Course: Course: Educational Statistics

Semester: Autumn, 2022 Course Code: 8614

Assignment No.1

Q.1 Why is Statistics important for a teacher or researcher?

A Preface to The importance of Statistics in Educational Researcher

The field of statistics is concerned with collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting data.
In an education setting, statistics is important for the following reasons:

Reason 1: Statistics allows educators to understand student performance using descriptive statistics.
Reason 2: Statistics allows educators to spot trends in student performance using data visualizations.
Reason 3: Statistics allows educators to compare different teaching methods using hypothesis tests.

According to Lovett
“Statistics is the science which deals with the collection, classification and tabulation of numerical facts
as the basis for explanation, description and comparison of phenomena”.
Tate, M.N. is statistics in Education (1953) has very beautifully summed up the concept of statistics as
It’s all perfectly clear; you complete statistics (means, medians, modes etc.) from statistics (numerical
facts) by statistics (statistics as a science or methodology).

Need, Importance and Uses of Statistics

1. Group Comparison
The achievements of a class are not uniform in every subject. It is found that one class is progressing
faster is one subject; while another is progressing is a different one. Even the various sections of a
particular class do not progress uniformly.

2. Individual Comparison
Statistics helps in the individual comparison of students differing in respect of their ages, abilities and
intelligence levels. It is statistics which tells us why thus students who are similar in every other respect
yet do not show similar achievement is one particular subject.

3. Educational and Vocational Guidance

Every individual student differs from others in his intellectual ability, interests, attitude and mental
abilities students are given educational and vocational guidance so that they make the best use of these
abilities and the process of guidance is based upon statistics only.

4. Educational Experiments and Research

With a change in place, line and circumstances, the aims, curricula and methods of education keep on
changing. The work of research and experimentation cannot become reliable and valid without the use of
statistics.

5. Essential for Professional Efficiency

The teacher’s responsibility does not end when he teaches a particular subject in the classroom. His
responsibility includes teaching the students, obtaining the desired level of knowledge for himself and
assessing the achievement of modification in behaviour also.

6. Basis of Scientific Approach to Problems

Statistics forms the basis of scientific approach to problems of Educational Psychology.

Meaning of Graphical Representation of Data:

A graphic representation is the geometrical image of a set of data. It is a mathematical picture. It enables
us to think about a statistical problem in visual terms. A picture is said to be more effective than words for
describing a particular thing or phenomenon.

Consequently the graphic representation of data proves quite an effective and an economic device for the
presentation, understanding and inter predation of the collected statistical data. The statistical data can be
represented by diagram, charts etc., so that the significance attached to these data may immediately be
grasped, of course, the diagrams should be neatly and accurately drawn.

Advantages of Graphical Representation of Data

1. The data can be presented in a more attractive and an appealing form.

2. It provides a more lasting effect on the brain. It is possible to have an immediate and a meaning group
of large amounts of data through such presentation.

3. Comparative analysis and interpretation may be effectively and easily made.

4. Various valuable statistics like median, mode, quartiles may be easily computed. Through such
representation, we also get an indication of correlation between two variables.
5. Such representation may help in the proper estimation evaluation and interpretation of the
characteristics of items and individuals.

6. The real value of graphical representation use in us economy and effectiveness. It carries a lot of
communication power.

7. Graphical representation helps in for-casting, as it indicates the trend of the data in the past.

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Q.2 Discuss different types of data. Also elaborate differences between

primary and secondary data
Primary Data

Primary data is data originated for the first time by the researcher through direct efforts and experience,
specifically for the purpose of addressing his research problem. Also known as the first hand or raw data.
Primary data collection is quite expensive, as the research is conducted by the organisation or agency
itself, which requires resources like investment and manpower. The data collection is under direct control
and supervision of the investigator.

The data can be collected through various methods like surveys, observations, physical testing, mailed
questionnaires, questionnaire filled and sent by enumerators, personal interviews, telephonic interviews,
focus groups, case studies, etc.

Secondary Data

Secondary data implies second-hand information which is already collected and recorded by any person
other than the user for a purpose, not relating to the current research problem. It is the readily available
form of data collected from various sources like censuses, government publications, internal records of
the organisation, reports, books, journal articles, websites and so on.

