Journal of

Marine Science
and Engineering

Article
Failure Analysis of Topside Facilities on Oil/Gas
Platforms in the Bohai Sea
Songsong Yu 1 , Dayong Zhang 2, * and Qianjin Yue 2
1 Faculty of Vehicle Engineering & Mechanics, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China;
931679960@mail.dlut.edu.cn
2 School of Ocean Science & Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin 124221, China;
yueqj@dlut.edu.cn
* Correspondence: zhangdayong_2001@163.com




Received: 22 February 2019; Accepted: 25 March 2019; Published: 27 March 2019


Abstract: The jacket platform in the Bohai Sea oilfield is an important engineering development,
offering design alternatives in this economically important region. However, ice-induced vibration
in cold areas threatens the safety and operation of these platforms. On two occasions, intense
ice-induced vibrations triggered the rupture of a well’s blow down pipeline, loosening the flanges on
the Bohai platform, and leading to the ejection of high-pressure natural gas. Subsequent mechanical
analysis of the failed parts helped define the mechanism of failure and identified the failure criteria,
based on a prototype structure monitoring system. The analysis revealed that the deck’s inertial force,
which resulted in ice-induced steady-state vibration, was the major cause of the accident. Three fixed
cones were thus installed on the platform the following winter, effectively reducing the vibrations.

Keywords: jacket platform; ice-induced vibration; failure mechanism; ice-resistant cone

1. Introduction
The shallow waters of the Bohai Sea are home to an abundance of oil reserves. More than 100
offshore platforms have been built on this gulf, making it the second-largest offshore oil production
base in China. However, the Bohai Sea is a seasonal icing sea region and the ice is frequently driven
by tides. Natural conditions, such as water depth, temperature, and presence of waves cause severe
ice conditions in winter. Owing to the specific characteristics of marginal oilfields, the Bohai Sea oil
and gas platform is an economically important jacket structure, to which the threat from sea ice is far
greater than environmental hazards (wind, waves, currents, tides, earthquakes, etc.). Additionally, sea
ice in cold regions poses higher risks to offshore oil platforms [1–3].
This paper discusses two serious accidents that took place on a Bohai platform, caused by intense
ice-induced vibration. During the events, the unmanned wellhead platform, which was designed as a
three-leg vertical jacket structure (Figure 1), was exposed to steady-state vibration that lasted for more
than 10 minutes, resulting in the rupture of a well’s blow down pipeline (Figure 2a). High-pressure
natural gas was subsequently ejected, leading to automatic shutdown of the platform. An inspection
of the site revealed a loose flange, which was the cause of the gas leak (Figure 2b). It was also made
known that the currents occurred during slack tide, when ice speeds were slow. The thickness of the
ice was found to be 8 cm and 11 cm, respectively, when the accidents occurred.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 86; doi:10.3390/jmse7040086 www.mdpi.com/journal/jmse

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 86 2 of 12
J.
J. Mar.
Mar. Sci.
Sci. Eng.
Eng. 2019,
2019, 7,
7, 86
86 2
2 of
of 12
12

Figure
Figure 1. The
The natural
natural gas
gas platform
platform where
where the accident took place.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 2. Sea-icedamage
2. Sea-ice
Sea-ice damageto
damage totoplatforms
platforms
platforms in in
in Bohai:
Bohai:
Bohai: (a) (a)
(a) Rupture
Rupture
Rupture of aaofblow
of a blow
blow down
down
down pipeline.
pipeline.
pipeline. (b) (b)loose
(b) The
The The
loose
loose
flange.flange.
flange.

This
This paper addresses the risk of oil and gas exploration in the Bohai Sea during winter. Based
This paper
paper addresses
addresses thethe risk
risk of
of oil
oil and
and gas
gas exploration
exploration inin the
the Bohai
Bohai Sea
Sea during
during winter.
winter. Based
Based
on
on data obtained by field monitoring systems, case studies were conducted on gas leakage accidents
on data obtained by field monitoring systems, case studies were conducted on gas leakage accidents
data obtained by field monitoring systems, case studies were conducted on gas leakage accidents
to
to illustrate the ice-induced
ice-induced failureof of theoil
oil andgas
gas platform,and and clarify the criteria of failure.
to illustrate
illustrate the
the ice-induced failure
failure of the
the oil and
and gas platform,
platform, and clarify
clarify the
the criteria
criteria of
of failure.
failure. It
It
It provides
provides a theoretical basis to study the safety and security of oil and gas development in cold
provides a theoretical basis to study the safety and security of oil and gas development in cold regions
a theoretical basis to study the safety and security of oil and gas development in cold regions
regions
BohaiofSea.
of Bohai Bohai Sea.
Sea.
of
2.
2. Failure Mechanism Analysis of the Upper Substructure of the Platform
2. Failure
Failure Mechanism
Mechanism Analysis
Analysis of
of the
the Upper
Upper Substructure
Substructure of
of the
the Platform
Platform
2.1. Failure Analysis of Pipeline Fracture
2.1.
2.1. Failure
Failure Analysis
Analysis of
of Pipeline
Pipeline Fracture
Fracture
Natural gas pipelines are an important component of offshore platforms. During a period of
Natural
Natural gas
gas pipelines
pipelines are
are an
an important
important component
component of
of offshore
offshore platforms.
platforms. During aa period of
intense ice formation, the blow-down pipeline in the upper platform shook violentlyDuring
and was period of
fractured.
intense
intense ice
ice formation,
formation, the
the blow-down
blow-down pipeline
pipeline in
in the
the upper
upper platform
platform shook
shook violently
violently and
and was
was
The ice-induced vibration resulted in the leakage of natural gas. In the vibration curve, obtained by
fractured.
fractured. The
The ice-induced
ice-induced vibration resulted in
in the leakage of natural
natural gas. In
In the
the vibration curve,
field monitoring (Figure 3), itvibration resulted
can be seen that therethe leakage
was ofsteady-state
a strong gas.vibrationvibration curve,
of the platform
obtained
obtained by
by field
field monitoring
monitoring (Figure
(Figure 3),
3), it
it can
can be
be seen
seen that
that there
there was
was a
a strong
strong steady-state
steady-state vibration
vibration
when the accident occurred.
of
of the
the platform
platform whenwhen the
the accident
accident occurred.
occurred.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 86 3 of 12

