‫ملخص الب مقاومه لماده كامله شامل شرح الدكتور وأسئلة سنوات‬

‫سابقه والمانيوال‬
‫ال تنسوني من صالح الدعاء‬

‫لجنة المدني_سيفلتيي‬
 Experiments :
1- Tensile Test .
2-Compression test .
3-Deflection of Beams.
4-Stability Of Columns .
5- Torsion test
6-Fatigue Test .
7-Hardness Test .
8-THIN WALL CYLINDER .
9-Creep Test of Metallic Materials .
10-Strain Measurement with Strain Gauges .
11-Impact Test .
 •Tensile Test
P

The Tensile test is used to :

1-Observe the behavior of materials under tensile load.
2-Determine the strength and other several elastic and plastic .
3-Properties of various materials . P
4-Study the fracture of metallic material.

Universal Testing Machine (UTM) : The machine is digital type Tensile

Strength Test Machine, Capable doing the following tests:
1. Tensile test 2. Compression test ‫يتأثر بوجود الشوائب‬
3- 3 Points bending test 4. Direct shear test
 Df

Li Lf

S=Lf -Li

𝑃
Stress=𝜎= ‫الوحده باسكال‬ Deformation = S=Lf -Li
𝐴
OR
𝑃𝐿
𝑺 Lf −Li Deformation = S=
Strain= 𝜖 = = ‫عليها‬ ‫بناء‬ ‫عالماده‬ ‫نوع‬ ‫حدد‬ُ ‫ي‬ P 𝐸𝐴
Li Li
‫من دون وحده‬
Stress =𝜎= E* 𝜖 E: how much something will stretch elastically
(Young’s modulus of Elasticity ) A
‫معامل المرونه‬
P
Ex: concrete Ex: Steel
Brass Brittle Ductile
‫هي مواد مرنه لكنها تتشوه بشكل سريع‬ Materials ‫هي مواد هشة تنكسر بسرعه‬

Happen because normal stress Happen because Shear stress

Shape: Flat Shape : Cup and Cone
Fracture at angle 𝟗𝟎° Fracture at angle 𝟒𝟓°
Hight carbonic steel Low carbonic steel

Hold tension
Yield=Ultimate=fracture more than
Only Elastic Slope
Ductility < 5% Ductility > 5%
 ‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪Stage‬‬ ‫‪Definition‬‬ ‫‪Symbol‬‬
‫‪Proportional‬‬ ‫نهايه الخط المستقيم وقيمتها من محور اإلجهاد‬ ‫‪OA‬‬
‫‪limit‬‬
‫‪Yield stress‬‬ ‫النقطة الي تفصل بين المنطقتين ‪Elastic ,Plastic‬‬ ‫‪B‬‬
‫)‪(𝜎y‬‬
‫‪Ultimate‬‬ ‫النقطة التي تكون في أعلى المنحنى‬ ‫‪D‬‬
‫‪stress‬‬
‫‪Rupture‬‬ ‫أخر نقطة في المنحنى‬ ‫‪E‬‬
‫)‪Plastic(A2‬‬ ‫‪or fracture‬‬
‫‪stress‬‬
‫)‪Elastic (A1‬‬
‫‪Necking‬‬ ‫المنقطة الي تقع بين ‪Ultimate , Rupture‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬

