information about the health condition, including
foot temperature, for patients.[89] This allows patients to manage
their diet and medication accordingly. Researchers are trying to
enhance the mechanical strength of the metal fibers used for
temperature sensing. Wrapping technology to wrap the metal
yarns has been used recently, which showed promising results
in terms of strength and strain.[90]
Jung et al.[91] developed a textile-based temperature sensor for
wearable devices using thermoelectric inks on knitted textiles.
They demonstrated that the developed sensor has excellent dura-
bility under stretch, which was a crucial element to consider in a
wearable. In another study, a fabric-based temperature sensor
was developed by integrating metallic filaments into a woven
structure.[92] The sensor was incorporated into a wearable to
show its ability to monitor the skin temperature during daily life
activities.
2.1.4. Electrochemical Sensors
The emergence of wearable biosensors for clinical diagnostics
and to monitor biological fluids such as sweat, blood, saliva,
etc., has gained interest in recent years and led to the develop-
ment of the term Textronics. These textile-based flexible sensors
are used to quantify the chemical signals generated by the
human body for disease diagnosis and health monitoring. The
integration of chemical sensing into wearable textiles provides
precious and timely feedback on the wearer’s physiology without
compromising the functionality or comfort of the garment.
Electrochemical wearable sensors are being used to detect bio-
molecules in different body fluids, and volatile compounds typi-
cally present in the body. Textile-based humidity sensors are an
important component of electronic textiles and have potential
medical applications, including wound management. For
humidity sensors, the textiles need to have appropriate electrical
conductivity and sensitivity to water molecules. Zhou et al.[93]
reported the development of a wearable textile-based humidity
sensor using SWCNT/PVA (Poly(vinyl alcohol)) filaments using
a wet-spinning process. They stitched the ultrastrong filaments
onto a piece of cotton fabric to demonstrate that the humidity sen-
sor could monitor human sweating. The impedance-type humid-
ity sensor was developed[94] by spray coating the woven cotton
fabric with the organic copolymer of methyl methacrylate and
[3-(methacrylamino)propyl] trimethyl ammonium chloride. The
sensor was reported to monitor human breathing before and after
exercise. Water molecules are an essential component of breath-
ing, which affect the relative humidity (RH) around the mouth
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and nose.[95] Ma et al.[96] presented a highly sensitive and respon-
sive yarn-shaped humidity sensor that could be embedded into the
wearables to detect a human breath. A biaxial-type yarn was
wrapped twice onto a copper wire to develop the humidity sensor,
then stitched on a 3M face mask for real-time human respiratory
monitoring. In another study, a fibrous capacitive humidity sensor
was developed.[97] A composite yarn based on a silk-wrapped cop-
per wire was brushed with polyimide and then sputter-coated with
silver to fabricate the humidity sensor. They embedded the devel-
oped sensor into a smart face mask and proved that the sensor was
capable of monitoring the wearer’s breathing conditions. The
recent coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has highlighted the
importance of personal protective equipment (PPE). In return,
the demand for single-use barrier fabrics, masks and respirators
for viral protection has increased.[98] Accurate real-time monitor-
ing of vital signs, including respiration rate, through electrochem-
ical sensors on face masks, may help assess patients’ health,
determine possible diagnoses, and predict recovery, especially
for people in self-quarantine.
Textile-based electrochemical biosensors are highly desired
for noninvasive observation of human health by investigating dif-
ferent body fluids. The physiological response can be monitored
through sweat analysis; this provides valuable information for
athletes performing sports and patients with a certain condition.
Several studies can be found in the literature on the development
of textile-based pH sensors to analyze sweat and its application in
wearables.[99,100] In a different study, a multiplex sweat-analyzing
wearable patch for real-time monitoring was demonstrated.[101]
The patch was mounted on the subject’s upper arm while per-
forming an exercise to monitor biomarkers (glucose, lactate,
ascorbic acid, uric acid, Naþ, and Kþ.) in the sweat. Promphet
et al.[30] developed a flexible electrochemical sensor for the simul-
taneous detection of sweat pH and lactate. On-body trials were
carried out to demonstrate its working ability in a dynamic envi-
ronment. BIOTEX, an EU project, developed a range of electro-
chemical sensors that can measure sweat’s pH and the electrolyte
concentration for potential monitoring in patients.[27,102] The
textile-based stretchable sensors can be incorporated in
sportswear garments to monitor the physiological condition of
athletes. Table 1 shows some textile-based sensors, their fabrica-
tion techniques with materials used, and the wearable applica-
tions they are designed for.
2.2. Textile-Based Electrodes
Recent advances in the field of Textronics have paved the way for
wearable electrocardiogram (ECG) monitoring. Specifically,
textile-based electrodes have been widely used for continuous
cardiac monitoring due to their flexibility, wearing comfort,
and reusability. Unlike conventional gel electrodes, the textile-
based electrodes are nonadhesive, comfortable, and breathable,
provide a skin-friendly experience and are thus preferred by
many researchers. This type of wearable technology eliminates
the need for laboratory settings and promises early detection
and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Heart disease is the
number one cause of deaths worldwide, taking an estimated
17.9 million lives each year as per the World Health
Organization (WHO) report.[103]
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Table 1. Summary of textile-based sensors.

