PETROLEUM EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Volume 48, Issue 6, December 2021

Online English edition of the Chinese language journal

Cite this article as: PETROL. EXPLOR. DEVELOP., 2021, 48(6): 1271–1288. RESEARCH PAPER

Classification and exploration potential of sedimentary

basins based on the superposition and evolution
process of prototype basins
DOU Lirong, WEN Zhixin*
Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, PetroChina, Beijing 100083, China

Abstract: Classification, superimposed evolution and sedimentary filling of prototype basins are analyzed based on the Wilson
cycle principle of plate theory, by dissecting the evolution history of 483 sedimentary basins around the world since the Pre-
cambrian, combined with the three stress environments of tension, compression and shear. It is found that plate tectonic evo-
lution controls the superimposed development process and petroleum-bearing conditions of the prototype basins in three as-
pects: first, more than 85% of the sedimentary basins in the world are developed from the superimposed development of two or
more prototype basins; second, the superposition evolution process of the prototype basin takes Wilson cycle as the cycle and
cycles in a fixed trajectory repeatedly. In each stage of a cycle, a specific type of prototype basin can be formed; third, each
prototype basin can form a unique tectonic-sedimentary system, which determines its unique source, reservoir, cap conditions
etc. For hydrocarbon accumulation, the later superimposed prototype basin can change the oil and gas accumulation conditions
of the earlier prototype basin, and may form new petroleum systems. Based on this, by defining the type of a current basin as its
prototype basin formed by the latest plate tectonic movement, 14 types of prototype basins can be classified in the world,
namely, intracontinental growth rift, intracontinental aborted rift, intercontinental rift, passive continental margin, interior
craton, trench, fore-arc rift, back-arc rift, back-arc depression, back-arc small ocean, peripheral foreland, back-arc foreland,
strike-slip pull-apart, and strike-slip flexural basins. The classification scheme can ensure the uniqueness of the types of indi-
vidual sedimentary basin, and make it possible to predict their oil and gas potential scientifically through analogy.

Key words: sedimentary basin classification; plate tectonics; Wilson cycle; main prototype basin; secondary prototype basin;
superposition development process

Introduction Umbgrove[2] and Weeks[3]; (2) Schemes based on the the-

More than one hundred years of exploration and de-
velopment of oil and gas have proved that “no sedimen-
tary basins, no oil and gas”. It also proved that hydrocar-
bon abundance in different types of sedimentary basins
differs greatly[1]. The classification of sedimentary basins,
and study about the relationships between the types of
basins and hydrocarbon enrichment, have become crucial
research topics in petroleum geology. Since the 1950s, a
variety of classification schemes for sedimentary basins
have been proposed. These schemes can be divided into
three categories according to their theoretical bases: (1)
Schemes based on the geosyncline-platform theory,
also referred to as the classification scheme of basins
during the pre-plate tectonic period, proposed by
ory of plate tectonics, proposed by Halbouty[4], Dickin-
son[5–6], Klemme[7], Bally[8], Fajing Chen[9] and Kingston[10],
et al. and (3) Schemes based on geodynamics, proposed
by Hefu Liu[1112], Kezheng Lu[1], Allen[13], and others. Due
to the deficiencies in these classification schemes, new
classification schemes emerge continuously. For example,
the geosyncline-platform theory is based on the concept
that basins consist of two major structural units, namely
the active area and the stable (or platform) area. The
classification of basins is conducted according to basin
shapes and locations. This classification scheme is simple
and clear, but offers no explanation about the formation
mechanisms of the basins. The classification on the basis
of the plate tectonics is the richest approach, primarily

Received date: 19 Feb. 2021; Revised date: 04 Nov. 2021.

