Name: ALI FAIZUR REHMAN

Father Name: AL NASIR REHMAN

Student ID: 0000087678
Course Code: 8614
Subject : Educational statistics
SEMESTER: 3rd Autumn 2022
Assignment: NO 1
Tutor: SHAFAAT UR REHMAN
Address: AIOU REGIONAL CENRE HAYATABAD PHASE V

PESHAWAR.

Allama Iqbal Open University

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Q.1 Why is Statistics important for a teacher or researcher?

Ans- According to Lovitt:

“Statistics is the science which deals with the collection,
classification and tabulation of numerical facts as the basis for
explanation, description and comparison of phenomena.”
Tate, M.N. is statistics in Education (1953) has very beautifully
summed up the concept of statistics as It’s all perfectly clear; you
complete statistics (means, medians, modes etc.) from statistics
(numerical facts) by statistics (statistics as a science or
methodology).
Need, Importance and Uses of Statistics:
1. Group Comparison:
The achievements of a class are not uniform in every subject. It is
found that one class is progressing faster is one subject, while
another is progressing is a different one. Even the various sections
of a particular class do not progress uniformly.
2. Individual Comparison:
Statistics helps in the individual comparison of students differing
in respect of their ages, abilities and intelligence levels. It is
statistics which tells us why thus students who are similar in every
other respect yet do not show similar achievement is one
particular subject.
3. Educational and Vocational Guidance:
Every individual student differs from others in his intellectual
ability, interests, attitude and mental abilities students are given
educational and vocational guidance so that they make the best
use of these abilities and the process of guidance is based upon
statistics only.
4. Educational Experiments and Research:
With a change in place, line and circumstances, the aims, curricula
and methods of education keep on changing. The work of research
and experimentation cannot become reliable and valid without
the use of statistics.
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5. Essential for Professional Efficiency:
The teacher’s responsibility does not end when he teaches a
particular subject in the classroom. His responsibility includes
teaching the students, obtaining the desired level of knowledge
for himself and assessing the achievement of modification in
behaviour also.
6. Basis of Scientific Approach to Problems:
Statistics forms the basis of scientific approach to problems of
Educational Psychology.
Meaning of Graphical Representation of Data:
A graphic representation is the geometrical image of a set of data.
It is a mathematical picture. It enables us to think about a
statistical problem in visual terms. A picture is said to be more
effective than words for describing a particular thing or
phenomenon.
Consequently the graphic representation of data proves quite an
effective and an economic device for the presentation,
understanding and inter predation of the collected statistical data.
The statistical data can be represented by diagram, charts etc., so
that the significance attached to these data may immediately be
grasped, of course, the diagrams should be neatly and accurately
drawn.
Advantages of Graphical Representation of Data:
1. The data can be presented in a more attractive and an appealing
form.
2. It provides a more lasting effect on the brain. It is possible to
have an immediate and a meaning group of large amounts of data
through such presentation.
3. Comparative analysis and interpretation may be effectively and
easily made.
4. Various valuable statistics like median, mode, quartiles may be
easily computed. Through such representation, we also get an
indication of correlation between two variables.
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5. Such representation may help in the proper estimation
evaluation and interpretation of the characteristics of items and
individuals.
6. The real value of graphical representation use in us economy
and effectiveness. It carries a lot of communication power.
7. Graphical representation helps in for-casting, as it indicates the
trend of the data in the past.
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Q.2 Discuss different types of data. Also elaborate differences

between primary and secondary data
Ans-
Primary Data

Primary data is data originated for the first time by the researcher
through direct efforts and experience, specifically for the purpose
of addressing his research problem. Also known as the first hand
or raw data. Primary data collection is quite expensive, as the
research is conducted by the organisation or agency itself, which
requires resources like investment and manpower. The data
collection is under direct control and supervision of the
investigator.
The data can be collected through various methods like surveys,
observations, physical testing, mailed questionnaires,
questionnaire filled and sent by enumerators, personal interviews,
telephonic interviews, focus groups, case studies, etc.
Secondary Data

Secondary data implies second-hand information which is already

collected and recorded by any person other than the user for a
purpose, not relating to the current research problem. It is the
readily available form of data collected from various sources like
censuses, government publications, internal records of the
organisation, reports, books, journal articles, websites and so on.
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Secondary data offer several advantages as it is easily available,
saves time and cost of the researcher. But there are some
disadvantages associated with this, as the data is gathered for the
purposes other than the problem in mind, so the usefulness of the
data may be limited in a number of ways like relevance and
accuracy.
Moreover, the objective and the method adopted for acquiring
data may not be suitable to the current situation. Therefore,
before using secondary data, these factors should be kept in mind.