Sensor Material Fabrication technique Embedded on Application Ref.

Piezoresistive PANI Coating Shoe innersole Real-time human motion (walking/ [201]
rGO running)

Textile
rGo-cotton Dip-coating Innersole Plantar pressure distribution [202]
Ag fabric electrodes
Capacitive pressure sensor PDMS Vacuum-assisted PDMS Gloves and shoe’s sole Finger grabbing [57]
infiltration
Ni/Cu-plated fabric Electroplating Plantar pressure
electrode
MWCNTs Coating Chest area Human breathing [203]
PDMS
Piezoelectric PEDOT: PSS Coating Socks Walking pattern recognition [204]
Cotton textile Motion tracking
Silk Electrospinning Wearer’s elbow Gesture monitoring [205]
PVDF nanofibers
Strain Carbon Printing Gloves Finger movements [206]
Silver paste
Silver-plated knitted fabric Stitching Chest band Respiratory monitoring [207]
Temperature Metal fiber (Platinum) Weaving Wearable (shirt) Skin temperature detection [92]
Woven fabric
rGO fiber Knitting Undershirt and sock Human body temperature monitoring [208]
Electrochemical Silver ink Screen-offset printing Wearable body patch Blood leakage monitoring [209]
Organically modified silicate Sol-gel Elastic band on the lumbar region Optical monitoring of sweat pH [210]

The development of textile-based electrodes can be classified
into two categories: integration of conductive yarns or threads
into the fabrics; and the application of conductive polymers onto
fabrics using various techniques, such as coating, screen print-
ing, and sputtering.[104,105] Literature can be found on both devel-
opment techniques, which demonstrate the feasibility of ECG
monitoring by textile-based electrodes and its comparison with
traditional gel electrodes. Ankhili et al.[106] reported textile-based
embroidered electrodes for long-term ECG monitoring. With the
aim of developing an electrode having optimal skin contact
impedance, silver-plated polyamide conductive threads were
used in an embroidery machine. The chest bands with embedded
electrodes were tested on human subjects in a sitting position to
acquire ECG signals. In another study, embroidered textile elec-
trodes were developed from silver plasma-coated polyethylene
terephthalate yarns incorporated into a chest belt for long-term
monitoring of ECG signals at rest and when a wearer was mov-
ing.[107] Arquilla et al.[104] reported on stitched electrodes devel-
oped through silver-coated polyamide thread using a zigzag
sewing pattern. The electrodes were validated through human
ECG monitoring, and the results were compared with traditional
Ag/AgCl disposable electrodes. Moreover, textile-based electro-
des were developed by immersion coating of polyamide/lycra
fabric with PEDOT:PSS solution.[108] A 3-lead ECG test was car-
ried out on a female subject without any skin preparation, and
the acquired signals were considered acceptable by an
experienced cardiologist. Furthermore, PEDOT:PSS-coated elec-
trodes showed good resistance to both mechanical abrasion and
washing. For wearable applications and long-term monitoring,
washing is considered an essential parameter for textile-based
electrodes.[109–111] Shathi et al.[112] designed a washable sports
bra with embedded electrodes for wearable health monitoring.
They reported that graphene-coated textile electrodes showed bet-
ter performance when compared with Ag/AgCl-based ECG elec-
trodes due to their higher skin contact and low impedance. Other
than coating, screen-printing approaches for the fabrication of
textile electrodes and their applications in wearable ECG moni-
toring have also been widely reported.[113–115]
Promising work has been done in electronic noise reduction
to improve the signal quality for textile-based wearable ECG
applications in recent years.[116–119] Sensitivity analysis of dry
electrodes showed that they are not sensitive to the contact pres-
sure as long as it is at least 6 N.[120] Placement of the electrodes
on the human body is another critical factor to achieve high-
quality signals, as areas with fewer muscles produce fewer move-
ments during activity.[121,122] Saleh et al.[123] investigated the per-
formance of the electrodes by optimizing their shapes and sizes.
They reported that circular-shaped electrodes with a 9 cm2 area
had higher conductivity and lower skin-to-electrode impedance
than other electrode shapes. Materials and methods used in
the fabrication of textile-based electrodes determined the comfort
level and the performance of the sensors; this included an

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Figure 5. a) Fabric-based ECG electrode. b) Conductive thread-based
stitched ECG electrode.
observed increase in impedance after subsequent laundry cycles.
The researchers must strike the right balance between the vari-
ous factors influencing the performance and the wearability of
textile-based ECG electrodes. Some examples of textile-based
ECG electrodes are shown in Figure 5.