‫‪Elastic :‬‬
‫لو عرضت عليها أكبر قوى ثم أزلتها سيرجع إلى شكله الطبيعي‬
‫‪Plastic :‬‬
‫لو عرضت عليه قوى ثم أزلتها سيتشوه تشوه دائم ولن يرجع إلى شكله الطبيعي‬
The Modulus of Elasticity (E) : Shows the Elastic resistance to an applied load
that causes deformation. It is a measure of the stiffness of materials .
𝜎
E= so 𝜎= E* 𝜖 just in Elastic and called Hock’s Law
𝜖
‫قيمتها قليله للمعادن الطرية‬
The Modulus of Resilience (UR) : Amount of energy stored in stressing
the material to the elastic limit This quantity is important in selecting
materials for energy storage such as springs .
1 𝐽
UR=A1= 𝜎𝑦 𝜖𝑦 ( )
2 𝑚3
The modulus of Toughness (UT): Total energy absorption capabilities of the
materials to failure this quantity is important in selecting materials for
applications where high overloads are likely to occur and large amounts of
energy must be absorbed
2
UT=A1+A2 = 𝜎𝑢 𝜖𝑀𝑎𝑥
3
 𝐸
Shear modulus of elasticity (G) : −𝜖𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
2(1−𝑉) V= Poisson’s Ratio=
𝐸 𝜖𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙
Bulk Modulus(K) :
3(1−2𝑉)
True or Actual Values
𝜎𝑇 = 𝜎(1 + 𝜖)
𝜖𝑇 = Ln(1+ 𝜖)
Ductility

𝐴𝑖−𝐴𝑓 𝐿𝑓−𝐿𝑖
Reduction in Area = *100% Elongation percentage = *100%
𝐴𝑓 𝐿𝑖
Then :
Vi=Vf
Ai * Li = Af * Lf
𝑨𝒊∗𝑳𝒊
Af = 𝑳𝒇 ‫إذا الرقم كان كبير تكون الماده مرنه‬
 Compression test ‫الضغط‬ P
• The compression test is used to:
1-Observe the stress - strain behavior of some metals under
compression load.
2-Determine the strength and other properties of various materials .
• There are special limitations on the compression test:
1- Appling a truly axial load is difficult. P
2- There is always a tendency for bending stresses to be set up. ‫الضغط‬
3- Friction between the heads of the testing machine or bearing plates
and the end surfaces of the sample
• Universal Testing Machine (UTM) we use it again in this test .
Why we do this test ?
‫ألن المواد الهشة تتأكثر أكثر في الضغط أكثر من الشد‬
‫ال يتأثر بوجود الشوائب‬
 Di

S=Li-Lf Df
L > D Why ?
Li
Lf Avoid Buckling

𝐿𝑖−𝐿𝑓 ∆𝐿
Notes : 𝝐= Shortening = 𝐿
*100%
𝐿𝑖
. ‫الطول اإلبتدائي أكبر من النهائي‬ Increasing in Area=
∆𝐴
*100%
. ‫المساحه اإلبتدائيه أقل من النهائيه‬ Vi =Vf 𝐴
. ‫ حجم العينه اإلبتدائيه نفس حجم العينه النهائي‬Ai Li= Af Lf
P
The friction between sample
Happen and the testing machine .
because
Compressed the sample its
begins to bulge outward on
the sides
How we can
Put oil
Avoid it ?
P
 Brittle Materials Ductile

Fracture at angle 𝟒𝟓° No Fracture ‫يحدث فقط تشوهات‬

Hold compressive load less than Ductile

‫شكل الكسر‬

Caused by : Normal stress

Compression higher than tension ?

Atoms and cracks
will be close to
each other
Yield=Ultimate=fracture
 • Deflection of Beams at Elastic zone
• Objective: Investigate the support reaction forces and
deflection of a simply supported beam and a cantilever beam .

• Beam : Structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally

to the beam's axis

Simply supported beam Cantilever beam

• Simply supported beam

X: A ‫المسافه ما بين القوة و النقطة‬ 𝒍

𝟎≤𝒙≤
𝑋 𝟐
∑𝑀𝐴 = 0 By= F *
𝐿 𝐹𝐿3 𝑋 𝑋3
∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝑋 w(x)= (3 - 4 3 )
Or Ay=F * (1- ) 48𝐸𝐼 𝐿 𝐿
∑𝑀𝐵 = 0 𝐿
𝒍
The maximum deflection Where x =
𝟐
h
𝐹𝐿3
𝑏ℎ3 w(x)=
b 𝐼 =Moment of Inertia= b: ‫الطول الكبير‬ 48𝐸𝐼
12
• Cantilever beam