Secondary data offer several advantages as it is easily available, saves time and cost of the researcher. But
there are some disadvantages associated with this, as the data is gathered for the purposes other than the
problem in mind, so the usefulness of the data may be limited in a number of ways like relevance and
accuracy.

Moreover, the objective and the method adopted for acquiring data may not be suitable to the current
situation. Therefore, before using secondary data, these factors should be kept in mind.
Key Differences Between Primary and Secondary Data

The fundamental differences between primary and secondary data are discussed in the following points:

1. The term primary data refers to the data originated by the researcher for the first time. Secondary
data is the already existing data, collected by the investigator agencies and organisations earlier.
2. Primary data is a real-time data whereas secondary data is one which relates to the past.
3. Primary data is collected for addressing the problem at hand while secondary data is collected for
purposes other than the problem at hand.
4. Primary data collection is a very involved process. On the other hand, secondary data collection
process is rapid and easy.
5. Primary data collection sources include surveys, observations, experiments, questionnaire,
personal interview, etc. On the contrary, secondary data collection sources are government
publications, websites, books, journal articles, internal records etc.
6. Primary data collection requires a large amount of resources like time, cost and manpower.
Conversely, secondary data is relatively inexpensive and quickly available.
7. Primary data is always specific to the researcher’s needs, and he controls the quality of research.
In contrast, secondary data is neither specific to the researcher’s need, nor he has control over the
data quality.
8. Primary data is available in the raw form whereas secondary data is the refined form of primary
data. It can also be said that secondary data is obtained when statistical methods are applied to the
primary data.
9. Data collected through primary sources are more reliable and accurate as compared to the
secondary sources.

Conclusion

As can be seen from the above discussion that primary data is an original and unique data, which is
directly collected by the researcher from a source according to his requirements. As opposed to secondary
data which is easily accessible but are not pure as they have undergone through many statistical
treatments.

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Q.3. Explain ‘pictogram’ as a technique to explore/explain data.

Preface
A pictogram is one of the simplest and most popular forms of data visualization out there. Besides
making your data look nice, pictograms can make your data more memorable.
Visually stacking icons to represent simple data can improve a reader’s recall of that data and even their
level of engagement with that data. Pictograms can also be a fun addition to any info graphic.
If you've ever asked yourself, what a pictogram is, we'll tell you all about it, show you when you should
use them, and give you some inspiration with our pictogram examples.

Introduction to pictogram
Pictograms are types of charts and graphs that use icons and images to represent data.
Also known as “pictographs”, “icon charts”, “picture charts”, and “pictorial unit charts”, pictograms use a
series of repeated icons to visualize simple data. The icons are arranged in a single line or a grid, with
each icon representing a certain number of units.
A feature of many great info graphics, they’re often used to make otherwise boring facts or data points
more compelling, as seen in the statistical info graphic below.

And since pictograms are made from a series of icons, they’re perfect for those times when you need an
attractive graphic but don’t have a graphic designer to rely on.

When to use a pictogram

Pictograms can come in handy quite often when visualizing data in info graphics, reports, presentations,
and even resumes
You can use a pictogram whenever you want to make simple data more visually interesting, more
memorable, or more engaging.
Whether you want to show the magnitude of an important stat or visualize a fraction or percentage, you
can use pictograms to add visual impact to simple data.
1. Use a pictogram to show ratings or changes
We know that pictograms are great for showing simple proportions or percentages.

Pretty much every site that allows customers to rate products or services (like Yelp and Amazon) uses
pictograms to show the results of their five-star rating system.

We can do the same thing to visualize ratings, scores, and changes over time and space in our info
graphics.

Info graphic pictogram examples

This pictogram example takes the form of an infographic. There's a lot of data to be shared here about
change management. Instead of becoming overwhelmed by the ratings, the star icons draw the eye to key
information that makes it easier to understand.

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Q.4 Pie Chart is a common way to depict data. Discuss its usage and
drawbacks.

Introduction
A pie chart is a type of graph that records data in a circular manner that is further divided into sectors for
representing the data of that particular part out of the whole part. Each of these sectors or slices represents
the proportionate part of the whole. Pie charts, also commonly known as pie diagrams help in interpreting
and representing the data more clearly. It is also used to compare the given data.
Pie Chart Example

Let us look at the following example of the following pie chart that represents the ingredients used to
prepare a butter cake.