2.3. Heating Textiles
Textile-based wearable heating has a variety of potential applica-
tions, for example, treating patients with certain medical condi-
tions like Raynaud’s disease,[124] providing comfort and reducing
heating expense in cold environments.[125] Wearable heating is
also aimed to protect people against cold who work in harsh cli-
matic conditions. Such heating system has a significant advan-
tage in terms of flexibility and bending when embedded inside
clothes. In contrast, heating with nonflexible systems may cause
substantial heat losses due to fewer body contacts.
Nontextile-based wearable heating uses the electronic compo-
nents that cause wearing discomfort and must be removed
before washing the garment. The core element behind textile-
based heating is a conductive material (yarn, fabric, etc.). An elec-
tric current passing through this material will generate heat.
Depending on the supplied voltage, the heating element converts
the electric energy into heat. The wearer can adjust the heating
temperature range by choosing the appropriate voltage. Stygiene
et al.[126] developed knitted heating textiles with incorporated
conductive silver (Ag) yarns. They investigated the suitability
of supply voltages to the heating element and the rise of resulting
Figure 6. Textile-based heating pad.
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temperature. The heating effect depends on the wearable layers
of clothing, as layered clothing also reduces heat loss.
Textile-based heating systems can be grouped into two catego-
ries: polymer-based and metal-based. Comparatively, polymer-
based textile heaters are advantageous because of their efficient
heating and flexible structure. They require less electrical power
and fewer rechargeable batteries, thus providing controllable
heating.[127] There are various commercially available products
like heated gloves, heated shoes, heated garments, and blankets
on the market, but at this stage, these products have limited
numbers of consumers. More must be done to improve the con-
tinuous operating time of the power source through thermal
insulation, and thus prevent heat losses. Figure 6 shows an
example of heating textile.
2.4. Energy-Harvesting Textiles
Due to the increasing demand for powering smart wearable devi-
ces without the burden of the parasitic weight and toxicity of con-
ventional batteries, a power source based on fiber-sized
piezoelectric generators and their integration into garments
has become a key area of interest for many researchers.[128]
The piezoelectric effect is based on the capability of some mate-
rials to produce an electric charge in response to applied mechan-
ical stress. Barium titanate (BaTiO3), zinc oxide (ZnO), and lead
zirconate-titanate (PZT) are some new piezoelectric materials.
Simultaneously, PVDF is most popular among researchers
because of its large piezoelectric coefficient and uncomplicated
manufacturing.[129]
Nakad and coworkers[130] investigated the properties of piezo-
electric materials and proposed the design of gloves based on
piezoelectric film strips. These strips were incorporated into
the fabric during the weaving process. The glove was sensitive
enough to replace a keyboard by detecting the user’s typing
motions. Moreover, Kim et al.[131] developed a fabric-based wear-
able piezoelectric energy harvester. This highly flexible harvester
was fabricated using poly (vinylidene fluoride-co-trifluoroethy-
lene) [P(VDF-TrFE)] sandwiched between two conductive fabrics
through hot pressing and annealing processes. The energy har-
vesting textile produced a maximum output power density of
16.83 nW cm
2 at 55.5 kPa pressure.
Wearable energy harvesting has diverse applications, includ-
ing self-powered wireless sensors for the monitoring of vital
signs in the human body. Mokhtari et al.[34] developed hybrid
piezo fiber using PVDF and barium titanate (BT) nanoparticles
through a melt spinning process. These fibers were then knitted
© 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH
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to produce energy generators and sensors with a maximum volt-
age output of 4 V and a power density of 87 μW cm
3. They also
presented a knee sleeve based on a developed PVDF/BT energy
generator to demonstrate a real-time application. Another study
based on melt-spun PVDF microfibers with a conductive core
was reported.[132] The woven piezoelectric band was constructed
using PVDF in the warp and conductive yarn in the weft. The
band was integrated into the shoulder strap of a laptop bag
and produced 4 μW power during a brisk walk. Anand
et al.[133] presented an energy harvesting 3D-knitted spacer fabric;
this novel textile structure consisted of piezoelectric PVDF
monofilaments used as a spacer between two silver-coated poly-
amide yarn electrode layers. The 3D spacer fabric exhibited an
output power density of 1.10–5.10 μW cm
2 at the applied impact
pressures of 0.02–0.10 MPa. Due to its flexibility and high energy
efficiency, the proposed piezoelectric textile could be used in
many wearable applications of energy generation from human
movements. Matsouka et al.[134] developed piezoelectric textile
fibers for wearable energy harvesting using polypropylene (PP)
and MWCNTs. The piezoelectric textile yarns showed a promis-
ing power range. As PP has better mechanical and chemical
properties than PVDF, their research showed that PP could be
another potential candidate for the development of wearable
energy harvesting systems. Thus, the idea of energy-harvesting
textiles promotes the solution to the problem of providing wear-
able power sources with versatile functions, such as sensing and
communication interface.[135]
2.5. Textile-Based Energy Storage
In recent years, the size of electronics components has shrunk