J.
J. Mar.
Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019,
Sci. Eng. 2019, 7,
7, 86
86 33 of
of 12
12
15
15
10

Displacement(mm)
10
Displacement(mm) 5
5
0

-50
-5
-10
-10
-15
-15 60 70 80 90 100
Time(second)
60 70 80 90 100
Time(second)
Figure 3. Displacement curve of the top deck when the pipeline fracture occurred.
Figure 3. Displacement curve of the top deck when the pipeline fracture occurred.
Figure 4 Figure
shows3.a Displacement curve of the
part of the blowdown top deckafter
pipeline when theaccident.
the pipeline Mechanical
fracture occurred.
analysis revealed
that the blowdown
Figure 4 showspipe belongs
a part of theto the cantilever
blowdown structure
pipeline andaccident.
after the the fixed Mechanical
part is connected to the
analysis deck.
revealed
Figure 4 shows a part of the blowdown pipeline after the accident. Mechanical analysis revealed
The horizontal ice-induced shaking that occurred on the fixed part of the pipe
that the blowdown pipe belongs to the cantilever structure and the fixed part is connected to was found to the
be
that the blowdown pipe belongs to the cantilever structure and the fixed part is connected to the deck.
equivalent to the bending
deck. The horizontal vibration
ice-induced caused
shaking thatby a seismic
occurred on load. Thispart
the fixed eventually caused
of the pipe a whiplash
was found to be
The horizontal ice-induced shaking that occurred on the fixed part of the pipe was found to be
effect.
equivalent to the bending vibration caused by a seismic load. This eventually caused a whiplash effect.
equivalent to the bending vibration caused by a seismic load. This eventually caused a whiplash
effect.

Figure 4.
Figure Partial structure
4. Partial structure of
of the
the blowdown
blowdown pipe.
pipe.

A fracture analysis of theFigure

affected section
4. Partial of the blowdown
structure pipe (Figure
of the blowdown pipe. 5) identified the following
characteristics:

1. The fractured surface, which was a typical fatigue fracture, had an obvious fatigue source zone, a
fatigue crack propagation zone, and a fatigue fracture zone.
2. The fracture was perpendicular to the axis, which meant that the fatigue fracture was caused by a
bending load.
3. The fracture surface was uneven, with no obvious fatigue curve, and the distance between fatigue
striations was large, illustrating low-cycle fatigue fracturing under high stress.

Study of the fixed part of the blowdown pipe indicates that the fatigue fracture load was a bending
load. The following conclusions
Figure 5.were made byedge
The fractured analyzing the macro-
of the blowdown and micro characteristics of
pipe.
the fracture: The fracture of the blowdown pipe had obvious fatigue features, and it exemplified a
low-cycle fatigueanalysis
A fracture ofFigure
fracture under 5. The fractured
thea affected
bending load. edge
of of
When
section the
the
the blowdown
damage
blowdown pipe.
caused
pipeby(Figure
alternating external loads
5) identified the
reached a certain degree,
following characteristics: it resulted in fatigue failure. The severe ice-induced vibration accelerated the
A fracture analysis of the affected section of the blowdown pipe (Figure 5) identified the
fatigue
1. Thefailure of the
fractured blowdown
surface, which pipe
wasand eventually
a typical caused
fatigue the ejection
fracture, of high-pressure
had an obvious natural
fatigue source gas.
zone,
following characteristics:
a fatigue crack propagation zone, and a fatigue fracture zone.
1. The fractured surface, which was a typical fatigue fracture, had an obvious fatigue source zone,
a fatigue crack propagation zone, and a fatigue fracture zone.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 86 4 of 12
Figure 4. Partial structure of the blowdown pipe.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 86 4 of 12

2. The fracture was perpendicular to the axis, which meant that the fatigue fracture was caused by
a bending load.
3. The fracture surface was uneven, with no obvious fatigue curve, and the distance between
fatigue striations was large, illustrating low-cycle fatigue fracturing under high stress.
Study of the fixed part of the blowdown pipe indicates that the fatigue fracture load was a
bending load. The following conclusions were made by analyzing the macro- and micro
characteristics of the fracture: The fracture of the blowdown pipe had obvious fatigue features, and
it exemplified a low-cycle fatigue fracture under a bending load. When the damage caused by
alternating external loads reached a certain degree, it resulted in fatigue failure. The severe ice-
induced vibration accelerated the fatigue failure of the blowdown pipe and eventually caused the
5. The fractured edge of the blowdown pipe.
Figure gas.
ejection of high-pressure natural
2.2. Failure Analysis
A fracture of Flange
analysis of Looseness
the affected section of the blowdown pipe (Figure 5) identified the
2.2. Failure Analysis of Flange Looseness
following characteristics:
Figure 6 shows the severe ice-induced vibration, which resulted in loosening of the flange of the
1. Figure
platform’s
6 showssurface,
The fractured
upper deck
the severe ice-induced
valve,which
and subsequent
vibration,
was a typical which
fatigue
leakage
resulted
fracture,
of natural had
gas.
in loosening
Ananinspection
of the source
obvious fatigue flange of
of the platform
the
zone,
after
platform’s upper deck
a fatiguerevealed valve,
crack propagation and subsequent
zone, and leakage
a fatigue of natural gas. An inspection of the platform
the accident that the graphite spiral gasket fracture zone.
flanges had 47% loose bolts, and the remaining
after the accident revealed that the graphite spiral gasket flanges had 47% loose bolts, and the
had pretightening force of at least 50 N-m, after the system was fully depressurized. It was revealed
remaining had pretightening force of at least 50 N-m, after the system was fully depressurized. It was
that the reduction in flange pretightening force caused by bolts loose was the main reason for the
revealed that the reduction in flange pretightening force caused by bolts loose was the main reason
flange failure.
for the flange failure.
10
Displacement（mm）

