directional properties a parasitic reflector, 5% larger than the dipole, is

placed at a distance of λ /4 from the dipole. The normally circular polar diagram is now
changed into an elongated heart shape. The reflector reflecting the power back towards the
aerial. Note that the dipole is the only part of the aerial that has any power.
To enhance the directional properties parasitic directors are added on the opposite side to the
parasitic reflector. These elements are 5% shorter than the dipole.
The resulting polar diagram is narrow in beam width and gives excellent directional
properties. One disadvantage with the directivity achieved is that unwanted side lobes are
produced. The side lobes are approximately 50% of the power of the main beam and can give
spurious indications if not dealt with. Methods of suppression or removal of the side lobes are
discussed in individual chapters on equipment.
Different polar diagrams can be achieved for different aerial combinations. An example of this
being the figure of eight’ produced by two dipoles.
ATPL Radio Navigation
1-19
©Atlantic Flight TrainingThe significance of changing the polar diagram will become apparent as
each piece of
equipment is discussed in detail.
Modulation
Modulation is the superimposing of intelligence, such as speech or Morse identification, onto
a carrier wave. Varying a parameter of the carrier, such as its amplitude or frequency does
this. When electro-magnetic energy is radiated as a sinusoidal wave no intelligence is
transmitted. The frequency is beyond the scope of human hearing and the wave itself would
be meaningless.
Keying
By interrupting the wave, a process known as keying, Morse Code can be transmitted.
The frequency may be identifiable as Morse code, but is still outside the audible range. To
help with audible reception the carrier frequency has to be converted into a signal within the
audio range.
This is achieved by mixing the received frequency with another known radio frequency; this
produces a signal in the audio range. The mixing of two radio frequencies is known as
heterodyning, as opposed to modulation which is the mixing of a radio frequency and an
audio frequency.
Example
ATPL Radio Navigation
Received frequency500 KHz
Known frequency501 KHz
1-20
28 October 2003Four frequencies are produced:
500 KHz}
501 KHz}
outside the audible range
1001 KHz}
1 kHz
an audible frequency
Heterodyning is enabled by selecting the BFO function (Beat Frequency Oscillator). The
incoming signal is received and mixed with the BFO frequency and the resulting audio
frequency is fed to the intercom system. An audio tone therefore will only be heard when the
two frequencies are present.
Note that the only piece of equipment that uses a BFO in the aircraft is the ADF. Normally
electromagnetic radiation is modulated by one of the three methods listed below:
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
AM is where the modulating frequency alters the amplitude of the wave.
ATPL Radio Navigation
1-21
©Atlantic Flight TrainingWhere a carrier is amplitude modulated by a single tone the resultant
waveform consists of
three components:
3⁄4The carrier wave fc
3⁄4The lower sideband (fc - fs), where fs is the modulating signal
3⁄4
The upper sideband (fc + fs)
The AM signal will consist of:
1
2.
3.
500 KHz
501 KHz
499 KHz
the carrier
the upper sideband
the lower sideband
Intelligence is carried by both sidebands. The spread of the side frequencies is known as the
bandwidth. For an amplitude modulated signal the bandwidth is 2fs.
Both sidebands carry the same information, if one of the bands is suppressed (eg the upper
sideband) then the only frequencies that need transmitting are 500 KHz and 499 KHz. This
type of transmission will have two main advantages:
3⁄4
3⁄4
Less power is required to transmit one sideband and the carrier
The signal occupies less of the radio spectrum. This means that a more efficient
use can be made of the frequency band the signal is in.
HF transmissions make use of the single sideband transmission.
Frequency Modulation (FM)
FM is where the modulating frequency alters the frequency of the wave.
ATPL Radio Navigation
1-22
28 October 2003The frequency of the carrier varies by an amount proportional to the instantaneous
amplitude
of the modulating signal. The rate of change of the carrier frequency is proportional to the
frequency of the modulating s

Where two waves have a phase difference of 180°, then they are said to be in anti-phase.
Radio Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is shown in the diagram below. The different effects brought
about by electro-magnetic waves are determined by their frequency. The lower limit is
determined by the size and efficiency of the aerials required and the upper limit by the
attenuation and absorption of the radio waves by the atmosphere.
Wavelength
100 km
1 mm
L
Radio
Waves
i
g
h
t
Infra Red
3 KHz
Ultra
Violet
Gamma
Rays
X-Rays
Cosmic
Rays
300 GHz
The part of the frequency spectrum which is of interest to the pilot is further sub-divided
below.
VLF
3
LF
30
MF
300
KHz
HF
3
VHF
30
UHF
300
MHz
SHF
3
EHF
30
300
GHz
Radio Spectrum
ATPL Radio Navigation
1-7
©Atlantic Flight TrainingWave Propagation
There are three principle paths which radio waves may follow over the earth between the
transmitter and the receiver:
Surface Wave A wave which follows the contours of the earth’s surface
Sky WaveA wave that is refracted by the Ionosphere and returned to earth
Space WaveA wave which is line of sight
A combination of the surface and space waves is called a ground wave.