S or Deformation at point A = Zero

𝐹𝐿3
Deflection(Y max) =
3𝐸𝐼 S or Deformation at point B = Max
L : ‫موقع القوه وليس طول البيم‬
𝑏ℎ3
𝐼 =Moment of Inertia=
12

Deflection Proportional to F and 𝐿3

Deflection Inversely to E and 𝐼

• Sources or error :
1- Error in reading of Dynamometer because the difference in the angle
of view .
2- Non-Zeroed Dynamometer .
3- The beam is not straight 100% .
4 - Already Plastic deformation before the experiment in the beam .
5-The dynamometers experience spring excursion under load , in order
to prevent measurements errors as a result of additional deflection , the
result should be returned to their original position .
‫الناتج العملي‬
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙−𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
E= ቚ ቚ * 100%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
‫الناتج النظري‬
• Devices

Measurement of the Deflection : By Dial gauge and the units in (mm) .

Measurement of the Reaction : By Dynamometer and the units in (N) .

Reading 1 Round= 360∘ = 1mm

1 Round = 100 part
• Notes : Mass of the beam is negligible .
Force should be constant .
Cross-section of b x h mm .
Experimental bar is made of steel .
 Stability Of Columns

• Objective: Study the behavior of axially loaded columns,

Determine experimentally the critical buckling load, and to compare
results with Euler’s formula .
 P

D P
P P
𝑙>𝐷
L P
D
Shaft
Beam
(Torque)
(Normal Load)
P
Column
(Compression Load) , (Axial load)
• Pcr = Critical Load “Theoretical value ” : The Load at which
the buckling( lateral deflection) will occur .

𝑛2 𝜋2 𝐸𝐼 n=1 , Always in this course L eff = KL

Pcr =
(𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓)2
K : Depends on type End condition
L: Length
E: Modulus of elasticity 𝑏ℎ3 b:
𝐼=
𝐼: Moment of inertia 12 ‫الطول االكبر‬
L eff : Length of column affected by axial load

P≥ Pcr so buckling happened P < Pcr No failure

Unstable , fail Stable
• End condition of columns :
1- Pin-Pin
Max Deflection in the middle of column .

2-Fixed-Free
Max Deflection in the top of column .

3- Max Fixed-Fixed Deflection in the middle of column .

Fixed Support
4-Fixed-Pinned ‫المنطقه القريبه منها تبقى ثابته وال تتأثر‬
𝑃𝑐𝑟−𝑃
E= ቚ ቚ * 100%
𝑃𝑐𝑟
 Torsion test
Objective :
Determine the behavior of materials when subjected to torsion, and to
obtain some of their Mechanical Properties.

𝝓 = Angle of twist

‫نتجت الزاويه عندما تحركت من نقطة إلى نقطه‬

Fixed 𝛄: Shear strain angle
 𝑟𝜙
𝑇𝑟 Elastic only 𝛾= Elastic and Plastic
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐿
𝐽
𝛾 : Shear strain angle (Rad)
𝜏 : Shear stress 𝑟 : Radius of shaft (m) 𝜙:
T: Torque (N.m) 𝜙: Angle of twist (Rad) (+) : ‫للخارج‬
r: Radius of shaft (m) 𝐿: length of shaft (m) (-) : ‫للداخل‬
J: Polar moment of inertia
𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝑟
𝜙= 𝛾=
𝐺𝐽 𝐺𝐽

‫كلما ابتعدنا عن المركز زاد اإلجهاد‬

Plastic only
𝑃𝐶 + 3𝐴𝑃
𝜏= Or ‫خذ مماس وارسم خط أفقي ثم خط عامودي كما هو موضوح في الرسمه‬
2𝜋𝑟 3

Slope at Proportional limit = G modulus of elasticity or rigidity

D
L
L= Yield D= Rupture
dT=PC
d𝜙 = 𝜙 = BC
1 𝑑𝑇 T=AP
𝜏= (𝜙 +3T)
2𝜋𝑟 3 𝑑𝜙
• The Modulus of Rigidity(G) :
Slope of the 𝜏 –𝛾 curve in the elastic range 𝜏 =G*𝛾 𝛾(Rad)