Key Differences Between Primary and Secondary Data

The fundamental differences between primary and secondary

data are discussed in the following points:
1. The term primary data refers to the data originated by the
researcher for the first time. Secondary data is the already
existing data, collected by the investigator agencies and
organisations earlier.
2. Primary data is a real-time data whereas secondary data is
one which relates to the past.
3. Primary data is collected for addressing the problem at hand
while secondary data is collected for purposes other than the
problem at hand.
4. Primary data collection is a very involved process. On the
other hand, secondary data collection process is rapid and
easy.
5. Primary data collection sources include surveys, observations,
experiments, questionnaire, personal interview, etc. On the
contrary, secondary data collection sources are government
publications, websites, books, journal articles, internal
records etc.
6. Primary data collection requires a large amount of resources
like time, cost and manpower. Conversely, secondary data is
relatively inexpensive and quickly available.
7. Primary data is always specific to the researcher’s needs, and
he controls the quality of research. In contrast, secondary
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 data is neither specific to the researcher’s need, nor he has
control over the data quality.
8. Primary data is available in the raw form whereas secondary
data is the refined form of primary data. It can also be said
that secondary data is obtained when statistical methods are
applied to the primary data.
9. Data collected through primary sources are more reliable and
accurate as compared to the secondary sources.
Conclusion

As can be seen from the above discussion that primary data is an

original and unique data, which is directly collected by the
researcher from a source according to his requirements. As
opposed to secondary data which is easily accessible but are not
pure as they have undergone through many statistical treatments.
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Q.3 Explain ‘pictogram’ as a technique to explore/explain

data.
Ans-
A pictogram is one of the simplest and most popular forms of data
visualization out there. Besides making your data look nice,
pictograms can make your data more memorable.
Visually stacking icons to represent simple data can improve a
reader’s recall of that data and even their level of engagement
with that data. Pictograms can also be a fun addition to any info-
graphic.
If you've ever asked yourself, what is a pictogram, we'll tell you all
about it, show you when you should use them, and give you some
inspiration with our pictogram examples.

What is a pictogram?
Pictograms are types of charts and graphs that use icons and
images to represent data.

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Also known as “pictographs”, “icon charts”, “picture charts”, and
“pictorial unit charts”, pictograms use a series of repeated icons to
visualize simple data. The icons are arranged in a single line or a
grid, with each icon representing a certain number of units (usually
1, 10, or 100).
A feature of many great infographics, they’re often used to make
otherwise boring facts or data points more compelling, as seen in
the statistical infographic below.

And since pictograms are made from a series of icons, they’re

perfect for those times when you need an attractive graphic but
don’t have a graphic designer to rely on.
When to use a pictogram
Pictograms can come in handy quite often when visualizing data
in infographics, reports, presentations, and even resumes!
You can use a pictogram whenever you want to make simple
data more visually interesting, more memorable, or more
engaging.
Whether you want to show the magnitude of an important stat or
visualize a fraction or percentage, you can use pictograms to add
visual impact to simple data.
1. Use a pictogram to show ratings or changes
We know that pictograms are great for showing simple
proportions or percentages.

Pretty much every site that allows customers to rate products or

services (like Yelp and Amazon) uses pictograms to show the
results of their five-star rating system.

We can do the same thing to visualize ratings, scores, and changes

over time and space in our infographics.

Infographic pictogram examples

This pictogram example takes the form of an infographic. There's

a lot of data to be shared here about change management. Instead
of becoming overwhelmed by the ratings, the star icons draw the
eye to key information that makes it easier to understand.
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Q.4 Pie Chart is a common way to depict data. Discuss its usage
and drawbacks.
Ans-
A pie chart is a type of graph that records data in a circular manner
that is further divided into sectors for representing the data of that
particular part out of the whole part. Each of these sectors or slices
represents the proportionate part of the whole. Pie charts, also
commonly known as pie diagrams help in interpreting and
representing the data more clearly. It is also used to compare the
given data.
Pie Chart Example

Let us look at the following example of the following pie chart

that represents the ingredients used to prepare a butter cake.