-5

-10
420 430 440 450
Time（second）
Figure 6. Displacement curve of the top deck when the accident occurred.
Figure 6. Displacement curve of the top deck when the accident occurred.
A flange is an important coupling part of industrial pipes, generally consisting of washers, flange
bolts,Aand
flange
nuts.is an
The important coupling part
flange’s connection of industrial
depends on the pipes, generally
pretightening consisting
force between of the
washers,
bolt and flange
the
bolts,transmitting
nut, and nuts. The flange’sbetween
pressure connection the depends
gasket and on the
the flange;
pretightening forceundergoes
the washer between the bolt and the
elastic-plastic
nut, transmitting
deformation pressure
to achieve between
a seal. thetogasket
It is liable cause and the flange;
deteriorating the washer
connection andundergoes
loose of theelastic-plastic
flange in the
deformation
operating to achieve
conditions a seal.
where It is and
impact liable to causeoccur
vibration deteriorating
frequently.connection and loose
Several long-term of thehave
studies flangebeenin
the operating
conducted conditions
on the where impact
failure mechanism and vibration occur
of vibration-induced boltfrequently.
loosening. Several
Goodierlong-term
and Sweeney studies
[4]
have been conducted
conducted an experimental on thestudy
failureonmechanism
the loosening of vibration-induced
mechanism of bolted boltstructures
loosening.under
Goodier and
an axial
Sweeney load
vibration [4] conducted
and found that an experimental
self-looseningstudy on by
is caused thethe
loosening mechanismofof
relative movement thebolted
threadstructures
and other
under an axial vibration load and found that self-loosening is caused by the
contact surfaces. However, when a radial slip between the screw-thread occurs, the circumferential relative movement of the
thread and other contact surfaces. However, when a radial slip between
friction is zero. Because of the movement caused by normal contact stress, the screw–thread pairthe screw-thread occurs, the
circumferential
eventually slips friction is zero. Because
in the circumferential of the movement
direction. caused[5]
Gerhard Junker bystudied
normal thecontact stress,mechanism
loosening the screw–
thread pair eventually slips in the circumferential direction. Gerhard Junker
of bolted structures under lateral loads and confirmed that transverse vibration was the main [5] studied the loosening
reason
mechanism
for it. Hess andof bolted
Pai [6]structures under lateral
from the University of loads
Southand confirmed
Florida that element
used finite transverse vibration
analysis was the
software to
main reason
analyze for state.
contact it. Hess andrevealed
They Pai [6] fromthatthe University
contact of South
state can Florida
be divided intoused
twofinite element slip
types—local analysis
and
software to
complete analyze cumulative
slip—and contact state. They
local revealed
slips need muchthat contact state can
lower lateral be divided
loads. Jiang et into twofrom
al. [7,8] types—the
local slip and complete slip—and cumulative local slips need much lower lateral loads. Jiang et al.
[7–8] from the University of Nevada studied the loosening of bolted structures under lateral
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 86 5 of 12