𝜙 and G : inverse Relation

• The Modulus of Resilience : Area under the elastic portion represents

1
the energy absorbed by the material in the elastic region = 𝜏𝛾
2 𝑦 𝑦

• The Modulus of Rupture (Toughness) : Total area represents the total

2
energy absorbed by the material before fracture = 𝜏𝑢𝛾𝑀𝑎𝑥 .
3
 Brittle (Pure) Ductile

Shape : Flat
Shape :

° Fracture at angle 𝟗𝟎°

Fracture at angle 𝟒𝟓

Caused by : Normal stress Caused by : Shear stress

Note : Not pure Brittle

it’s the same Ductile
 • Fatigue Test

Compression then Tension then Compression ….

So , Fracture happen at a stress less than yield stress or 𝝈 < 𝝈𝒖𝒍𝒕

Ultimate stress 𝝈 < 𝝈𝒚
Or

For this reason Oscillating stresses more dangerous .

Form of Fracture at angle 𝟗𝟎° :

Apply Tension then nothing then compression so every
point on the surface goes from max compression then to
nothing then to max tension .

C is always negative ?
‫ألن القوه بتكون داخله في الجسم‬
P1
From P2
From P1
Zero- Nothing
T
C

C
T
𝟏
cycle = Tension turn compression One cycle =
P2 𝟐
Or compression turn tension Tension and compression
Fatigue Life: It is the number of cycles to cause failure
at a specific stress taken from S-N curve S: stress
N: # of cycles
Fatigue strength: It is the stress at which failure will
occur for a specified number of cycles.

One cycle consist from 𝝈𝒎 and 𝝈a

𝝈𝒎: Mean stress 𝝈a :Alternating stress
T
𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝜎𝑚+ 𝜎𝑎 C
𝝈𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝜎𝑚 − 𝜎𝑎

𝝈𝒎 < −𝝈a 𝝈𝒎 > 𝝈a

ȁ𝝈𝒎ȁ > 𝝈a
 𝑀𝑐
𝜎=
𝐼
M: Bending Moment = F*L
𝑑 𝑑
c = Centroid = , r= 2 #of cycles = ∞ then No failure
2
𝜋𝑑 4 #of cycles = Zero then 𝜎 = 𝜎𝑢𝑙𝑡
I: Moment of Inertia=
64
Endurance : the number N of load cycles until
rupture at a certain load.
Relation between Stress and #of cycles is inverse

Fatigue Endurance Limit: It is the stress level at which fatigue will never occur, that is the
largest value of fluctuating stress that will not cause failure for infinite number of cycles.
 • Hardness Test (‫)مقاومه الماده للخدش‬
• Hardness of any metal is : Its resistance to surface indentation under standard
test conditions and its Non-Destructive test.

• Uses : 1- for Comparison between the metals and the value is not important in
design , useful in Comparison .
2- check on heat treatment to a metal and checking the tensile strength of
ferrous materials .
• Device : Universal Hardness Tester . • Components :
1- Specimen
‫العينه الذي أريد ان أخدشها‬
• Three main test methods are used:
2- Indenter
1-Brinell (HB) ‫الماده الذي أريد الخدش بها‬
2-Vickers (HC) 3- Indentation
3-Rockwell (HRC/HRB) ‫األثر الذي تتركه القوه‬
 F

Indenter diameter D d≤D

Indenter

Specimen Indentation diameter d

Indentation

We measure the diameter by microscope

1-The Brinell test : Indenter : Steel ball (2.5mm)
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃(𝑘𝑔𝑓)
BHN=Brinell harness number = =1
Area of curved surface of indentation 2
𝜋𝐷 𝐷− 𝐷2 −𝑑 2 (𝑚𝑚2 )

P: Force applied (kg)