considerably due to advancements in microelectromechanical
systems, or MEMS technology. The scientists’ diligent effort
to seamlessly integrate these electronic components into textiles
through a reliable, cost effective, scalable, and efficient way is
ongoing.[136]
To power these new and innovative wearable gadgets, an
energy storage system must comply by having high power, high
energy density, and flexibility, in addition to improved safety fea-
tures, and long-life cycle life.[137] As mentioned previously,
textile-based sensors are mostly passive, but some require an
external power supply to operate. There are several drawbacks
to fully integrate conventional batteries into the matrix of smart
textile. Lack of flexibility, weight, and bulkiness are a few of the
issues associated with traditional power sources, thus rendering
them incompatible for wearable sensors and smart textiles.[138]
Developing textiles for energy storage applications has many dis-
tinct advantages, like better wearability, easy embedment, and
large surface area for higher energy storage capabilities.[139,140]
Many different techniques have been deployed in converting
conventional textiles into operational energy storage devices. The
main focus has been to formulate a functional device using
numerous textile-based materials and to incorporate them with
different electrode materials and electrolytes while using various
fabrication techniques. Few of the recent review articles provide
an elaborative account of these techniques and methods.[139–148]
Hu et al.[149] reported the use of textiles in energy storage
applications by incorporating CNTs into a cotton matrix. Li
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et al.[150] reported a next-generation knittable, wearable, and flex-
ible zinc-air battery. They wrapped zinc wire with a 3 mm porous
chiffon band and dipped this hybrid wire in gel polymer electro-
lyte. The chiffon band acted as a reservoir for the electrolyte, a
separator to prevent short circuiting, and its resilience helped in
the fabric manufacturing process. Then they spray-coated Co3O4-
N-rGO sheets onto carbon fiber and wrapped them around the
hybrid wire to make the end product. They knitted the battery inside
a garment sleeve to power an light emitting diode (LED) watch.
They also demonstrated charging an iPhone 4s while using a sim-
ple universal serial bus (USB) interface and a combination of zinc–
air batteries knitted into a pocket. In a different study by Lu et al.,[151]
cotton fabric was carbonized and loaded with sulphur to obtain free-
standing composite sodium–sulfur batteries. They lit the LED lights
logo with the textile-based device they formed, which was packaged
in a pouched cell structure. Qiu et al.[152] etched carbon cloth for
nitrogen doping and loaded it with Zn and MnO2 arrays to form
a quasisolid-state battery. They showed its practical application by
illuminating a logo by light-emitting diodes and charging an iPhone
6 through two or three devices connected in series.
SCs are electrochemical capacitors (ECs)[153] that store charge
in the electric field of an electrochemical double layer.[154,155]
They are one of the more favored candidates for energy storage
because of their excellent electrochemical properties. One of the
SC types that are widely being researched is the electric double-
layer capacitor (EDLC). EDLCs work on the principle of energy
storage by the charge separation at the electrode/electrolyte inter-
face. They are mainly focused on the materials based on carbon,
activated carbons and graphene, and CNTs.[156] Liu et al.[157] used
cotton yarn to deposit Ni metal through an electroless deposition
technique. The electrochemical deposition method has also been
used to deposit GO, which was reduced by hydrazine vapor. A
gel–polymer electrolyte was used to form a solid-state SC. It
was a highly scalable process, and they demonstrated the wear-
able application by embroidering their composite yarn electrodes
and weaving a fabric with a solid-state yarn SC inside. An LED
was also lit using this SC to show how it worked. In another
study, industrial-grade MWCNTs were dip-pad coated on cotton
fabric to produce energy storage devices. Optimization of the fab-
rication process was conducted, and uniform coatings were
achieved with 10 mg mL
1 MWCNT dispersion and eight
dip-pad-dry cycles. Proof of the concept was shown by lighting
an LED strip and powering commercial hygrometer and temper-
ature sensor systems.[158]
Textile-based energy storage offers immense potential in
powering wearables and on-person devices, with many advan-
tages: flexibility, lightweight, resilience, large surface area, etc.
Further research is still needed to develop less complicated, fac-
ile, less time consuming, and scalable processes so that these
products can become commercially available in the near future.
2.6. Textile-Based Communication
Wearable textile-based communication systems in healthcare can
remotely communicate medical information from patients at
home to health professionals for continuously monitoring vital
signs to evaluate patient’s real-time condition. Roudjane
et al.[159] designed wearable sensors based on fiber antennas
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www.advancedsciencenews.com
connected to a Bluetooth transmitter. The sensor array was
embedded in a T-shirt to monitor breathing through abdominal
movements. Several articles are available on the development
techniques of textile-based antennas,[160,161] and their integration
methods[162] into wearables. Jiang et al.[163] presented flexible tex-
tile-based near-field communication (NFC) radio-frequency iden-
tification (RFID) antennas using embroidery techniques, and
fully integrated them with garments; the developed antennas
had potential health monitoring applications.