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 86 5 of 12

University of Nevada studied the loosening of bolted structures under lateral vibration. In addition,
vibration.
research has In shown
addition, research
that there ishas shown
a stress thatfor
limit there
the is a stressconnection
threaded limit for the threaded
structure connection
under lateral
structure under lateral vibration. If this limit is adhered to, there
vibration. If this limit is adhered to, there will be no significant loosening on pressure from cyclic will be no significant loosening on
pressure from cyclic loads. If the bolt’s pretightening force is increased,
loads. If the bolt’s pretightening force is increased, the loosening stress limit rises as well; however, the loosening stress limit rises
as well;
this alsohowever,
increasesthis thealso increases
chances the chances
of fatigue fracturingof fatigue
of thefracturing
bolt. Nassar of the
andbolt. Nassar
Housari [9]and Housari
studied the
[9] studied the bolt-loosening effect under various lateral vibration
bolt-loosening effect under various lateral vibration conditions. Studies have shown that the loosening conditions. Studies have shown
that
torquetheand loosening
frictionaltorque
force ofand the frictional
structure are force of thebystructure
affected are affected
lateral vibration by lateral vibration
amplitude.
amplitude.
The inertial forces generated by the ice-induced vibration cause horizontal tremors in the topside
Theresulting
facility, inertial forces generated
in reduction bypretightening
of the the ice-induced vibration
force cause horizontal
in the flange. When there tremors
is not in the topside
much change
facility, resulting in reduction of the pretightening force in the
in the static load and working temperature, the friction between the female and male screws flange. When there is not much change
keep
in the static load and working temperature, the friction between
the connection tight and satisfy the self-locking condition. The friction force between the spiral the female and male screws keep the
connection tight and satisfy the self-locking condition. The friction
pairs instantaneously decreases or disappears when the platform experiences horizontal vibration. force between the spiral pairs
instantaneously
The threads on the decreases
bolt push orinto
disappears
the thread when the of
surface platform
the nut experiences
due to the inclinedhorizontal vibration.
surface, forcingThe the
threads on the bolt push into the thread surface of the nut due to the
nut to rotate and release. Subsequently, when the pretightening force reaches a critical point, natural inclined surface, forcing the nut
to
gasrotate
is free and to release.
escape. Subsequently,
In order to further whenverifythe pretightening
the looseness force reaches aand
mechanism critical point,ofnatural
process the upper gas
is free to escape.
platform flange In orderice-induced
under to further verify the looseness
vibration, the study mechanism
carried out and process of the
a laboratory testupper
of theplatform
system,
flange under ice-induced vibration, the study
based on results of the inspection performed after the accident. carried out a laboratory test of the system, based on
results ofdifficult
It is the inspection performed
to simulate after the
the pipeline accident.
flange situation in a laboratory, as the upper pipeline of the
platform is complex and contains a long pipe. Consideringinthat
It is difficult to simulate the pipeline flange situation a laboratory,
the vibrationalas theload
upper onpipeline
the flange of is
thea
platform is complex and contains a long pipe. Considering that
lateral one, the test intercepted a section of the flange and used the “four-point bending” model tothe vibrational load on the flange is
asimulate
lateral one, the test intercepted
the situation. By using ana actuator
section of tothe flange
control theand used theand
amplitude “four-point
frequency,bending”
the bending model to
stress
simulate the situation. By using an actuator to control the amplitude
at the flange and vibrational load on the bolt were revealed: both showed similar measurements to the and frequency, the bending
stress
actualat the flange
situation, and vibrational
validating load on of
the rationality thethe
bolt were revealed: both showed similar measurements
test.
to theFigure
actual7situation,
shows thevalidating
arrangement the rationality of the test.
of the laboratory test: It comprised racks, a test pipeline flange,
Figure 7 shows the arrangement
loading system actuator, and data acquisition system. The of the laboratory test: It comprised
racks and flangeracks, formaatestbeam pipeline
structureflange,
that
loading system actuator, and data acquisition system. The racks
has concentrated forces at both fixed ends; the middle flange is stressed by bending. The amplitude and flange form a beam structure
that has concentrated
and frequency of lateral forces at bothloads
alternating fixed areends; the middle
controlled flange is stressed
by actuators. Bracketsby andbending.
clamps The are
amplitude and frequency of lateral alternating loads are controlled
symmetrically applied to the pipeline on both sides of the flange, and the ends of the pipeline by actuators. Brackets and clampsare
are symmetrically applied to the pipeline on both sides of the
fixed by a bolt and “v block” to the I-beam. This experiment simulated the accident’s platform flange, and the ends of the pipeline are
fixed
pipeline bysystem
a bolt under
and “v block” using
vibration to theClass600
I-beam. (11.0This MPa),
experiment simulated
2-inch (DN50) the accident’s
nominal diameter, platform
standard
pipeline system under vibration using Class600 (11.0 MPa),
convexity welding neck flange, and 8 M16, high-strength bolts made of CrMoA. The metal–graphite, 2-inch (DN50) nominal diameter,
standard
spiral-wound convexity
gasketwelding
consisted neckof aflange,
locatingandring8 M16,
andhigh-strength
an inner ring,bolts and wasmade of CrMoA.
made of 0Cr13. The metal–
graphite, spiral-wound gasket consisted of a locating ring and an inner ring, and was made of 0Cr13.

Figure 7. Arrangement of the laboratory test, which simulated the characteristics of the actual accident.
Figure 7. Arrangement of the laboratory test, which simulated the characteristics of the actual
accident.
Based on the results of long-term monitoring and the statistics of pipe flanges used on the platform,
the most common vibration acceleration levels under ice-induced vibration were found to be 1.0 m/s
Based on the results of long-term monitoring and the statistics of pipe flanges used on the
and 2.0 m/s, corresponding to two different ice conditions, respectively. Through vibration amplitude
platform, the most common vibration acceleration levels under ice-induced vibration were found to
and frequency control, the bending stress and horizontal vibration acceleration simulation of the flange
be 1.0 m/s and 2.0 m/s, corresponding to two different ice conditions, respectively. Through vibration
under ice-induced vibration was realized.
amplitude and frequency control, the bending stress and horizontal vibration acceleration simulation
of the flange under ice-induced vibration was realized.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 86 6 of 12
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 86 6 of 12