D: Diameter of indenter (mm) kgf=kg Tensile strength (𝝈𝒖𝒍𝒕)(MPa) = 3.45(BHN).
d: Diameter indentation(mm)
Steel only
• Notes :
• Don’t use Brinell tests if BHN ≥ 450 why ?
ball maybe easily deformed and this will introduce errors .
• The test maybe unreliable for hard or very soft materials .
• If several readings must be taken on the same specimen, they should be spaced
away from each other and away from the edges of the work piece ≥ 4𝐷 .
• Distance from edge and specimen should be ≥3D .
• Depth of indentation independent with BHN .
• Hardness ball ≥ 1.7 Hardness of specimen .
Thickness of the test piece T
𝑇
Values of :
𝑡
For soft materials ≥ 15

For hard materials = ≥ 7

 2-Vickers (HC) Square based diamond pyramid indenter

𝑃 1.854𝑃 P : Load
Vickers Hardness number (VHN) = 𝐷2 =
1
∗sin (136° ) 𝐷2 D: diameter
2 2

Types of Load : Notes :

1- Pre-Load 2-Main Load
Pre-Load:
1- Make contact between the
specimen and the indentor
2- Overcome the roughness on
the surface of specimen
Main Load :
After pre-Load
• More suitable than the Brinell test for testing finished components.
• Requires a smoother finish on the
test material
• Provides a suitable hardness scale
ranging from the very soft to very
hard material.
• Depth of indentation independent with VHN .
• Hardness number of ≥ 300 the Brinell and
Vickers Hardness values are same
 • Nine scales of the hardness are available (A to K inclusive)
3-Rockwell (HRC/HRB) but the most commonly used are the B & C scale .

HRC :Rockwell test Type C HRB :Rockwell test Type B

Indentor : Diamond Indentor : Steel bar

Main Load = 100N Main Load = 150N

Cant be used for soft material

‫يستخدم للمواد الصلبه جدا ونخدشها باأللماس لضمان حدوث التشوه ل العينه‬

Diamond :Very hard it will scratch

Cone : Hight stress concentration

 • THIN WALL CYLINDER

Thickness (t) 𝑡 1
≤ ‫يجب تحقق هذا الشرط لكي تكون‬
Diameter (D) 𝐷 20 THIN WALL CYLINDER

• We put water , oil in the cylinder so we get stress and strain .

 • Stress Types :
1- Hoop Stress (𝝈L) 2- Longitudinal stress (𝝈H )
𝑃𝐷
𝝈L ∶ Longitudinal stress =
𝑃𝐷 𝝈H ∶ Hoop Stress =
2𝑡
4𝑡
‫تعتمد على نوع اإلسطوانه إذا كانت مفتوحه أم مغلقه‬ ‫دائما موجوده‬
Pressing in the Inner wall of the cylinder
Pressing in the Ends of the cylinder
𝝈H > 𝝈L
𝑃𝐷
Closed cylinder : = P: Pressure 𝝈H = 2𝝈L
4𝑡

Open cylinder : Zero D: Diameter

t: Thickness Fail because 𝝈H
𝝈L =0 When its Spherical
𝝈L and 𝝈H = ‫عالقه طرديه‬
Slope= E E: modulus of elasticity
 • Strain Types :
1- Hoop Strain (𝜖H ) 2- Longitudinal Strain (𝜖L)
𝝈L 𝝈H
𝜖L = −𝑉
𝐸 𝐸 𝝈L 𝝈L V: Poison's ratio
𝜖H = −𝑉
𝐸 𝐸
Depends on end Condition E: Modulus of Elasticity
𝜖≠0
𝝐𝐋 and 𝝐𝐋 = ‫عالقه طرديه‬ Slope= V

. ‫نضع خط اللحام بهذا اإلتجاه ويكون مع اإلجهاد االقل ولكي نتجنب حدوث الفشل‬
 • Creep Test of Metallic Materials
Annealing : Treatment of metal by heating for a certain time and then cooling to
room temperature to improve ductility , reduce hardness and its causes creep .