* Corresponding author. E-mail: wenzhixin@petrochina.com.cn
Foundation item: Supported by the National Science and Technology Major Project of China (2016ZX05029001).
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1876-3804(21)60286-0
Copyright © 2021, Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, PetroChina. Publishing Services provided by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi
Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 DOU Lirong et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(6): 1271–1288
based on the type of plate boundary where the basin is
located and the dynamic mechanisms of the underlying
lithosphere. The shortcoming of this scheme is that there
is no systematic explanation of the relationships between
diverse types of basins. The theory of geodynamics em-
phasizes the stress environment in which basins form,
and the controlling effect of stress on the structural
framework and sedimentation of the basins. However,
there is little analysis about the evolutionary processes of
the basins. It is essential to find a simple and easy ap-
proach to classify sedimentary basins, which not only
explains the geneses of various types of basins and the
relationship between them within a unified theoretical
system, but also reflects the petroleum geological condi-
tions of each type of basins and can make a prediction on
their hydrocarbon potential.
Sedimentary basins are the principal units of global
tectonics, the formation and superimposition evolution of
which are controlled by global plate tectonic movements.
In any particular geological period, the dynamic mecha-
nism of the plate-tectonic setting is specific and unique,
resulting in the formation of particular type of basins,
named as prototype basin. For different types of proto-
type basins, the sedimentary-tectonic systems are specific
and unique, with different hydrocarbon bearing condi-
tions. This has long been recognized and accepted by
experts in the industry. As early as 1958, Weeks[14] pro-
posed that “to understand oil production, you must re-
turn to the original sedimentary basin". Tong et al.[15] be-
lieved that the types of basins during the paleo-geological
period are very important for the formation of source
rocks, reservoirs, cap rocks and other hydrocarbon ac-
cumulation factors. However, it is insufficient to identify
the type of the prototype basin in only one particular
geological period. With continuous plate movement, new
prototype basins were developed and superimposed con-
tinuously during the geological time, and the hydrocar-
bon accumulation conditions of the early prototype ba-
sins changed continuously. In this study, based on the
theory of plate tectonics, with the IHS commercial data-
base and other data, we systematically analyzed the evo-
lution history of 483 sedimentary basins around the
world since the Precambrian (Fig. 1). Combined with the
tension, compression and shear stress environments, this
study establishes the evolution and sedimentary models
of the prototype basins at the different plate tectonic
positions, and analyzes the hydrocarbon accumulation
conditions and subsequent changes in each prototype
basin, laying a solid foundation for scientific classifica-
tion of sedimentary basins and accurate prediction of
hydrocarbon prospects.
1. Plate tectonic evolution and the Wilson Cycle
1.1. Global plate tectonic evolution
Both onshore and offshore drilling technologies have
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made great progress since the 1960s, and the evolution
history of global plate tectonic movements since the Ne-
oproterozoic has become more and more clear. At the end
of the Precambrian, there were a number of ancient
cratons on earth that were separate from each other, in-
cluding the North American ancient land, Baltic land,
Gondwana land (including the present-day Africa, South
America, Australia, Antarctica, India and Arabia), Angara
land, and several smaller land masses in China(including
South China, North China, Tarim, etc.)[9, 16]. During the
Paleozoic, the cratons gradually drew closer together.
During the Permian, the structural framework developed
eventually with a single supercontinent (Pangaea), a vast
ocean (the Paleo-Pacific) and a bay (Tethys)[9, 16]. During
the Mesozoic, the Panchia supercontinent developed,
accompanied with the formation of the Neo-Tethys, the
Indian Ocean, and the Atlantic Ocean. Every tectonic
plate in the world was in a tensile stress environment,
dominated by the disintegration of Pangaea. During the
Cenozoic, the Atlantic and Indian Oceans continued to
expand, the Pacific Ocean contracted, and the Neo-Tethys
Ocean closed, forming a global structural framework of
overall extension, with local compression and colli-
sion[1617].
1.2. The Wilson Cycle
The Canadian geologist, John Tuzo Wilson[1819], is one
of the founders of plate tectonics theory. He studied the
evolutionary history of the two opening and closing epi-
sodes of the North Atlantic and the formation of the East
African Great Rift Valley, the Red Sea, and the Gulf of
Aden. He drew the conclusion that oceans were created
by extensional faulting and expansion of continents.
When oceans shrunk and closed up, mountains and land
masses developed. The entire process, from extensional
faulting, expansion, to contraction and closure, repre-
sents a complete evolutionary cycle of plate movements.
This complete cycle is divided into 6 stages (Fig. 2): (1)
Embryonic stage. At this stage, rifts developed on the
surface of the earth, such as the East African Rift. (2)
Juvenile stage. At this stage, the rifts expanded laterally
to form straits, such as the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.
(3) Mature stage. At this stage, the straits expanded into
vast oceans, such as the modern Atlantic Ocean. (4) De-
cline stage. At this stage, subduction occurred on one or
both sides of the ocean, forming island arc, such as that
in the Pacific. (5) The residual stage. At this stage, the
plates of the ocean closed up and new mountains devel-
oped, such as those around the Mediterranean Sea. (6)
Suturing stage. At this stage, due to plate collision, in-
tense deformation occurred, collision sutures were de-
veloped, such as the Himalayas, which is a vivid example
of this process. The British geologist, Kevin C.A.
Burke[20] named this ocean basin development cycle
a s the Wilson Cycle. Li et al. [ 21 ] considered that
 1273 
DOU Lirong et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(6): 1271–1288