Numerical
Numerical analysis
analysis hashas shown
shown thatthat experimental
experimental amplitude
amplitude should
should be be 44 mmmm forfor thethe
experimental
experimental flange
flange to
tobe
beunder
under real
realbending
bending stress. In
stress. Inaddition,
addition,when
when vibration
vibration frequency
frequency is
isset
setasas22
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 86 6 of 12
Hz,
Hz,thethevibration
vibrationacceleration
accelerationofofthe
theexperimental
experimentalpipeline
pipelineisis1.0
1.0m/s;
m/s;when
whenvibration
vibrationfrequency
frequency
increases
increasestoto66Hz, Hz,the thevibration
vibrationacceleration
accelerationofofthe
theexperimental
experimentalpipeline
pipelineisis2.0
2.0m/s.
m/s.The
Thebolts
boltsare are
preloaded
preloaded at 15%, 30%, and 45% of yield strength (640 MPa). Table 1 shows four groups ofof
Numericalat 15%, 30%,
analysis and
has 45%
shown of
that yield strength
experimental (640
amplitudeMPa). Table
should be 1
4 shows
mm for four
the groups
experimental
experimental
flange
experimental vibrational
to be under parameters.
real bending
vibrational stress. In addition, when vibration frequency is set as 2 Hz, the vibration
parameters.
acceleration of the experimental pipeline is 1.0 m/s; when vibration frequency increases to 6 Hz, the
Table
Table1.1.Four
vibration acceleration of the experimental groups
groupsofof
Fourpipeline isvibrational parameters.
2.0 m/s. The
vibrational bolts are preloaded at 15%, 30%, and
parameters.
45% of yield strength Vibration
(640 MPa). Table 1 shows four groups
Amplitude Acceleration Time of experimental vibrational parameters.
Structure Final
Initial Vibration Amplitude Acceleration Time Structure Final
Initial frequency states pretightening
pretightening frequency states pretightening
pretightening Table 1. Four groups of vibrational parameters. force
force force
force
Initial Pretightening Vibration Structure Final Pretightening
18 Amplitude Acceleration Time7 h
18KNKNForce 22Hz
Frequency
Hz 4 mm
4 mm 1.0 m/s²
1.0 m/s² 7h StatesNo
No 17.5
Force17.5KN
KN
18
18KN18 KN
KN 66Hz
2Hz
Hz 44 4mm
mm mm 2.0
2.0m/s²
1.0 m/s 2
m/s² 7 h 88hh No Yes
Yes 190
17.5 KN190NN
2
36 KN18 KN
36 KN 66Hz
6 Hz
Hz
44mm
4mm
mm 2.0
2.0m/s²
2.0 m/s 8 h7 h Yes No 19035.4
N KN
36 KN 6 Hz 4 mm 2.0 m/s 2 m/s² 7h
7h No
No 35.4 KN
35.4 KN
49 KN
49 KN 66Hz
Hz 44mm
mm 2.0
2.0m/s²
m/s² 1717hh No 47.6
47.6KN
49 KN 6 Hz 4 mm 2.0 m/s 2 17 h No No 47.6 KN KN

The
Thefirst
firstset
setofofpretightening
pretighteningforce
forceisiskept
keptatat15%
15%ofofthe
theyield
yieldstrength
strength(18
(18KN),
KN),wherein
whereinthe thelower
lower
The first set
pretightening of pretightening
force can ensure force
that theisgraphite
kept at 15% of the
gasket is yield
not strength
crushed. (18 KN), wherein
Experimental data the found
has lower
pretightening force can ensure that the graphite gasket is not crushed. Experimental data has found
pretightening
that force can ensure that the graphite gasket is not crushed. Experimental dataof has found
thatwhen
whenthe theexcitation
excitationvibration
vibrationacceleration
accelerationisissmall
small(2(2Hz),
Hz),the
thepretightening
pretighteningforce
force ofthethebolt
bolt
that when
hardly the
changes. excitation
In vibration
contrast, when acceleration
the is
excitation small (2
frequencyHz), the
and pretightening
acceleration force
are of
large, the bolt
the bolthardly
may
hardly changes. In contrast, when the excitation frequency and acceleration are large, the bolt may
changes.
loosen. In contrast, when the excitation frequency and is acceleration are large, the bolt mayvalue
loosen.
loosen.When
Whenititoccurs
occurssuddenly,
suddenly,thethepretightening
pretighteningforceforce isdirectly
directlyreduced
reducedfrom
fromthetheinitial
initial valuetoto
When
almost it occurs suddenly, the pretightening force is directly reduced from the initial value to almost
almostzero
zero(Figure
(Figure8). 8).
zero (Figure 8).

Figure
Figure8.8.The
Thepretightening
pretighteningforce
forceofofthe
thebolt
boltwhen
whenthe
theinitial pretighteningforce
initialpretightening forceisis15%
15%ofofthe
theyield
yield
strength and excitation frequency is 6 Hz.
Hz.
strength and excitation frequency is 6 Hz.

Figures99and
Figure and 10 show the increase of the bolt’s bolt’s
pretightening force to 30% and 45% of theofyield
Figure 9 andFigure
Figure10
10show
showthetheincrease
increaseofofthe
the bolt’spretightening
pretighteningforce
forcetoto30%
30%andand45%
45% ofthe
the
strength,
yield respectively.
strength, The analysis
respectively. The reveals
analysis that this
reveals force
that has
this a small
force hasdecrease,
a small even at
decrease, a large
even vibration
at a large
yield strength, respectively. The analysis reveals that this force has a small decrease, even at a large
frequency.frequency.
vibration It is far from beingfrom
loose, although the downward trend is obvious.is obvious.
vibration frequency.ItItisisfar
far frombeing
beingloose,
loose,although
althoughthethedownward
downwardtrendtrend is obvious.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 86 7 of 12

Figure 9. The pretightening force of the bolt when the initial force is 30% of the yield strength and the
Figure
Figure9.9.The
excitation Thepretightening
frequency is 6 Hz.force
pretightening forceofofthe
thebolt
boltwhen
whenthe
theinitial
initialforce
forceisis30%
30%ofofthe
theyield
yieldstrength
strengthand
andthe
the
excitation frequency is 6 Hz.
excitation frequency is 6 Hz.

Figure 10. The pretightening force of the bolt when the initial force is 45% of the yield strength and the
Figure 10. The pretightening force of the bolt when the initial force is 45% of the yield strength and
excitation frequency is 6 Hz.
the excitation frequency is 6 Hz.

Further tests on the flange in a vibrating environment show that a smaller initial pretightening
force of the bolt can ensure a great sealing performance of the gaskets; however, the flange bolts will
loosen under strong ice-induced vibration. Larger initial pretightening forces can delay or even
prevent loosening, but excessive initial pretightening force may cause the gasket to yield
prematurely, affecting its sealing performance.
 Figure 10. The pretightening force of the bolt when the initial force is 45% of the yield strength and
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 86 7 of 12
the excitation frequency is 6 Hz.