Example: The whole pie represents a value of 100. It is divided into

10 slices or sectors. The various colors represent the ingredients
used to prepare the cake. What would be the exact quantity of
each of the ingredients represented in specific colors in the
following pie chart?
Solution: As we can see, the pie is divided into 10 slices or sectors.
To calculate the exact amount of ingredients that are added to the
cake, we divide the whole sector's value, i.e., 100 by the number
of sectors. So, 100 ÷ 10 = 10. Hence, looking at the color divisions
made in the pie chart we can conclude that:
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 Quantity of Flour 30

Quantity of Sugar 20

Quantity of Egg 40

Quantity of Butter 10

Pie Chart Formula

We know that the total value of the pie is always 100%. It is also
known that a circle subtends an angle of 360°. Hence, the total of
all the data is equal to 360°. Based on these, there are two main
formulas used in pie charts:
 To calculate the percentage of the given data, we use the

formula: (Frequency ÷ Total Frequency) × 100

 To convert the data into degrees we use the formula:

(Given Data ÷ Total value of Data) × 360°

We can work out the percentage for a given pie chart using the
steps given below,
 Categorize the given data and calculate the total

 Divide the different categories

 Convert the data into percentages

 Calculate the degrees

Let us understand the above steps using an example.

Example: Observe the following pie chart that represents the
money spent by Ana at the funfair. The indicated color shows the
amount spent on each category. The total value of the data is 20
and the amount spent on each category is interpreted as follows:
 Ice Cream - 4

 Toffees - 4

 Popcorn - 2

 Rides - 10

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To convert this into pie chart percentage, we apply the formula:
(Frequency ÷ Total Frequency) × 100
Let us convert the above data into a percentage:
Amount spent on rides: (10/20)× 100 = 50%
Amount spent on toffees: (4/20)× 100 = 20%
Amount spent on popcorn: (2/20)× 100 = 10%
Amount spent on ice-cream: (4/20)× 100 = 20%
Example:
Observe the following pie chart that recommends a low-carb diet
on a day.

We measure the angles of each slice. We get that Protein

measures 180°, Carb measures 108°, and Fats measures 72°
To find the percentage, we divide each angle by 360 and multiply
it by 100.
Protein = (180/360) × 100 = 50%
Carb = (108/360) × 100 = 30%
Fats = (72/360) × 100 = 20%
Uses of Pie Chart
Whenever some data has to be represented visually as a fractional
part of a whole, we use pie charts. It is used to compare the data
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and see why one is smaller/greater than the other. Therefore,
when we are dealing with a limited number of buckets
and discrete data sets, it’s better to use a pie chart. Listed below
are a few uses of a pie chart:
 In a business, it is used to compare the growth areas such

as profit and loss.

 In school, pie charts are used to show the time allotted to

each section, the grades of students in a form of

percentages, etc.
 Pie charts are used in comparing the relative size of data

of people owning the same vehicles, similar houses, etc.

 They are used to represent the marketing and sales data

for the comparison of brands.

Steps to Construct Pie Chart
We use the following steps to construct a pie chart and using the
above-mentioned formulas, we can calculate the data.
 Step 1: Write all the data into a table and add up all the

values to get a total.

 Step 2: To find the values in the form of a percentage divide

each value by the total and multiply by 100.

 Step 3: To find how many degrees for each pie sector we

need, we take a full circle of 360° and use the formula:

(Frequency/Total Frequency) × 360°
 Step 4: Once all the degrees for creating a pie chart are

calculated, draw a circle (pie chart) using the calculated

measurements with the help of a protractor.
Example: Construct a pie chart to visually display the favorite
fruits of the students in a class based on the given data: Mango -
45; Orange - 30; Plum - 15; Pineapple - 30; Melon - 30
Solution:
Step 1: Create a table with the values and get the total.
Mango 45

Orange 30

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 Plum 15

Pineapple 30

Melon 30

Total 150

Step 2: Find the percentage of each value:

Mango = (45/150) × 100 = 30%
Orange = (30/150) × 100 = 20%
Plum = (15/150) × 100 = 10%
Pineapple = (30/150) × 100 = 20%
Melon = (30/150) × 100 = 20%
Step 3: Finding the degree of each pie sector using the formula:
(Given data/Total Value of data) × 360°
Category Formula Degree

Mango (45/150) × 360 108°

Orange (30/150) × 360 72°

Plum (15/150) × 360 36°

Pineapple (30/150) × 360 72°

Melon (30/150) × 360 72°

With all the above degrees, with the help of a protractor draw a
pie chart.Thus, the pie chart looks like this:

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Interpreting Pie Chart
To read or interpret a pie chart, we see if the given chart is given
in percentages or without any value. If it is given in percentages,
the conversion is made accordingly and interpreted accordingly.
Let us look at an example to understand this better.
Example: The pie chart shown below shows the percentages of
types of transportation used by 500 students to come to school.
With this given information, answer the following questions:
a) How many students come to school by bicycle?
b) How many students do not walk to school?
c) How many students come to school by bus and car?
Solution:
a) The students who come by bicycle = 25%; (25/100) × 500
= 25 × 5 = 125
b) The students who do not walk to school - We need to add the
values of all the remaining means, i.e., bus + car + bicycle
= 26 + 32 + 25 = 83
Hence, (83/100) × 500 = 83 × 5
= 415 students do not walk to school.
c) The students who come by bus and car =[(32 + 26)/100] × 500
= 58 × 5 = 290
Pie Chart Advantages
Given below are the advantages to a pie chart which are the
reasons for the widespread application of pie charts in different
fields.
 A pie chart is a simple and easy-to-understand method to

represent the data visually as a fractional part of a whole.

 It provides an effective communication tool visually simpler

than other types of graphs.

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  Pie chart helps in data comparison for the audience at a
glance to give an immediate analysis or to quickly
understand information due to widespread use in business
and the media.
Pie Chart Disadvantages
There are few demerits in pie charts. These are as given below,
 A pie chart cannot show more than a few values without

separating the visual encoding from the data they

represent, that is they are not very effective when the
number of values in a data set increases.
 It does not easily reveal exact values in the data set.

 To show the changes in the data, many pie charts may be

needed. It, therefore, fails to explain the causes, effects, or

patterns.

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Q.5 What do you understand by ‘measure of dispersion’? Also

briefly discuss some common measures of dispersion.
Ans-

Dispersion in Statistics
Dispersion is the state of getting dispersed or spread. Statistical
dispersion means the extent to which numerical data is likely to
vary about an average value. In other words, dispersion helps to
understand the distribution of the data.

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Measures of Dispersion
In statistics, the measures of dispersion help to interpret the
variability of data i.e. to know how much homogenous or
heterogeneous the data is. In simple terms, it shows how
squeezed or scattered the variable is.
Types of Measures of Dispersion
There are two main types of dispersion methods in statistics
which are:
 Absolute Measure of Dispersion
 Relative Measure of Dispersion
Absolute Measure of Dispersion

An absolute measure of dispersion contains the same unit as the

original data set. The absolute dispersion method expresses the
variations in terms of the average of deviations of observations
like standard or means deviations. It includes range, standard
deviation, quartile deviation, etc.
The types of absolute measures of dispersion are:
 Range: It is simply the difference between the maximum
value and the minimum value given in a data set. Example: 1,
3,5, 6, 7 => Range = 7 -1= 6
 Variance: Deduct the mean from each data in the set, square
each of them and add each square and finally divide them by
the total no of values in the data set to get the variance.
Variance (σ2) = ∑(X−μ)2/N
 Standard Deviation: The square root of the variance is
known as the standard deviation i.e. S.D. = √σ.
 Quartiles and Quartile Deviation: The quartiles are values
that divide a list of numbers into quarters. The quartile
deviation is half of the distance between the third and the
first quartile.
 Mean and Mean Deviation: The average of numbers is
known as the mean and the arithmetic mean of the absolute
deviations of the observations from a measure of central
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 tendency is known as the mean deviation (also called mean
absolute deviation).
Relative Measure of Dispersion
The relative measures of dispersion are used to compare the
distribution of two or more data sets. This measure compares
values without units. Common relative dispersion methods
include:
1. Co-efficient of Range
2. Co-efficient of Variation
3. Co-efficient of Standard Deviation
4. Co-efficient of Quartile Deviation
5. Co-efficient of Mean Deviation
Co-efficient of Dispersion
The coefficients of dispersion are calculated (along with the
measure of dispersion) when two series are compared, that
differ widely in their averages. The dispersion coefficient is also
used when two series with different measurement units are
compared. It is denoted as C.D.
The common coefficients of dispersion are:

C.D. in terms of Coefficient of dispersion

Range C.D. = (Xmax – Xmin) ⁄ (Xmax + Xmin)

Quartile Deviation C.D. = (Q3 – Q1) ⁄ (Q3 + Q1)

Standard Deviation C.D. = S.D. ⁄ Mean

(S.D.)

Mean Deviation C.D. = Mean deviation/Average

THE END
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