Example

The whole pie represents a value of 100. It is divided into 10 slices or sectors. The various colors
represent the ingredients used to prepare the cake.

Solution

As we can see, the pie is divided into 10 slices or sectors. To calculate the exact amount of ingredients
that are added to the cake, we divide the whole sector's value, i.e., 100 by the number of sectors. So, 100
÷ 10 = 10. Hence, looking at the color divisions made in the pie chart we can conclude that:

Quantity of Flour 30

Quantity of Sugar 20

Quantity of Egg 40

Quantity of Butter 10
Pie Chart Formula

We know that the total value of the pie is always 100%. It is also known that a circle subtends an angle of
360°. Hence, the total of all the data is equal to 360°. Based on these, there are two main formulas used in
pie charts:

• To calculate the percentage of the given data, we use the formula: (Frequency ÷ Total
Frequency) × 100
• To convert the data into degrees we use the formula: (Given Data ÷ Total value of Data) ×
360°

We can work out the percentage for a given pie chart using the steps given below,

• Categorize the given data and calculate the total

• Divide the different categories
• Convert the data into percentages
• Calculate the degrees

Let us understand the above steps using an example.

Example: Observe the following pie chart that represents the money spent by Ana at the funfair. The
indicated color shows the amount spent on each category. The total value of the data is 20 and the amount
spent on each category is interpreted as follows:

• Ice Cream - 4
• Toffees - 4
• Popcorn - 2
• Rides - 10
To convert this into pie chart percentage, we apply the formula: (Frequency ÷ Total Frequency) ×
100

Let us convert the above data into a percentage:

Amount spent on rides: (10/20)× 100 = 50%

Amount spent on toffees: (4/20)× 100 = 20%

Amount spent on popcorn: (2/20)× 100 = 10%

Amount spent on ice-cream: (4/20)× 100 = 20%

Example

Observe the following pie chart that recommends a low-carb diet on a day.

We measure the angles of each slice. We get that Protein measures 180°, Carb measures 108°, and Fats
measures 72°

To find the percentage, we divide each angle by 360 and multiply it by 100.

Protein = (180/360) × 100 = 50%

Crab = (108/360) × 100 = 30%

Fats = (72/360) × 100 = 20%

Uses of Pie Chart

Whenever some data has to be represented visually as a fractional part of a whole, we use pie charts. It is
used to compare the data and see why one is smaller/greater than the other. Therefore, when we are
dealing with a limited number of buckets and discrete data sets, it’s better to use a pie chart. Listed below
are a few uses of a pie chart:
• In a business, it is used to compare the growth areas such as profit and loss.
• In school, pie charts are used to show the time allotted to each section, the grades of students
in a form of percentages, etc.
• Pie charts are used in comparing the relative size of data of people owning the same vehicles,
similar houses, etc.
• They are used to represent the marketing and sales data for the comparison of brands.
Steps to Construct Pie Chart

We use the following steps to construct a pie chart and using the above-mentioned formulas, we can
calculate the data.

• Step 1: Write all the data into a table and add up all the values to get a total.
• Step 2: To find the values in the form of a percentage divide each value by the total and
multiply by 100.
• Step 3: To find how many degrees for each pie sector we need, we take a full circle of 360°
and use the formula: (Frequency/Total Frequency) × 360°
• Step 4: Once all the degrees for creating a pie chart are calculated, draw a circle (pie chart)
using the calculated measurements with the help of a protractor.

Example

Construct a pie chart to visually display the favorite fruits of the students in a class based on the given
data: Mango - 45; Orange - 30; Plum - 15; Pineapple - 30; Melon - 30
Solution

Step 1: Create a table with the values and get the total.

Mango 45

Orange 30

Plum 15

Pineapple 30

Melon 30

Total 150

Step 2: Find the percentage of each value:

Mango = (45/150) × 100 = 30%

Orange = (30/150) × 100 = 20%

Plum = (15/150) × 100 = 10%

Pineapple = (30/150) × 100 = 20%

Melon = (30/150) × 100 = 20%

Step 3: Finding the degree of each pie sector using the formula: (Given data/Total Value of data) × 360°

Category Formula Degree

Mango (45/150) × 360 108°

Orange (30/150) × 360 72°

Plum (15/150) × 360 36°

Pineapple (30/150) × 360 72°

Melon (30/150) × 360 72°

With all the above degrees, with the help of a protractor draw a pie chart.Thus, the pie chart looks like
this:

Interpreting Pie Chart

To read or interpret a pie chart, we see if the given chart is given in percentages or without any value. If it
is given in percentages, the conversion is made accordingly and interpreted accordingly. Let us look at an
example to understand this better.