The radio energy reaching a receiver may be made up of components due to any one or more
of these mechanisms but, depending on the part of the radio spectrum concerned one of the
three will predominate. In general:
Ionosphere
Surface
Wave
Sky
Wave
3⁄4
3⁄4
Space
Wave
Low frequencies are propagated by surface wave
Middle range frequencies by sky wave, and
ATPL Radio Navigation
1-8
28 October 20033⁄4
Upper range frequencies by space wave.
Surface Wave
The surface wave follows the curvature of the Earth, a process known as diffraction. The
process is helped by the Earth’s attenuation of the radio energy. The wave is slowed as it
touches the Earth’s surface. Therefore, the wave front in the direction of motion will lag at the
surface.
Wavefront falls towards the Earth as it
progresses
The wave front is tilted and diffractive bending occurs. The stability of this type of propagation
makes the low frequency surface wave suited to systems requiring consistency of signal over
long distances. The propagation does require large aerials and the cost of transmission can
be considerable.
Type of Surface
High conductivity favours the passage of a radio signal. So passage over the sea is better
than over rock or desert.
Transmitter Power Surface absorption and free space loss reduce the signal
strength of a radio wave. If there is no restriction in the available transmitter power
then global ranges can be achieved by VLF radio waves.
ATPL Radio Navigation
1-9
©Atlantic Flight TrainingNoise and Interference
Noise affects the lower frequencies so affecting the
signal/noise ratio. This can limit the usable range.
For maximum ground wave range:
3⁄4
3⁄4
Use low frequency — for maximum diffraction and least attenuation
Use vertical polarization (see polarization)
Sky Wave
The sky wave ascends into the upper atmosphere and encounters a region containing
electrically charged particles (the Ionosphere) where it is refracted sufficiently to return to
Earth.
β
Is the Critical Angle. Note that it is measured from the vertical down.
β
Ground Wave
Dead Space
Skip Distance
When the wave enters the Ionosphere it changes direction due to a change in velocity. If the
wave penetrates halfway through the layer before being bent parallel to the layer it will bend
back in the opposite direction to emerge from the top of the layer as an escape ray. This is
likely if:
3⁄4
3⁄4
3⁄4
The Ionization is insufficiently intense.
The frequency is too high
The angle of entry is too acute
ATPL Radio Navigation
1-10
28 October 2003Critical Angle
For a particular frequency and degree of ionization, it is possible to define a critical angle
below which total refraction will not take place. Defining the critical angle also establishes the
minimum range - the skip distance. Any ray travelling away from the aerial at greater than the
critical angle will be freely refracted down to about 5° above the horizon.
Dead Space
Because of the high frequencies used in sky wave transmission the groundwave travel is not
as far as the returning sky wave. The distance between the limit of the groundwave and the
first returning sky wave is called the dead space.
The Ionosphere
The Ionosphere consists of a series of conducting layers between heights of 50 to 400
kilometres. It exists because of the transmission of ultra-violet radiation from the sun.
Because of this dependence upon radiation from the sun the heights and densities of the
layers vary according to the:
3⁄4
3⁄4
Time of day
Season of the year
There is also a connection between the 11 year sunspot cycle. Short term effects occur in a
random fashion and these result in the ionized layers being in a state of constant turbulence.
Three main layers have been identified and are designated D, E and F. The F layer splits into
two separate layers during the day, the time of highest ionization. The D layer is a region of
low ionization that only persists during the day. The E layer is more marked and remains
weakly ionized by night with little change in height. The F layer is the most strongly ionized
and has the greatest diurnal change in height.
ATPL Radio Navigation
1-11
©Atlantic Flight TrainingF2
400 km
200 km
F1
E
100 km
D
Night
Day
Frequency and Skip Distance
At a fixed level of ionization an increase in frequency will cause the ray, previously the critical
ray, to become an escape ray. This will cause an increase in skip distance.
Ionization and Skip Distance
At a fixed frequency if ionization decreases the effect will be the same as above. The critical
ray becomes an escape ray. This will cause an increase in skip distance.
Space Wave
Transmissions at VHF and above cannot propagate by either surface or sky wave.
Attenuation is so severe that the surface wave is virtually non-existent. These frequencies are
too high to be refracted by the ionized layers aloft. Transmission is therefore by straight line -
ATPL Radio Navigation
1-12
28 October 2003the direct wave. In addition to the direct wave there can also be a reflected wave.
The two
components make up the space wave.
Because of the different emission paths the direct and reflected wave will sometimes be in
phase and sometimes out of phase. This will produce lobes and nulls particularly when the
receiver is close to the station.
The range of a space wave appears to be line of sight. In practice it is termed quasi-optical:
3⁄4
3⁄4
The lower atmosphere causes some refraction of the wave which bends it beyond
the optical horizon, and
A further small increase is gained from diffraction when the wave becomes
tangential to the earth’s surface
This range can be approximated by the following formula:
R = 1.25(√HT + √HR)
Where:
RRange in nautical miles
HTHeight of the transmitter in feet
HRHeight of the rec