Embroidered RFID antennas provide an ecofriendly solution
to reduce the metallic waste from traditional antennas and
remove RFID integration’s overhead cost using fabric products.
Both the conductive yarn properties and the embroidered geom-
etry resolution are important parameters to consider when
designing these types of antennas.[164] Flexible antennas for
ultrahigh frequency (UHF) RFID have been widely researched
for wearable applications.[165,166] Tu et al.[167] designed a
fabric-based chipless RFID tag for wearable applications using
a screen printing technique. The tag acquired consistent fre-
quency response. Their work has proved the feasibility of this
fabrication technique and that the fabric-based chipless RFID
tags have great potential to be used in the clothing industry
for product management and tracking.
Textile-based antennas are integrated into clothing to provide
one of the best solutions for wearable wireless communication
systems, such as the global positioning system (GPS). Textile-
based communication and tracking systems are critical for res-
cue workers and firefighters working in a harsh environment.[168]
Vallozi et al.[169] proposed a GPS patch antenna based on conduc-
tive textile for rescue workers. They integrated the antenna into a
Table 2. Textronics materials and wearable applications.
Type of Textronics Material
Textile-based electrode Conductive ink
Fabric with latex
Silver-plated conductive fabric
Heating textile Copper-based braided conductive yarns
Silver nanowire percolative network
PDMS film
Energy harvesting textile Polyester fabric
Nickel/parylene coating
SS fibers
Silicone rubber coating
Textile-based energy storage Polyester fibers/yarns
Nickel coating
rGO coating
CNT yarns
Silicone rubber fiber
Platinum wire
Textile-based communication Conductive fabric
Nomex felt
Textile thread
Metal composite embroidered yarn (Ag–copper filaments)
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protective garment and evaluated the antenna performance by
taking real-time measurements. Wearable antennas designed
for GPS tracking are also an important technology for military
and personal applications. In Table 2, from the academic litera-
ture, the types of Textronics, materials used in their fabrication
and the wearable applications are summarized.
3. Wearable Applications
3.1. Sports
The sportswear industry is one of the very first to start taking
advantage of the growing Textronics technology. Smart sports-
wear has the potential to bring a dramatic change in the way ath-
letes are trained and physiologically monitored during the game
to enhance their performance. Several e-textile products have
been introduced in the market by major sportswear brands,
and the markets for most of them are exponentially growing.
Figure 7 shows a smart sock with embedded textile-based sen-
sors capable of monitoring the distance travelled, speed, and
steps taken by an athlete. The Sensoria smart sock can also help
to identify injury-prone running styles by tracking the foot land-
ing techniques. The data are sent wirelessly through a detachable
Bluetooth component to a mobile application running on a
smartphone. Gait analysis through pressure profiling is one of
the most important techniques for a runner to track his/her per-
formance. Figure 8 shows a smart shirt commercialized by
Hexoskin. This product can collect and send the user’s data to
a mobile application using Bluetooth technology. The mobile
application then sends the data to cloud. The collected data
Wearable application Ref.
Headband for forehead EEG signals [211]
Armband, chest band [212]
Knee/neck heating pad [213]
Wrist band [214]
Shirt embedded with triboelectric nanogenerators [215]
Self-powered gesture sensing glove [216]
Micro SCs embedded in clothes [217]
Stretchable medical patch [218]
Integrated into a spacesuit for wireless communication [219]
Attached to a jacket for FM reception [220]
© 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH
www.advancedsciencenews.com
Figure 7. Sensoria smart sock. Reproduced with permission.[193]
Copyright 2014, Sensoria.
parameters include blood pressure, skin temperature, breathing
rate, ECG, blood oxygen level, and activity level. Figure 9 shows
a sports bra designed by Emglare, a Europe-based tech company.
They have four major products, i.e., an undershirt, sports T-shirt,
bra, and sports bra, all capable of monitoring the heart rate and
ECG of the wearer. The sports bra automatically starts collecting
the data from the user as soon as it is worn. The data are then sent
to a mobile application using wireless technology.
Figure 10 shows yoga pants named Nadi X. The product is
designed by Wearable X, an American fashion tech company.
It is intended for users who wish to take yoga classes without
an instructor. The yoga pants come with a small electronic device
called a pulse. The pulse is a detachable part of the yoga pants. It
connects with a mobile application using Bluetooth technology
and detects the posture of the wearer. Feedback about the wrong
posture is communicated in two ways. First, audio instructions
are sent through mobile application. Second, small vibrators are
used to create vibrations in different parts of the body. These
vibrators are placed in the pants at several places.
Figure 8. Hexoskin smart shirt. Reproduced with permission.[194] Copyright 2019, Hexoskin.
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3.2. Healthcare
In addition to the literature on the development of wearable
Textronics, there are also commercial smart textile products in
the medical field that aim to improve diagnostic and real-time
tracking of physiological parameters. Smart clothing with
embedded ECG electrodes has become more prevalent in health-
care because an early diagnosis of heart disease can prevent sud-
den death.