Example

The pie chart shown below shows the percentages of types of transportation used by 500 students to come
to school. With this given information, answer the following questions:
a) How many students come to school by bicycle?
b) How many students do not walk to school?
c) How many students come to school by bus and car?

Solution

a) The students who come by bicycle = 25%; (25/100) × 500 = 25 × 5 = 125

b) The students who do not walk to school - We need to add the values of all the remaining means, i.e.,
bus + car + bicycle = 26 + 32 + 25 = 83
Hence, (83/100) × 500 = 83 × 5 = 415 students do not walk to school.

c) The students who come by bus and car [(32 + 26)/100] × 500 = 58 × 5 = 290
Pie Chart Advantages

Given below are the advantages to a pie chart which are the reasons for the widespread application of pie
charts in different fields.

• A pie chart is a simple and easy-to-understand method to represent the data visually as a
fractional part of a whole.
• It provides an effective communication tool visually simpler than other types of graphs.
• Pie chart helps in data comparison for the audience at a glance to give an immediate analysis
or to quickly understand information due to widespread use in business and the media.

Pie Chart Disadvantages

There are few demerits in pie charts. These are as given below,

• A pie chart cannot show more than a few values without separating the visual encoding from
the data they represent, that is they are not very effective when the number of values in a data
set increases.
• It does not easily reveal exact values in the data set.
• To show the changes in the data, many pie charts may be needed. It, therefore, fails to
explain the causes, effects, or patterns.
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Q.5 What do you understand by ‘measure of dispersion’? Also briefly discuss

some common measures of dispersion.

Dispersion in Statistics
Dispersion is the state of getting dispersed or spread. Statistical dispersion means the extent to which
numerical data is likely to vary about an average value. In other words, dispersion helps to understand the
distribution of the data.
Measures of Dispersion
In statistics, the measures of dispersion help to interpret the variability of data i.e. to know how much
homogenous or heterogeneous the data is. In simple terms, it shows how squeezed or scattered the
variable is.

Types of Measures of Dispersion

There are two main types of dispersion methods in statistics which are:

• Absolute Measure of Dispersion

• Relative Measure of Dispersion

Absolute Measure of Dispersion

An absolute measure of dispersion contains the same unit as the original data set. The absolute dispersion
method expresses the variations in terms of the average of deviations of observations like standard or
means deviations. It includes range, standard deviation, quartile deviation, etc.
The types of absolute measures of dispersion are:

1. Range: It is simply the difference between the maximum value and the minimum value given in a
data set. Example: 1, 3,5, 6, 7 => Range = 7 -1= 6
2. Variance: Deduct the mean from each data in the set, square each of them and add each square
and finally divide them by the total no of values in the data set to get the variance. Variance (σ2) =
∑(X−μ)2/N
3. Standard Deviation: The square root of the variance is known as the standard deviation i.e. S.D.
= √σ.
4. Quartiles and Quartile Deviation: The quartiles are values that divide a list of numbers into
quarters. The quartile deviation is half of the distance between the third and the first quartile.
5. Mean and Mean Deviation: The average of numbers is known as the mean and the arithmetic
mean of the absolute deviations of the observations from a measure of central tendency is known
as the mean deviation (also called mean absolute deviation).

Relative Measure of Dispersion

The relative measures of dispersion are used to compare the distribution of two or more data sets. This
measure compares values without units. Common relative dispersion methods include:
 1. Co-efficient of Range
2. Co-efficient of Variation
3. Co-efficient of Standard Deviation
4. Co-efficient of Quartile Deviation
5. Co-efficient of Mean Deviation

Co-efficient of Dispersion
The coefficients of dispersion are calculated (along with the measure of dispersion) when two series are
compared, that differ widely in their averages. The dispersion coefficient is also used when two series
with different measurement units are compared. It is denoted as C.D.
The common coefficients of dispersion are:

C.D. in terms of Coefficient of dispersion

Range C.D. = (Xmax – Xmin) ⁄ (Xmax + Xmin)

Quartile Deviation C.D. = (Q3 – Q1) ⁄ (Q3 + Q1)

Standard Deviation (S.D.) C.D. = S.D. ⁄ Mean

Mean Deviation C.D. = Mean deviation/Average

Inroduction to the Measure of Dispersion

Every data consists of some variability within its range. Variability in data is defined as how far apart
the data lie from each other and from the center of distribution. It is also known as the shatter, spread
or dispersion of data.