Fig. 1. Distribution of the 14 types of basins among the 483 sedimentary basins of the world.
 DOU Lirong et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(6): 1271–1288
Fig. 2. Superimposed evolutionary relationship between the Wilson Cycle and prototype basins.
this conception of extensional faulting of oceans and
closure orogeny can successfully explain the relationship
between global plate tectonic evolution and major geo-
tectonic phenomena, such as oceans and orogenic belts,
providing a new scientific model of global tectonic evolu-
tion.
2. Types, formation mechanisms and
hydrocarbon potential of prototype basins
The Wilson Cycle can be used to scientifically explain
the geotectonic features, such as oceans, island arcs, and
mountains. As the sedimentary basin is one of the major
tectonic units in the world, its formation and develop-
ment are closely related to these geological tectonic
phenomena, and should be reasonably explained. Based
on this principle, in this study, 483 major sedimentary
basins around the world have been analyzed in detail,
with an emphasis on their formation and evolution his-
tory since the Precambrian. It has been found that the
basin formation mechanisms and types of basins that
predominated in each stage of the Wilson Cycle show a
high degree of regularity (Fig. 2), with the following gen-
eral characteristics: (1) The Basin formation dynamics in
the first half of a Wilson Cycle were dominated by exten-
sional tensile stress, and the dynamics in the second half
were predominated by compression and collision. Shear
stress occurred throughout the process of plate tectonic
evolution, and transtensional and transpressional stress
systems controlled by strike-slip occurred only locally. (2)
Each stage of the Wilson Cycle was characterized by a
specific type of basin, which is called as the prototype
basin of that stage. The types of prototype basins that al-
ways developed in a particular stage are called as primary
prototype basins, and the ones that occasionally devel-
oped are called secondary prototype basins.
 1274 
2.1. Extensional stage
2.1.1. Intracontinental growth rift basins
Intracontinental growth rift basins are primary proto-
type basins developed during the embryonic stage, being
a long, narrow subsidence zone developed by rupture of
the lithosphere under extension and tension (Fig. 3a)[22].
Different from the definitions in previous studies, the
concept of intracontinental growth rift basins emphasizes
that the formation and development of this type of basin
are controlled continuously by boundary faults, and these
basins are still active (i.e. growing) rift basins. The geo-
graphical environment of this type of basin is primarily
lacustrine, with frequent seismic and volcanic activities.
The main products of volcanic activities are tholeiitic
basalt and alkaline basalt. This type of basin has high
heat flow, with a geothermal gradient of (38–45) C/km[9,
2224].
The East African continental Albert rift basin is of
this type. The dynamic mechanism is that a hot spot de-
veloped due to the upwelling of deep mantle materials.
As a result, the lithosphere floated on the molten mate-
rial, resulting in thinning of the crust and the formation
of extensional faults. The basin basement, which was still
continental crust, then subsided along the faults. The
basins are composed of grabens or half grabens associ-
ated with one or more growth faults[2224].
Intracontinental growth rift basins, such as the Albert
Basin and the Gulf of Suez, have been shown to have fa-
vorable geological conditions for the formation of large
oil and gas fields, with current recoverable reserves of
more than 6800×104 t oil equivalent[2224] and a high de-
gree of hydrocarbon enrichment. Fault depressions con-
trolled by growth faults in an individual basin often have
independent petroleum systems. The source rock is deep
lacustrine shale, and the organic matter is mainly Type I
 DOU Lirong et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(6): 1271–1288