Further tests on the flange in a vibrating environment show that a smaller initial pretightening
force of
of the
thebolt
boltcan
canensure
ensurea agreat sealing
great sealingperformance
performance of the gaskets;
of the however,
gaskets; the flange
however, boltsbolts
the flange will
loosen under strong ice-induced vibration. Larger initial pretightening forces can
will loosen under strong ice-induced vibration. Larger initial pretightening forces can delay or delay or even
prevent loosening,
loosening,butbut excessive
excessive initial
initial pretightening
pretightening forcecause
force may maythecause
gasketthe gasket
to yield to yield
prematurely,
prematurely, affecting
affecting its sealing its sealing performance.
performance.

3. Ice-Induced Steady-State Vibration Mechanism Analysis

Field monitoring
monitoringhas found
has thatthat
found the periodic load generated
the periodic by sea ice
load generated bycan evoke
sea ice large acceleration
can evoke large
responses in the
acceleration platform.
responses in We
the performed
platform. Wespectral analysisspectral
performed of the above-mentioned offshore platform
analysis of the above-mentioned
(Figure 11)
offshore using monitored
platform (Figure 11)response data. Theresponse
using monitored results show
data. that
The the vibration
results of the
show that theplatform
vibrationwas
of
focused on the first mode.
the platform was focused on the first mode.

80

60
PSD (mm²)

40

20

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
frequency（Hz）
Figure 11. The studied offshore platform’s main deck X-directional displacement spectrum.
Figure 11. The studied offshore platform’s main deck X-directional displacement spectrum.
The platform’s vibration curve (Figures 3 and 6) shows that the tremor remained stable
for aThe platform’s
long time beforevibration curve (Figure
the fracture of the3 and Figure 6)
blowdown pipeshowsandthatgasthe tremorfrom
leakage remained stable
the flange.
for
Theaamplitude
long time was before the fracture
consistently of and
large the blowdown pipe 30
constant, about andmm,gas which
leakage from that
means the flange. The
a relatively
amplitude was consistently large and constant, about 30 mm, which means
strong steady-state vibration occurred in the early stage of the event. The frequency stabilized at that a relatively strong
steady-state
1.25 Hz, which vibration
is closeoccurred in the early
to the platform’s stage of thefrequency,
fundamental event. Theand frequency stabilized
the structure’s at 1.25 Hz,
vibration has
which
obviousisdynamic
close to the platform’s fundamental frequency, and the structure’s vibration has obvious
magnification.
dynamic magnification.
Ice-induced vibrations of offshore structures pose a security challenge, and have been studied
for decades in the regions ofofCook
Ice-induced vibrations offshore
Inlet,structures
Beaufort pose a security
Sea, and challenge,
Baltic Sea. and have been
The steady-state studied
vibration of
for decades in the regions of Cook Inlet, Beaufort Sea, and Baltic Sea. The steady-state
the platform mentioned above is similar to the resonance in forced-vibration theory. The excitation vibration of
the platform
frequency mentioned
is close to the above
naturalisfrequency
similar to ofthethe
resonance
structure,ininducing
forced-vibration
dynamictheory. The excitation
magnification of the
frequency
structural vibration. However, an analysis revealed that the change in frequency of the dynamic the
is close to the natural frequency of the structure, inducing dynamic magnification of ice
structural vibration.
force depends upon the However, an analysis
ice-breaking patterns revealed that the change
and ice velocity. in frequency
If such accidents of the dynamic
are analyzed ice
according
force
to the depends upon the
forced-vibration ice-breaking
theory, patterns
the frequency and iceicevelocity.
of dynamic forces willIf such
depend accidents
only on are analyzed
the ice. Thus,
according to the forced-vibration
the steady-state alternating power theory, the frequency
is generated by sea of dynamic
ice, that is, ice forces will
it produces depend only
a breaking on the
frequency.
ice. Thus,
In fact, thethe steady-state
mechanical alternating
property power
of natural is ice
sea generated
has verybylargesea ice, that is, itand
dispersion, produces a breaking
it is impossible to
frequency. In fact, the mechanical property
produce long-lasting stable sizes of crushing ice. of natural sea ice has very large dispersion, and it is
impossible to produce long-lasting stable sizes of crushing ice.
Blenkarn [10], Määttänen [11–13], and Engelbrektson [14,15] state that ice-induced steady-state
vibration has typical self-excited characteristics. The steady-state vibrations of said platform occurred
when the currents were in slack tide. Sea ice moves at a slow speed, taking into consideration the time
currents take to change directions. Thus, the measured vibration curve analysis concludes that the
structure and sea ice have similar speeds in a steady-state vibration period. The same direction and
reverse movement of the structure and sea ice form a cyclic loading on the ice sheet and control its
breaking period.
As a material, ice is very sensitive to the loading rate. Figure 12 shows that the uniaxial
compressive strength of ice varies significantly with the strain rate, and the mechanical behavior
of ice changes greatly when subjected to compressive loads. According to the different macroscopic
mechanical behaviors of ice, the strain rate is divided into ductile region, ductile–brittle transitional
 the structure and sea ice have similar speeds in a steady-state vibration period. The same direction
and reverse movement of the structure and sea ice form a cyclic loading on the ice sheet and control
its breaking period.
As a material, ice is very sensitive to the loading rate. Figure 12 shows that the uniaxial
compressive strength of ice varies significantly with the strain rate, and the mechanical behavior of
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 86 8 of 12
ice changes greatly when subjected to compressive loads. According to the different macroscopic
mechanical behaviors of ice, the strain rate is divided into ductile region, ductile–brittle transitional
region, and
region, and brittle
brittle region.
region. Yue
Yueetetal.al.[16]
[16]pointed
pointedout
outthat
thatdifferent
differentloading
loadingrates of of
rates seasea
ice,ice,
caused
causedby
thethe
by relative
relative velocities
velocitiesof of
thetheiceiceand
andthe
thestructure,
structure,led
ledto
to different
different vibrational
vibrational modes
modes of of the
the jacket
jacket
platform. The mechanism of ice-induced self-excited vibration lies in the ductile–brittle
platform. The mechanism of ice-induced self-excited vibration lies in the ductile–brittle transition transition
region of
region of the
the ice
ice sheet.
sheet.