Dispersion of data is defined as the degree to which the arithmetical data approached to spread an
average value. Measure of dispersion helps in calculating the variability of data.
Like the central tendency of data, variability is also essential for summarizing the characteristics of
data. It helps in stating the facts and figures of the data. The mathematical concept of variability has
been thoroughly applied to science studies. The physics and chemistry branch of science don’t hold
much variability as found in medicines and biology.

Types of Variability

In any data, there can occur three kinds of variability, biological, real and experimental. Here is a
brief introduction to three of them.

1. Biological Variability

As the name suggests, biological variability is related to the human body and medications. In
the same environment and test conditions two individuals can respond differently when
compared to each other. These variations may arise due to difference in sex class, weight etc.
Such variations are also known as biological variability.

2. Real Variability

Real variability is also known as variability within the limits. The variability is termed as real
when the difference between two readings or observations is more than the defined limits of the
universe.

3. Experiment Variability

Experimental variability occurs during the time of experiments. It may arise because of error or
difference during methods, procedure or any other defects during the techniques. Experimental
variability is further classified into three types: observer error, instrumental error, and sampling
error.

• Observer error
 Observer error can be subjective or objective. For subjective error consider the way an
interviewer may change the information while asking the questions and objective error occurs
when an untrained observer records the measurement.

• Instrumental error
Instrumental error is generally negligible and gross. It is caused because of defects in machines,
height measures, calibration errors and other undesirable variability that is responsible for
wrong conclusions or calculation.

• Sampling error
Sometimes, biased samples are also responsible for different variations or calculations. A
sample drawn shouldn't be too small to draw decisions else it may again result in variations.

Error also occurs when the sample is not the true representative of the population, and thus it
won’t enable us to draw the true conclusions.

Types of measure of dispersion

1. Range
2. Quartile deviation
3. Mean deviation
4. Standard deviation
5. Variance and coefficient of variance

1. Range

Range is the difference between the highest and lowest value of the sample. The coefficient of
range is defined as the relative measure of the range.

Mathematically, range (R) = H-L, where H is the higher limit and L is the lower limit.

and, the coefficient of range is defined as H-L / H+L.

 For consideration, consider the data related to weekly production of a fabric producing industry.

Week 1 2 3 4

Production (in thousands) 8.3 10.2 13.2 9.6

Table 1

For the above data, the range is H-L = 13.2-8.3 = 4.9.

and, coefficient of range is defined as H-L / H+L = 4.9/21.5 = 0.228

The advantage of range is that it is easy to calculate and understand. Range calculation is
helpful in calculating statistical quality control and weather forecasting.

The disadvantage of range is that it is not worthy for thorough analysis as it gets affected by the
extreme value of sample distribution.

2. Quartile Deviation

Quartile deviation is also known as interquartile range. It is defined as the range of a group of
observations, it is calculated by processing the value of the upper quartile and lower quartile of
the particular group.

For a group, the upper quartile is defined as the value above which 25% of the observations lie.
Lower quartile is vice versa, it is the value below which 25% of the observation lies.

For consideration, here is the class data of a school,

Weight 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
 (in kg) 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Frequenc 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2
ies 2 5 8 0 8 2 4 8 3

Table 2

For the given table, the upper quartile is 64 and the lower quartile is 60, so the quartile range is
64-60= 4.

The advantage of quartile deviation is that it is easy to calculate and remains unaffected by the
extreme values. Moreover, quartile deviation is more beneficial when the observer has to deal
with the half of the group only.

The disadvantage of quartile deviation is that it avoids only 50% of the extreme value and is not
suitable for algebraic treatment.

3. Mean Deviation

Mean deviation is defined as the average or mean of the deviations of the value from central
tendency. Central tendency can be any measurement mean, median or mode. The mean
deviation is calculated in following steps,

• Consider the entire set of data as x.