proposed in previous studies[7], this study placed greater

Fig. 3. Superimposed evolution model for prototype ba-
sins at the extensional stage (modified from reference [22]).
and Type II1, with TOC of 1%5%. In steep slope zones,
alluvial fan–subaqueous fan–gravity flow sedimentary
systems are developed, while fan delta, braided river
delta and gravity flow sedimentary systems are developed
in gentle slope zones. The regional cap rock is mud shale
deposited during the maximum lake transgression period.
Combination of extensional faults and sand bodies pro-
vides favorable conditions for horizontal and vertical
hydrocarbon migration. Structural hydrocarbon accu-
mulation assemblages are predominant, and hydrocarbon
enrichment mainly occurs in rolling anticlines, fault
noses, and fault blocks[2224]. Multi-stage episodic fault
activities may destroy conventional reservoirs, forming
unconventional heavy oil and oil sand reservoirs. Since
the present surface is dominated by lacustrine environ-
ment, it is difficult to conduct engineering operations.
The development potential of these unconventional res-
ervoirs is limited.
emphasis on differences in the activity states of the con-
trolling boundary faults. That is, the rift basin has en-
tered into a stagnation stage, during which the ba-
sin-controlling fault activities effectively cease. In in-
tracontinental rifts, faulted lake basins shrunk, and dis-
appeared after being filled by continental sediments,
such as the sediments of fluvial and alluvial fans, etc. The
modern earth surfaces are generally terrestrial swamp
environments, like the Songliao, Sirte, and West Siberia
Basins (Fig. 1)[2528]. If the basins are located in continen-
tal margin seas at the thin continental crust, and filled by
fluvial-delta facies, the modern earth surfaces are neritic
shelf environments, such as the North Sea Basin (Fig. 1)[29].
This type of basin has a structure of “long rift and short
depression”, dominated by rifts, with rift strata in the
middle and lower parts and depression strata in the up-
per part (Fig. 4a). Compared with the intracontinental
growth basins, the intracontinental aborted basins have
lower geothermal gradients, generally 3139 C/km, re-
sulting from the recession of deep mantle hot spots[2429].
However, they are still hot basins.
The exploration has proved that, before the decline
stage, these basins have the same sedimentary filling
characteristics as growth rift basins. They have entered a
stable depression stage, which offers excellent conditions
for the formation of large oil and gas fields[2430]. Whereas,
not all rift basins are filled by lacustrine sediments. For
example, the West Siberian Basin communicated with
seawater during the main rifting stage, and extensive
transgression occurred. In the West Siberian Basin, there
are high-quality Type I and II1 source rocks, and TOC ranges
from 1% to 11%. At present, 105 large oil and gas fields have
been discovered, and it is an intracontinental aborted rift
basin with the greatest oil and gas accumulation[28].
Through analogical analysis, it is believed that the rifts