Figure 12. Sea ice load curves under different strain rates.
Figure 12. Sea ice load curves under different strain rates.
As shown in Figure 13, the cycle of self-excited vibration is divided into the loading phase,
transition phase, in
As shown and unloading
Figure phase.
13, the cycleInofthe loading phase,
self-excited the platform
vibration structure
is divided into themoves in thephase,
loading same
direction as the sea ice at a similar speed. The loading speed of the ice
transition phase, and unloading phase. In the loading phase, the platform structure moves in the sheet is slow, in the range
of
samethe direction
ductile–brittle
as the transition
sea ice at aregion. With loading
similar speed. of thespeed
The loading ice force,
of thenew microcracks
ice sheet is slow, continue
in the range to
be generated
of the inside the
ductile–brittle ice, although
transition region.they
Withdo not expand
loading of the rapidly.
ice force,As themicrocracks
new loading ratecontinue
continues to to
be
increase, the force is large enough to allow airfoil cracks to interpenetrate,
generated inside the ice, although they do not expand rapidly. As the loading rate continues to and the ice sheet undergoes
brittle
increase, failure. In the
the force unloading
is large enoughstage, theairfoil
to allow direction of to
cracks theinterpenetrate,
structure’s motion
and theis ice
opposite to that of
sheet undergoes
the ice.failure.
brittle The structure smashes the
In the unloading ice the
stage, sheet, which of
direction wasthealready damaged
structure’s motion during the loading
is opposite to thatphase.
of the
It breaks
J.ice.
Mar.The down
structure
Sci. Eng. simultaneously,
2019, 7,smashes
86 and the ice’s force starts to unload. The structure
the ice sheet, which was already damaged during the loading swings back to
phase. the
9 of It
12
starting point of the loading phase, marking the end of a vibration cycle.
breaks down simultaneously, and the ice’s force starts to unload. The structure swings back to the
starting point of the loading phase, marking the end of a vibration cycle.

Figure 13. Ice-induced self-excited vibration physical mechanism.

Figure 13. Ice-induced self-excited vibration physical mechanism.
The study revealed that since the loading rate of the ice sheet is in a ductile–brittle transition
interval,
The ductile failure occurs
study revealed on interaction
that since the loadingbetween
rate of thethe ice
ice sheet
sheetisand
in athe structure, and
ductile–brittle a large
transition
number of dislocation movements occur in the ice sheet [17]. With a relatively large
interval, ductile failure occurs on interaction between the ice sheet and the structure, and a large compression
deformation, contact between
number of dislocation movements the ice sheet
occur andice
in the the structure
sheet becomes
[17]. With more regular
a relatively (Figure 14).
large compression
The
deformation, contact between the ice sheet and the structure becomes more regular (Figure strength
ice sheet ductile-to-brittle transition point marks the maximum uniaxial compressive 14). The
corresponding to the loading
ice sheet ductile-to-brittle rate (Figure
transition point15) and the
marks thesimultaneous
maximum uniaxial breaking of sea ice, resulting
compressive strength
from regular destruction,
corresponding alsorate
to the loading aggravates theand
(Figure 15) ice’sthe
force on the structure.
simultaneous breaking That is the
of sea ice,reason whyfrom
resulting the
regular destruction, also aggravates the ice’s force on the structure. That is the reason why the
breaking frequency is stable and the amplitude is extremely large during the steady-state vibration
of the platform.
 The study revealed that since the loading rate of the ice sheet is in a ductile–brittle transition
interval, ductile failure occurs on interaction between the ice sheet and the structure, and a large
number of dislocation movements occur in the ice sheet [17]. With a relatively large compression
deformation, contact between the ice sheet and the structure becomes more regular (Figure 14). The
ice sheet ductile-to-brittle transition point marks the maximum uniaxial compressive strength
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 86 9 of 12
corresponding to the loading rate (Figure 15) and the simultaneous breaking of sea ice, resulting from
regular destruction, also aggravates the ice’s force on the structure. That is the reason why the
breaking frequency
breaking frequencyisisstable
stableand
andthe
theamplitude
amplitudeisisextremely
extremely large
large during
during thethe steady-state
steady-state vibration
vibration of
of the
the platform.
platform.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 86 10 of 12

Figure 14. Outline of the ice sheet crushing the cylindrical structure.
Figure 14. Outline of the ice sheet crushing the cylindrical structure.