• Now, sum up the arithmetic mean as x’.
• Now calculate the deviation of each observation entry from the mean.
• Take the positive value of each difference into consideration.
• Final deviation is calculated by this formula. MD = sum of all differences between the observations and mean/
total number of observations.

For consideration, here is a demo data set.

 S. No x (data) dx = x-x’ Positive value of dx

1 10 10-21 = -11 11

2 26 26-21 = 5 5

3 20 20-21 = -1 1

4 23 23-21 = 2 2

5 15 15-21 = -6 6

6 32 32-21 = 11 11

Total = 6 126 (mean = 126/6= 21) Total = 36

Table 3

Mean deviation = sum of differences of mean and observation/ total number of observations

= 36/6 = 6

The coefficient of mean deviation is defined as the ratio of mean deviation to arithmetic mean,
6/21= 0.285.

The advantage of mean deviation is that it can be easily calculated by any method of central
tendency, the observations are volatile by extreme items, and is based on the measurement not
on estimation.

The drawback of mean deviation is that it ignores the original sign of observation while
calculation, thus, not suitable for accurate and deeper analysis.

4. Standard Deviation
 Standard deviation is defined as the square root of arithmetic mean of the squared deviation of
observation taken from the average observation. The steps for the calculation of standard
deviation are as follows:

• Calculate the average or mean of data.

• Find the deviations and calculate the square of these deviations.
• Now find the summation of these deviations.
• Divide your calculation by the total number of observations and find the root of it.

For consideration, for table 3 data, standard deviation, square root of (362 / 6) which is 14.64
here.

Standard deviation is used for calculating the large set of data. It helps in calculating the errors
and differences in the data set. It is used for identifying the suitable size of the data.

5. Variance and Coefficient of Variance

Variance is defined as the square of the standard deviation. Variance is helpful for drawing the
inferences of the statistics. The coefficient of variance is used for the comparison of variability
of one character in two different variable groups. Coefficient of variation is calculated from
standard deviation and the arithmetic mean of the observation.

For consideration, for the data of table 3, variance is calculated as (14.694)2 = 215. 913

Variance and Coefficients of variance are versatile in the data series which have the same units
but different standard deviations. It helps in comparison and representation of series with
different units.

The only disadvantage is that variance is unitless.

Correlation

Another term related to variables and statistics is correlation. Correlation is defined as a relationship
between the two variables of a data study.

In other words, when in a set of observations, two variables are inter-related in such a manner that
change in one variable affects the other variable of the entry too is called correlation. Correlation
helps to study the linear association or relativity between two quantitative parameters.

Types of Correlation

There are primarily three categories of Correlation. Here is the brief introduction to three of them:

1. Positive, negative and zero correlation

If the change in variation directly affects the other variation, it is defined as a positive
correlation.For example, height and weight. And, when the change in variation is inverse it is
called as negative correlation. When in a data set, there is no relation between two variables it is
called zero correlation.

2. Linear and non-linear correlation

When the change in value of a variable changes constantly with the change in another variable,
it is known as linear correlation. But, when this change is not constant with the other change,
the correlation is termed as non-linear.

3. Simple, partial and multiple Correlation

The simple study with two variables is called simple correlation. When this study is done
keeping the other variables constant, the process is called partial correlation. And, when study is
conducted fluctuating the other variables, the study is termed as multiple correlation.
Methods of measuring a Correlation

Correlation study can be measured in following ways:

1. Scattered diagram
Scatter diagram is a graphical method of presentation, where one variable is presented on the
x-axis and another variable on the y-axis.

2. Correlation graph
Correlation graph is the graphical presentation where two variables are plotted on different
graphs. Two graphs are obtained and hence studied for the correlation studies.

3. Spearman’s rank coefficient of correlation

Spearman’s method considers the ranks of two variables for finding their correlation.

4. Concurrent deviation method

Concurrent deviation method works on the direction of change of two paired variations. The
coefficient deviation between two X and Y series is called the coefficient of concurrent
deviation.

Conclusion
Hence measures of dispersion describe the spread of the data. They include the range, interquartile range,
standard deviation and variance. The range is given as the smallest and largest observations. This is the
simplest measure of variability.

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THE END