2.1.2. Intracontinental aborted rift basin

Intracontinental aborted rift basins are secondary

prototype basins developed during the juvenile stage.
This type of basin developed when the intracontinental
growth rift basin developed to a certain extent, and the
hot spot in the deep mantle disappeared. The lithosphere
underwent thermal subsidence and entered into the de- Fig. 4. Structural sections of intracontinental aborted rift
pression shrinkage stage. Compared with the definition basin (a) and craton basin (b).
 1275 
 DOU Lirong et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(6): 1271–1288
filled by marine sediments have greater exploration po-
tential for unconventional oil and gas than those filled by
lacustrine sediments.
2.1.3. Intercontinental rift basin
Intercontinental rift basins are primary prototype ba-
sins developed at the mature stage. This type is a primary
sedimentary basin with high temperature, long and nar-
row oceanic crust on the basement (in contrast to in-
tracontinental growth rift basins, which continue to ex-
pand)[9] (Fig. 3b). William R. Dickinson defined this type
as proto-oceanic rift[5], describing it as a transitional stage
between intracontinental growth lake basin/sea basin
and open passive continental margin basin. The adopted
description of this type of basin is consistent with that of
the previous studies. A typical representative of this type
of basin is the Red Sea Basin (Fig. 1), which is a basin
with high heat flows, and the geothermal gradient is
greater than 50 C/km[31]. Structurally, a stepped exten-
sional fault system, centered on a mid-ocean ridge, is
developed on the continental crust of both coasts. The
early sedimentary filling was done by coarse continental
debris. During the later stage, carbonate rocks and
evaporites were relatively well-developed due to the in-
trusion of large volume of seawater and lack of fresh wa-
ter supply, together with high geothermal gradient and
low latitude[31].
This type of basin is superimposed on intracontinental
growth rift basins. Due to the strong volcanic activities
and extremely high heat flow around the mid-ocean
ridges, thermal uplifting and fault block activities oc-
curred in the intercontinental rift basins. Oil and gas
reservoirs developed during the early growth rifting stage
are vulnerable to destruction, leading to the occurrence
of secondary or even multiple reservoir formation and
the consequent reduction in enrichment of conventional
oil and gas. Unconventional deposits such as heavy oil
and oil sands may also form. The low exploration degree
of the Red Sea Basin does not rule out the possibility of
oil and gas enrichment in reef shoals or clastic rocks on
sub-salt fault horst. However, engineering operations are
severely limited by the present geographical environment.
Therefore, the prospects for unconventional oil and gas
exploration are poor.
2.1.4. Passive margin basin
Passive margin basins are primary prototype basins
developed during the mature stage, being sedimentary
basins of divergent continental margin, also known as
Atlantic continental margin or inactive continental mar-
gin (Fig. 3c)[10, 3234]. The typical examples are the Santos,
Niger Delta, and Carnarvon Basins (Fig. 1). The formation
mechanism is as follows: after a basin passed through the
intracontinental rift stage (with continental crust base-
 1276 
ment) and became an intercontinental rift basin (with
narrow oceanic crust), the asthenosphere continued to
expand, shunting the lithosphere to both sides of the
mid-ocean ridge to form a new, open ocean. The conti-
nental margin was therefore transported passively to
both sides of the mid-ocean ridge (hence the name: pas-
sive margin basin). Over time, the passive continental
margin experienced thermal subsidence, coupled with
regional flexural subsidence caused by gravity under
heavy sedimentary loading. As a result, a wide range of
sedimentary prisms developed on continental crust,
transitional crust, and oceanic crust on the peripheral
boundary in the pelagic direction, with thicknesses of
1000 m or more. This description is consistent with pre-