Komodo Technologies product AIO (all in one) smart sleeve, as
shown in Figure 11, consists of an AIO chip, electrodes, electrode
connector, and a magnetic charger connected to a mobile. The
AIO chip is detachable and can be connected with the sleeve
whenever required. The chip has a battery which can be charged
wirelessly with the help of a magnetic charger. The electrodes and
the electrode connectors are used to collect the heart signals from
human skin. The data collected by the chip are sent to a mobile
application using Bluetooth technology. The sleeve is antibacterial
and washable. The application provides the users with a number
called a health score, which is determined based on the heart rate
variability (HRV) and represents the user’s health condition.
Owlet Smart Sock[170] is a Chinese product designed for the
monitoring of children’s health to avoid sudden infant death syn-
drome (SIDS). It collects information about the heart rate and
oxygen level of the wearer. It is connected with a mobile applica-
tion wirelessly and sends data to the application continuously.
The device has a built-in battery that can be charged wirelessly.
The package contains three socks of different sizes, which can be
used for children from newborn to 18 months.
Diabetes patients are prone to many issues, including foot
swelling, which could cause severe infection and lead to ampu-
tation if not detected and prevented at the right time. Siren is a
US-based tech startup that has developed “Siren Socks,” as
shown in Figure 12. The socks have embedded microsensors
to monitor the foot temperature at several points. The tempera-
ture is monitored continuously, and an alert is generated as soon
as temperature variation is observed. The data can be sent to a
mobile device or cloud using Wi-Fi. One pair of socks is useable
for 6 months and is replaced with a new pair after that period.
© 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH
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Figure 9. Emglare sports bra. Reproduced with permission.[195] Copyright 2021, Emglare Inc.
Figure 10. Nadi X with the pulse. Reproduced with permission.[196]
Copyright 2021, Wearable X.
The socks stay in sleep mode and become active only when they
are worn. The socks have a built-in battery, which lasts for 6
months; hence, the need for charging is eliminated. They are
machine washable for up to 100 washes.
French swimwear company “Spinali Design” is selling the
smart bikini shown in Figure 13. The product consists of a bikini,
a detachable electronic device, and a smartphone application. It
contains an ultraviolet (UV) sensor that monitors the temperature
continuously and predicts the amount of sunlight received by the
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skin. Based on the predicted data, it sends an alert to the user’s
smartphone to reapply the sunscreen. The objective is to protect
the user from sunburn caused by the overexposure of skin to the
sun, which is considered one of the most common causes of skin
cancer. The bikini is custom-made to achieve the perfect fit and
users must input their skin type before using it. A smartphone
application is available for both Android and iOS users.
The pair of smart gloves shown in Figure 14 is another prod-
uct from “Spinali Design”. The gloves are an everyday-use prod-
uct, designed in the current situation for protection from
COVID-19 and other pathogens. The product is made using
self-cleaning fabrics treated with titanium dioxide to impart their
self-cleaning property. Such materials disinfect themselves when
they are exposed to natural or artificial UV light using the phe-
nomenon of photocatalysis. A communication sensor is inte-
grated into the gloves, which monitor the level of infection in the
gloves. If needed, the gloves can disinfect themselves using
the UV light present in the natural daylight. In addition to that,
the company is also providing a UV lamp to disinfect the gloves
artificially. The product comes with a smartphone application.
3.3. Military
The military was the first domain which started using smart tex-
tiles a few decades ago. The smart textiles were then made by inte-
grating standalone electronics into the clothes. Most of the military-
related inventions are not disclosed, however, some of them, for
which data are publicly available, are described as follows.
Japanese scientists at the University of Tokyo have developed a
fabric called invisibility cloak[171] to make the wearer invisible.
The fabric is designed using nanoparticles, which can reflect
light. A camera is fitted on the backside of the fabric which
records the scene behind the user and sends these images to
the nanoparticles. These nanoparticles then display the same
images which create the illusion of being invisible.
© 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH
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Figure 11. AIO smart sleeve. Reproduced with permission.[197] Copyright 2020, Komodo Tech.
Figure 12. Siren Socks. Reproduced with permission.[198] Copyright 2020,
Siren Care.
American scientists are trying to develop a fabric for the detec-
tion of hazardous gasses. They have developed a self-organized
framework on textiles (SOFT) e-textile. SOFT uses textile-
supported electronic sensors based on materials known as a
metal–organic framework (MOF). The material is conductive,
flexible, porous, and washable, making it a perfect smart
wearable. The developers believe that the material will be worn
with a HazMat suit in future. It will not only detect the hazardous
gasses but will also alert the user about any breach in the HazMat
suit. Currently, nitric oxide or hydrogen sulfide is detected using
MOF, but scientists believe that the technology has the potential
to be used for other gasses soon.