Figure 15. Loading curve of the ice sheet during strain rate increase.
Figure 15. Loading curve of the ice sheet during strain rate increase.
The broken ice was able to easily bypass the platform’s legs and avoid being stacked up due to
The broken
the small diameter iceofwas
the able
legs to
and easily bypass
the large the platform’s
amplitude legsof
and speed andtheavoid being stacked
backswing, caused byupthe
duelow
to
the small diameter of the legs and the large amplitude and speed of the backswing,
rigidity of the platform. This results in synchronous crushing (loading and unloading processes) of the caused by the
low rigidity
ice, and of the
the ice’s platform.
force This results
also obtains in synchronous
a significant crushing (loading
periodic variation and unloading processes)
in synchronization.
of theIce-induced
ice, and thesteady-state
ice’s force also obtains
vibration onaplatforms
significantisperiodic variation
a major threat in synchronization.
to safe oil and gas operations at
Ice-induced steady-state vibration on platforms is a major threat
Bohai Gulf. At a specific ice speed, ice extrusion produces a steady-state alternating to safe oil and gas operations
excitation, which
at BohaiinGulf.
results At a amplification
dynamic specific ice speed, ice extrusion
of surface vibration.produces a steady-state
This further alternating
leads to fatigue and excitation,
functional
which results
failure of in dynamic
the weak amplification
parts of the of surface vibration. This further leads to fatigue and
superstructure.
functional failure of the weak parts of the superstructure.
4. Evaluation of Ice-Resistant Modification
4. Evaluation of Ice-Resistant Modification
The conditions triggering the ice-induced self-excited vibrations are harsh. Although the
The conditions
frequency triggering
of this vibration is not the
high,ice-induced self-excited
it can generate vibrations
a constant vibrational areamplitude.
harsh. Although the
Steady-state
frequencyisofthe
vibration this vibration
main cause is
of not high, it can
ice-induced generate
damage a constant
of marine vibrational
structures, posingamplitude. Steady-state
serious hazards.
vibration is the main cause of ice-induced damage of marine structures, posing serious hazards.
The analysis discussed above resulted in an ice-resistant platform being created in the winter
following the accident (Figure 16). By installing an ice-resistant cone, the ice sheet damage model
changed from crushing destruction to bending destruction, thereby eliminating ice-induced self-
excited vibration. In addition, continuous field-monitoring data was recorded, and the effect of the
ice-resistant modification was evaluated.
which results in dynamic amplification of surface vibration. This further leads to fatigue and
functional failure of the weak parts of the superstructure.

4. Evaluation of Ice-Resistant Modification

J. Mar.The conditions
Sci. Eng. triggering the ice-induced self-excited vibrations are harsh. Although
2019, 7, 86 10 ofthe
12
frequency of this vibration is not high, it can generate a constant vibrational amplitude. Steady-state
vibration is the main cause of ice-induced damage of marine structures, posing serious hazards.
The
The analysis
analysis discussed
discussed above
above resulted
resulted in
in an
an ice-resistant
ice-resistant platform
platform being
being created
created in
in the
the winter
winter
following the accident (Figure 16). By installing an ice-resistant cone, the ice sheet damage
following the accident (Figure 16). By installing an ice-resistant cone, the ice sheet damage model model
changed
changed from
fromcrushing
crushingdestruction to bending
destruction destruction,
to bending thereby
destruction, eliminating
thereby ice-induced
eliminating self-excited
ice-induced self-
vibration. In addition, continuous field-monitoring data was recorded, and the effect of the
excited vibration. In addition, continuous field-monitoring data was recorded, and the effect of theice-resistant
modification was evaluated.
ice-resistant modification was evaluated.

Figure 16. The ice-resistant modification of the platform.

Figure 16. The ice-resistant modification of the platform.
Ice-induced failures in offshore platforms are always accompanied by steady-state vibrations.
In order to highlight the variation in response characteristics of the platform structure after the
modification, the 10-minute maximum amplitude data of the two years (before and after the accident)
were compared. The average amplitude is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Average maximum amplitudes (1999–2000).

Vertical Structure Conical Structure

Sample Starting Time Average Maximum (mm) Sample Starting Time Average Maximum (mm)
Jan 28—22:57 8.38 Jan 15—01:28 6.05
Jan 28—23:07 5.64 Jan 11—09:20 2.07
Jan 29—00:27 12.2 Jan 14—09:58 4.18
Jan 29—00:37 13.9 Jan 16—16:58 1.42
Jan 17—07:51 1.88 Jan 18—15:45 4.58
Jan 24—04:42 4.32 Jan 19—04:15 2.27
Jan 27—08:48 4.78 Jan 21—08:05 4.27
Mean value 7.3 Mean value 3.548

Liaodong Bay, which is one of the three bays in the Bohai Gulf, faced severe ice conditions in
the winter following the ice-resistant modification. However, as a result of the installation of the
cone, average peak values of the vibration significantly decreased, and a damping effect was obvious.
With regard to the offshore platform’s structural design, the modification caused a significant reduction
in the average value of the peak vibration, thus vouching for its ice-resistant capability and fatigue
life increase.

5. Conclusions
This paper addresses the ice-induced vibration risk of oil and gas exploration in the Bohai Sea
through a case study of the pipeline and flange failure that occurred in Liaodong Bay. Based on the
failure analysis of topside facilities on oil/gas platforms in the Bohai Sea, this paper recommends that
the following criteria be considered for future design and risk assessment studies:
• Although the frequency of ice-induced, self-excited vibrations is not high, it is the main cause of
ice-induced damage of marine structures, and must be paid more attention.
• Due to small leg diameter and low rigidity, the oil and gas platforms in Bohai are more likely to
cause synchronous ice-crushing and ice-induced steady-state vibration in a range of ice speeds.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 86 11 of 12

• The inertial forces generated by the ice-induced steady-state vibration may lead to fatigue and
functional failure of weak topside facilities.
• The addition of ice-resistant cones results in a significant decrease of the average peak values of
the vibration on the platform.

This research provides the theoretical basis for structural design and safety of offshore structures
in cold regions. The authors recommend that further research, such as fatigue analyses, completing
the evaluation of ice-induced vibration failure, and risk warning and forecasting be conducted on
related problems.

Author Contributions: Project administration: Q.Y.; investigation and original draft writing: S.Y.; review and
editing: D.Z.
Funding: This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51679033),
National Key Research and Development Plan (Grant Nos. 2017YFF0210700, 2016YFC0303400), and Fundamental
Research Funds for Dalian University of Technology (DUT18LK49).
Acknowledgments: The authors are pleased to acknowledge the support of this work by This study was
supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51679033), National Key Research
and Development Plan (Grant Nos. 2017YFF0210700, 2016YFC0303400), and Fundamental Research Funds for
Dalian University of Technology (DUT18LK49).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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