vious definitions. This type of basin is a mesothermal
basin with a geothermal gradient of 25–35 C/km[3235],
and there is little volcanic activity in this kind of basin.
The sedimentary filling thickness is great in this kind
of basin, with a thickness of generally 512 km in depo-
centers. Vertically, the passive margin basins consist of
three sets of sedimentary strata[3235]: the lower clastic
rocks developed at the intracontinental growth rift stage
(a few basins form carbonate rocks at the late rifting
stage), the middle clastic rocks developed at the transi-
tional intercontinental rift stage (a few basins develop
Red Sea type carbonate rocks and evaporites), and the
upper passive margin marine clastic rock/carbonate
platform developed during a drift depression period, with
an obvious basin structure of lower rift and upper de-
pression. Horizontally, the depression period can be di-
vided into four tectono-sedimentary units from land to
sea: continental shelf, continental slope, continental rise,
and abyssal plain[36]. The lower sedimentary series de-
veloped during the intracontinental growth rift stage
generally have good hydrocarbon accumulation condi-
tions. When the sediments in intercontinental rift and
drift depression are comparatively thin, and can only
serve as regional caprocks, large oil and gas fields can
form at the top of the rift strata. Typical examples are the
Carnarvon, Browse, Western Australia, and Bonaparte
basins on the Northwest Shelf of Australia (Fig. 1). When
carbonate and evaporite assemblages developed in sedi-
mentary strata during the middle intercontinental rift
stage, oil and gas in the lower growth rift migrated to
sub-salt reef-shoal, forming large-scale oil and gas fields,
such as the Santos Basin on the east coast of South
America. If marine sedimentary series in the upper drift
period are more than 4500 m thick, they can also form
large oil and gas field groups, with reservoirs dominated
by delta-gravity flow sedimentary systems. In such cases,
three sets of source rock strata develop at most[34]: (1) The
lower intracontinental growth rift strata, in which
high-quality lacustrine and marine source rocks are well
developed. The organic matters are Type I and II1, with
 DOU Lirong et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(6): 1271–1288
TOC of 1%–11%. (2) Drift depression strata developed
during the upper passive continental margin stage, in
which high-quality marine source rocks are well devel-
oped. The organic matters are Type II and III, with TOC
of 1%–6%. (3) If high-constructive deltas are developed in
the depression strata after the Miocene (with a thickness
at the depocenter greater than 4000 m), high-quality
source rocks may also be developed in the delta strata,
with Type II and III organic matter, TOC generally 1.0%–
2.2%, up to 14.4% at maximum[34]. Heavy oil sand deposits
may form on shore or in shallow water, but the explora-
tion potential of these and other unconventional oil and
gas resources is often limited due to the difficulty of engi-
neering operations in complex geographical environments.
2.1.5. Intracratonic basins
Intracratonic basins, usually abbreviated as “craton
basins” (Fig. 4b)[37], are sedimentary basins distributed in
relatively stable continental lithosphere (craton), induced
by short extension during their early evolution, and en-
tered into a slow depression stage before the end of the
Late Paleozoic. Compared with previous definitions, this
paper suggests two differences: (1) This type of basin is
extremely old, beginning to develop before the end of the
Late Paleozoic. (2) The topography of every craton basin
is at least partially induced by extension, and tensile
faults or rift strata develop at the bottom of the basins.
Typical examples are the Williston, Parana, and Paris
basins (Fig. 1). The genetic mechanisms are cooling of the
lithosphere in the early stage, followed by thermal sub-
sidence and sedimentary filling, then continuous devel-
opment with the strengthening of sedimentary loading in
later period. This type is a mesothermal basin with geo-