In collaboration with Intelligent Textile Ltd, BAE Systems have
developed an invisible power and data network named
Broadsword Spine.[172] They embedded conductive yarns into
a vest for power and data transmission. Conductive channels
are connected to the central power and data system. The vest con-
tains five USB 2 connections for users to connect their electronic
devices. The replacement of wires and cables has reduced the
weight of the product by 40%.
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Figure 13. Spinali smart bikini. Reproduced with permission.[199]
Copyright 2021, Spinali.
In 2019, the European Defense Agency (EDA) launched a smart
textiles project known as STILE. The project was focused on smart
textiles in defense and aimed to develop a proof of concept on a
textile substrate with multiple functions, considering the future
military requirements. The prototype was developed with several
functions such as signature management (camouflage), chemical,
biological, and radiological (CBR) threat monitoring and hazard-
ous gasses detection, flame retardancy, temperature regulation,
physiological monitoring, communication, etc. In the next phase,
the prototype will be tested in the field, and finally, an exhibition
center will be developed to display the fully tested STILE model.
© 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH
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Figure 14. Spinali smart gloves. Reproduced with permission.[200] Copyright 2021, Spinali.
3.4. Fashion
Today, fashion trends are changing at a much faster rate than
ever before. The use of artificial intelligence and IoT in fashion
is becoming more common. Wearables developed through
embedding electronics into textiles contribute a major part of
modern-day fashion. Some of the examples are discussed as
follows.
A US-based startup Shiftwear has designed user-programma-
ble sneakers.[173] The sneakers are waterproof, stain, oil, and dust
resistant. Several components are embedded in the sneakers,
such as battery, high-quality flexible display, accelerometer, gyro-
scope, wireless connectivity, etc. Two tiny chargers are embedded
in the sole, which generate electricity during walking. The
sneakers can also be charged wirelessly using a wireless charging
pad. Wireless technology is used to connect the sneakers with the
user’s smartphone. The product can also change the display by
detecting the foot motions (tilt, step, etc.). The foot motions are
detected with the help of accelerometer and gyroscope.
A glow-in-the-dark dress, designed by Zac Posen, was dis-
played in Met Gala 2016.[174] The sky-blue ball gown was
completely hand sewn and made of organza and optical fibers.
The optical fibers enabled the dress to glow in the dark.
Several wearable batteries were used to power up the dress.
American designer, Christopher Bevans, has launched a line
of functional streetwear named Dyne’s collection.[175] NFC tech-
nology is used in these clothes. Each garment contains an NFC
patch. Pressing a smartphone against the NFC patch connects
the wearer to Dyne’s style line, which explains the garment’s
technical details. The designer envisages a future product capable
of replacing IDs and credit cards by communicating with other
devices.
4. Evaluation of Textronics
With the exponential increase in smart textiles and the general
awareness of people regarding their use for continuous health
tracking, more efforts are now being made to overcome the
issues related to their wearability. This includes the ability to bear
mechanical stresses, reliability in terms of performance and
Adv. Eng. Mater. 2021, 23, 2100469 2100469 (14 of 19)
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washability. As discussed in the previous section, wearable elec-
tronics have a wide range of applications, including sports and
healthcare, but each of these fields presents different challenges
in terms of durability as they undergo various levels of impact
based on their usage. It is crucial to determine and ensure
the projected life span of smart textile products. As most aca-
demic literature has focused on the development techniques
and characterization of electronic textile products, very few have
studied their robustness behavior through mechanical and
chemical test methods. Tao et al.[110] investigated the wash dam-
age on coated and embroidered ECG electrodes. They analyzed
the samples through scanning electron microscope (SEM) images
and evaluated their performance in terms of conductivity after 50
chemical washes and 10 000 abrasion cycles. Their results showed
that all the developed dry ECG electrodes survived the washing
forces and mechanical tests except for copper-coated electrodes,
which showed little increase in electrical resistance after washing.
Another study showed that the signal-to-noise ratio of low viscosity
PEDOT:PSS-coated fabric electrode decreased after 50 wash cycles,
whereas the fabric coated with high viscosity solution showed good
washing resistance.[108] Liu et al.[176] evaluated the performance of
metal-coated conductive fabrics following the AATCC M6
(Standardization of Home Laundry Test Conditions) test standard
for laundering. They measured the electrical resistance using a four-
point probe method, before and after washing. Their results
revealed that all coated conductive fabrics showed an increase in
electrical resistance with laundry cycles, whilst silver-coated fabric
outperformed other metal coatings, with copper performing the
worst. The effects of wear and tear due to washing on strain sen-
sors,[177–179] pressure sensors,[180–182] and other textile-based
sensors[183,184] were reported. Their performance was evaluated
based on electrical conductivity before and after washing.