Ductility: Ability of material which allows

them to deform plastically under tension
• Deform depends on the
Creep : A consequence of this is that steel under a constant stress ability of dislocation
at an elevated temperature will continuously deform with time .
• Strengthening occurs
Work hardening(cold working ) : Strengthening of a metal and more because of dislocation
difficult to deform and needs more stress to produce deformation , more movements .
stronger and harder so the strain increases .
• Annealing opposite Work hardening • Application of creep test :
• Rate of Strain (Creep ) depends on : 1- Tungsten lamps
1- Temperature 2- Stress 2- The blades of an electric generators
Creep occurs if :
Tm: Absolute melting Temperature
• Ts ≥ 0.4 Tm Ts : Surrounding Temperature
• 𝝈 ≥ 𝝈𝒚
𝑃 −𝐸
𝝈= 𝝈 < 𝟓 𝐌𝐏𝐚 : 𝜀 = A𝝈𝑛 𝑒 𝑅𝑇
𝐴 −𝐸
𝝈 > 𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂: 𝜀 = B𝑒 𝝈𝛼 𝑒 𝑅𝑇

T: Temperature (kelvin)

1 to 2 Primary (Transient) Creep :

Diminishing rate due to work hardening of the metal
Work hardening > Annealing
Rate of strain decreases
2 to 3 Secondary Creep(Quasi-viscous) :
Constant rate because a balance is achieved between the work
Hardening and annealing (thermal softening) processes. Slope= Rate of strain
1
Work hardening = Annealing Unit : 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Rate of strain constant
Determines the life of a given component
Needs more time , Most important stage
Prime importance as a design criterion

3 to 4 Tertiary Creep :
The creep rate increases due to necking of
the specimen and the associated increase
in local stress.
Failure occurs at point 4.
Work hardening < annealing
Rate of strain increases
The weight hanger has two pinning positions:
1. The uppermost is used to pin the hanger in the rest position.
2. The lower hole is used to pin the hanger in the loaded position .

F=(2.84+8m)*g F: Tensile pull on the specimen

Unit : N g = Acceleration due to gravity

Ln 𝜺

𝑬
Slope= Ln𝜷- 𝑹𝑻
= 𝜶

𝝈
 • Strain Measurement with Strain Gauges

• Give accurate measurements of strain .

Strain Gauges : Sensor whose resistance varies with

applied force; It converts force, into a change in
electrical resistance which can then be measured .

The strains measured with strain gauges are normally very small also the
changes of resistance are also very small cannot be measured by ohmmeter .
. ‫لذلك نضع المقاومه في داره كهربائيه‬
When External forces are applied to a stationary
object, stress and strain are the result. External forces :
1- Normal force 2- Axial force
Stress : Object's internal resisting forces
Strain: Displacement and deformation that occur.
 Two types of strain :
1- Axial : Install the strain gauge Parallel
2- lateral : Install the strain gauge Perpendicular

• A strain gage’s sensitivity is expressed by the ratio of the relative change

of resistance to the strain and it is represented by the symbol k .

∆𝑅 ∆𝑅
∆𝑅
K= 𝑅𝑜
= 𝑅𝑜 Unit less :
∆𝐿 𝜖 𝑅𝑜
𝐿𝑜 ‫قيمتها قليله جدا وال يمكن حسابها بالجهاز لذلك‬
∆𝑅
so K∗ 𝜖 = ‫نضعها في الداره الكهربائيه‬
𝑅𝑜

• Piezoelectric materials :
‫الماده التي يتم صنع االسالك بها ألنها حساسيتها عاليه جدا للمقاومه‬
• Normal force • Axial force

𝑃 ∆𝐿
𝜎= 𝜖=
𝐴 𝐿

P: Load
A: Area = 𝑟 2 ∗ 𝜋
L: Length
∆𝐿= Deformation 𝑀𝑐
𝜎=
𝐼

M: Max moment
I: Moment of inertia
Y: Distance y from the neutral axis
c = Y max
 Wheatstone Bridge

c) Diagonal Bridge
a) Quarter Bridge ‫مقاومتين فوق بعضهم و لهم نفس اإلشاره‬
‫يوجد مقاومه وحده‬ 𝑉𝑜 𝑘
𝑉𝑜 𝑘 = (𝜖1 + 𝜖3)
= (𝜖1) 𝑉𝑠 4
𝑉𝑠 4 ‫القراءة‬
‫القراءة‬ Actual Strain =
Actual Strain = 2
1