thermal gradients of 19–30 C/km[2526, 3740].
Intracratonic basins are generally relatively open, with
relatively uniform depressions, and the wings generally
merge gently into the surrounding platforms without
obvious structural boundaries. The cross section of the
whole basin is basically symmetrical, with a simple
structure, gentle folds and undeveloped faults. Affected
by polycyclic plate movements, the Wilson Cycle of plate
margins has an obvious sedimentary corollary in intra-
plate craton basins. In the first half of the cycle, an ex-
tensional stage, transgression generally occurred, form-
ing broad epicontinental seas dominated by fine-grained
sediments. During the second half of the cycle, a com-
pressional collision stage, regression occurred, with an
increase in coarse debris. Regional unconformities may
form during the collision return stage. Only the cratonic
basins in the Tarim, Yangtze, and other small, ancient
cratons (plates) were able to transform into sections of
foreland basin under peripheral orogeny. Therefore, Cra-
ton basins in the large, ancient cratons, such as Australia,
Siberia, Baltic, South America, and North America, are
 1277 
still at the depression stage, despite hundreds of millions
of years of development[1, 3740]. In addition to fluvial, delta,
and swamp facies sediments, most of these basins have
experienced marine transgression over long periods, and
may contain a wide range of carbonate rocks and
evaporites[1, 3740].
Over their long geological histories, craton basins are
particularly vulnerable to regional uplifts and denudation,
with quite different hydrocarbon bearing conditions[3740].
Hydrocarbon enrichment is controlled by three main
factors[3740]: (1) Whether thick failed rift strata formed
during the early short extensional stage. Thicker failed
rift strata can provide better source rock conditions. (2)
Whether large-scale transgressive-regressive sedimentary
cycles developed over long geological periods, with each
sedimentary cycle generally corresponding to an entire
Wilson Cycle[1]. In such cases, marine, transitional, and
continental sedimentary strata developed rom bottom to
top, with marine and transitional facies forming two
types of effective source rocks, namely mud shales and
coal measure strata. The organic matter is mainly Type II
and III, and TOC is 0.6%–10.0%. (3) Whether sedimentary
filling is continuous. If the basins were located in large
ancient cratons, far from convergent continental margin,
without experiencing long-term, large-scale uplifts and
denudation, the hydrocarbon accumulation conditions of
source rocks, reservoirs, and cap rocks are effectively
preserved. Reservoirs in this kind of basins are pre-
dominantly large-scale braided river-delta sedimentary
systems, possibly with platform margins and slope facies
reef shoals in low latitudes. Conventional oil and gas
reservoirs can form in stratigraphic traps, such as
lithologic traps, diagenetic traps, and reef beach bodies.
Unconventional oil and gas, including shale oil and gas,
tight oil and gas, and coal gas, might also occur[3740].
2.2. Compressive collision stage
In a compressive collision stress environment related
to plate interaction, the upper crust or lithosphere gen-
erally experienced shortening deformation. However, alter-
nating local extensions and compressive stress also oc-
curred on both sides of the island arc at the plate margins.
2.2.1. Decline stage
Mature ocean basins passed into decline in two forms,
namely unilateral and bilateral (Fig. 5). In unilateral de-
cline, one side of the oceanic crust did not subduct, so
one side of the plate only drifted to the subducted side
with the oceanic crust, always in a state of passive conti-
nental margin. The West Coast Basin of the Bay of Bengal
is currently at this stage. On the other side of the oceanic
plate, the dense ocean plate subducted under continental
plate, forming a trench-arc-basin system, like the Andaman
Sea on the East Coast of the Bay of Bengal, and the South,
 DOU Lirong et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(6): 1271–1288