Textronics undergo various types of stresses and strains dur-
ing wear. Studies have been conducted to understand the impact
of repeated stress and strain cycles on textile-based sensors’ per-
formance and reliability. A pressure sensor was subjected to
cyclic loading for 3000 cycles to analyze its fatigue behavior
and response time.[46] Stretch sensors for knitted textiles have
gone through 100 cycles of stretching and relaxation to study
how fatigue may affect the sensors’ performance over time.[185]
© 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH
www.advancedsciencenews.com
The reliability of screen-printed nonwoven e-textiles was investi-
gated through isothermal fatigue cycling at different test condi-
tions.[186] A conductive polymer-coated elastomer was evaluated,
and it was claimed that the woven structure showed high dura-
bility after a load test of 106 cycles.[187]
Textronics are designed to be used for an extended period
on the human body. This has led to considerable research
interest in wearing comfort and flexibility and the evaluation
of performance while carrying out daily activities. Researchers
reported information on sensor performance during static and
dynamic loading within the realistic test conditions for com-
pression therapy.[188] Trindade et al.[189] evaluated a T-shirt
with embedded sensors for monitoring vital signs, and con-
ducted performance tests with subjects in standing and walk-
ing positions to study the signal interference caused by motion
artifacts. The performance of the textile-based motion sensors
was measured to investigate the effect of their attachment posi-
tion on clothing.[190,191] Suitable placement of the embedded
sensor is one of the most critical parameters for wearable
sensing.[192]
Every textile-based sensor is evaluated with respect to its target
application. It is crucial to test the embedded sensor’s function-
ality, wearing flexibility, durability, and washing performance to
get reliable and continuous monitoring results. These parame-
ters are influenced by the types of material and fabrication strat-
egies. Textronics must preserve the wearer’s comfort while
providing accurate sensor data. Evaluation results may help to
develop application standards for embedded wearable
electronics.
5. Conclusion
This article reviewed the progress of textile-based wearable elec-
tronics, and their applications in sports, medical, military, and
fashion were highlighted with more emphasis given on the
application-focused literature. In addition, selected commercial
products were mentioned to show the broad opportunities and
prospects for wearable technology. Furthermore, the evaluation
techniques for textile-based wearable electronics were described.
These are essential in setting up the standards for this emerging
technology. Finally, some limitations, recommendations, and
future prospects for this field were enumerated. Overall, this
Review provides guidelines for both the researchers and
designers of textile-based wearable technologies and constitutes
an important foundation for future studies in this exciting
field.
Over the past few decades, there has been a significant interest
in flexible wearable devices for health monitoring and other
on-body smart applications. An exponential increase in the
IoT technology has created a great demand to develop novel
wearable sensors. These sensors hold an influential position
in maintaining and improving the quality of life. Textronics
are set to revolutionize the conceptual design of the apparel
sector in the near future; however, there are many development
challenges and problems that severely hinder their commerciali-
zation on a large scale. One major issue is the continuous supply
of power to the embedded sensors. A second important aspect is
the secure communication of signals from the sensor to the base
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station. These challenges can only be addressed by a multidisci-
plinary approach where experts from diverse fields work together
to create new ideas and develop new solutions.
Recently, textile-based wearable electronics have attracted
many high-tech companies and researchers to invest their time
and capital in this challenging field. As a result, a lot of commer-
cial products are now all over the market. The researchers have
developed new techniques to integrate electronics into textiles.
This Review has clearly shown that the textile-based integration,
where electronic elements are developed within the yarn or fabric
structure, does not interfere with the textile properties and can be
used in various wearable applications. As the field of Textronics
matures, we may expect to have more electronic functionalities at
the fiber level. This will help to further eliminate the issues asso-
ciated with the wearability and washability of textile-based
electronics.
As our world is moving toward the 4IR, the rapid expansion of
interest can be seen in wearable technology. The economic value
and impact of Textronics are gigantic. The constant need to
improve human life quality through continuous health monitor-
ing promises an ever-growing advancement in wearable electron-
ics, making them more feasible for practical applications.
Electronic textiles will have the greatest impact on the clothing
industry in the future. This Review will undoubtedly help under-
standing textile-based wearable electronics and advancing them
to mainstream technologies by bridging the communication
gaps in the field.
Acknowledgements
N.A.C. acknowledges the Research Scholarship provided by the Royal
Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) University, Australia and the
Higher Education Commission (HEC), Pakistan.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Keywords
electrodes, electronic textiles, Fourth Industrial Revolution, Internet-of-
Things, sensors, smart clothings, wearables
Received: May 6, 2021
Published online: August 21, 2021
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Nauman Ali Choudhry is currently pursuing a Ph.D. degree in fashion & textiles at RMIT University,
Australia. Previously, he worked as a lecturer and researcher at National Textile University, Pakistan,
where he was engaged in various e-textile projects. His research interests include wearable technology,
smart materials, and textile-based sensors.

Lyndon Arnold is a research physicist with over 50 years’ experience. He has worked for more than
19 years for CSIRO, Australia and 13 years as a researcher at RMIT University, Australia.

Lijing Wang is with RMIT, Australia since 2009. His research interest includes smart and high-
performance textiles, clothing comfort, wearable technology, functional design, material science,
engineering, and modeling.

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