• There are two conditions where Vo = 0:

b) Half Bridge
1-When all bridge resistors are equal value . d) Full bridge.
‫مقاومتين بجانب بعضهم‬
2-Ratios in the two halves of the bridge are the same. ‫جميع المقاومات‬
‫ولهم إشارات معاكسه‬ 𝑉𝑜 𝑘
𝑉𝑜 𝑘
= (𝜖1−𝜖2 + 𝜖3 - 𝜖4)
𝑉𝑠 4
= (𝜖1 − 𝜖2) ‫القراءة‬
𝑉𝑠 4
Actual Strain =
‫القراءة‬ 4
Actual Strain = 2
 ∆𝑅
𝑅𝑜 𝜖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

Slope= K −𝝐𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍
Slope= V= 𝝐𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍

𝜖
𝜖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝜌𝐿 ∆𝑅 and ∆L
R= ‫عالقه طرديه‬
𝐴 𝝈

R: resistance
𝜌 : Resistivity Slope= E
L: length
A: area 𝜖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙
 •Impact Test
• Purpose : Evaluating the relative toughness of engineering
materials.
• Toughness : The energy required to fracture a material and it Toughness and ductility
‫عالقه طرديه‬
depends on geometry (strength) and ductility or
Toughness and Temperature
Total strain energy per unit volume of a metal . ‫عالقه طرديه‬

• Uses : Impact test is used to compare results for different types of materials
And its not important in design because there is Notch .
• Definition : Impact is a shock load which is applied for a very short time
under consideration.
t: time of application of load on specimen
1 Wn : natural period of vibration of
• Consideration : t< Wn
3
structure(natural frequency)
 Types of Notch : 1- V 2- U
• Notch in the side of tension .
Type V U
Toughness Low Hight Same geometry
Stress concentration Hight Low

There is a notch in the specimen why ?

1- There will be no extra energy consumed in plastic deformation of the specimen.
2- Concentrate the stress
3- Facilitate the breakage

Types of impact tests

1. Charpy test 2. Izod test
 Charpy test ‫أوسع انتشارا‬
1-Notch opposes the hammer
2-Specimen is simply supported
3-Simple and fast
4- Low Toughness
(Brittle example : steel)
5- Two shearing Area
6- E Charpy =2 E Izod
7- ‫التدريج الخارجي‬
Izod test
1-Notch faces the hammer
2-Cantilever type specimen (clamped)
3-More complicated and slower
4- Hight Toughness
(Ductile example : Aluminum)
5- One shear Area
1
6- E Izod = E Charpy
2
7- ‫التدريج الداخلي‬
Mechanical energy = Potential Energy + Kinetic Energy
m: Mass
1
Ek=kinetic energy = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 Ep= potential energy= mgh g: Acceleration due to gravity
H: Hight

Ep= Max

The hammer is released from a Pendulum swings to a maximum

90 degree angle (point A) and height (point C) which is lower
the maximum angle it swings than point B above.
to (point B) .
• The energy loss due to air resistance will be equal to the
difference in potential energy between points A and B .
Ep= Ek=Zero • we calculate the energy needed to break a metallic test piece (specimen)
 U= P1-P2- friction
U= mg(h1-h2)- friction

U= mgL(cos 𝜃1-cos 𝜃2) - friction

𝑣2
Max velocity so h1= zero then h 2=
2𝑔

• Toughness = Frication( ‫ – )بدون العينه‬Reading( ‫)العينه‬

• The results obtained for a material from an impact

test are sensitive to the following :
1. Heat treatment
2. Compositions.
3. Sulfur and phosphorous content.