Fig. 5. Evolution models of unilateral and bilateral prototype basins in plate compressive collision stage. (a) Schematic
diagram of a unilateral declining trench-arc-basin system section (the East Africa-Indonesia section of the Indian Ocean); (b)
Schematic cross section of a bilateral declining trench-arc-basin system, modified from [41]; (c) Comprehensive profile of a
bilateral remnant basin (the North Pacific); (d) Comprehensive profile of a unilateral remnant basin (the Bay of Bengal); (e)
Schematic diagram of a comprehensive section of unilateral suture orogeny (the Zagros fold belt); (f) Schematic diagram of
a comprehensive section of bilateral suture orogeny (the Caledonian fold belt in the North Atlantic).

 1278 
 DOU Lirong et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(6): 1271–1288
Middle, and North Sumatra basins[9, 4144] (Fig. 5a). In bi-
lateral decline, oceanic crust subduction occurred on
both sides of the oceanic crust, like the eastern and
western edges of the modern Pacific Plate, forming
trench-arc-basin systems[9,41] (Fig. 5b).
During plate decline, once the oceanic crust on the
contraction side began to subduct, the continental plate
margin was pulled down, forming long and deep trenches
(Fig. 5a, 5b). Large sections of cold oceanic crust entered
the lower part of the continental crust, and friction gen-
erated. The asthenosphere was heated up as a result,
changing the thermal state of the mantle along the sub-
duction zone at the margin of the continental crust. In
shallower areas, some of the oceanic crust and continen-
tal crust melted together, forming intermediate acid
magma, which rose to form volcanic island arc, forming
volcanic island arc chains parallel to the trenches[9, 41].
Large quantities of other molten materials continued to
move to the deep interior of the continental crust. With
increasing temperature and dissolution of the upper
mantle, complex thermal convection occurred along the
island arc near the continental margin. Affected by the
distribution of heated molten materials, the primary
upward convective channel was located on the inner side,
behind the island arc chain, separating the island arc
(including the now-welded continental crust) from the
continent. This created rift valleys dominated by conti-
nental crust basements, transitional crust depressions
with high heat flow and some continuing expansions
which lead to the formation of oceanic crust and small
ocean basins[9, 41].
Active continental margin trench-arc basin systems are
always superimposed on passive continental margin ba-
sins. However, no prototype sedimentary strata, such as
passive continental margin or rifting strata, have been
discovered in the deep layers of the South, Central, and
North Sumatra back-arc basins, or the Taraba forearm
basin, despite extensive exploration. This may be because
the strata were developed during the early passive conti-
nental margin stage, above the abduction plate and below
the rifting strata, and dissolved as they were dragged into
the deep lithosphere by the subduction plate. It is clear
that prototype basins vary greatly in horizontal superpo-
sition and coincidence. The higher the degree of coinci-
dence, the better preserved the strata in the vertical pro-
totype stage.
2.2.1.1. Forearm system and prototype basin
Trench basins are primary prototype basins, the de-
scription of which in this study is consistent with previ-
ous studies. They are the most direct tectonic units, pro-
duced by simple contraction and collision of two plates.
For example, the entire Peru-Chile trench (Fig. 1) is in a
compressive stress environment. It is a typical
 1279 
high-pressure, low-temperature, metamorphic develop-
ment zone, linearly distributed, parallel to island arcs,
with a water depth of 6–11 km (Fig. 5a, 5b). It is the cold-
est basin in the world[1, 9], with a geothermal gradient low-
er than 20 C/km. Trench basins are characterized by
starvation sedimentation compensation filling, with the
sediments consisting of two main components: (1) pelagic
sediments, scraped by subduction plates, directly depos-
ited on ocean crust. (2) Bathyal- abyssal turbidity clastic
deposits, composed principally of silt, clay, and volcanic
ash, which are unconformably distributed on pelagic
sediments[1,9] and lack effective hydrocarbon generation
conditions.
Forearc basins, also known as island arc-trench gap
basins, are primary prototype basins, located between
trench slope breaks and magmatic arc fronts, and are the
most important sedimentary basins in forearc areas[9, 4546]
(Fig. 5a, 5b). The description given here is consistent with
previous studies. The Myanmar offshore basin is typical
of this type[45], undergoing obvious structural and sedi-
mentary changes during the decline stage. During the
initial subduction stage, this type of basin was a simple
seaward slope, dominated by bathyal facies deposition,
with sediments directly entering the accretionary sub-
duction complex belts and trenches. With the increase in
subduction, the basin developed outwards and upwards.
The basin water body became a shallow sea, entering into
a transitional environment. In addition to clastic rock
deposition, carbonate sediments formed when the tem-
perature and purity were favorable. During the late sub-
duction stage, subduction complexes rose above the wa-
ter and marine sedimentation ceased. Forearc basins
have complex basement features, and a mature forearc
basin often spans over magmatic arcs and subduction
complexes. Forearc basins have obvious structural char-
acteristics. On the side closest to the magmatic arcs,
overlapping contact occurred, and normal faults often
developed[45]. On the side closest to the subduction com-
plexes, unconformable contact occurred, and compressive
folds, thrust, and slump layers developed. The evolution-
ary process of forearc basins suggests that geothermal
gradients vary widely, but they are generally in the range
of 20–30 C/km. During the decline stage, forearc basins
often span over the structural slopes which are composed
of magmatic arc and subduction complexes, so there is
little or no space for organic sedimentation. The basins
therefore do not generally provide favorable oil and gas
conditions. Whereas, favorable hydrocarbon conditions
can be developed in two situations: (1) If rifting on the
side closest to island arc is strong, the rifts can commu-
nicate with seawater to form shallow or semi-deep ma-
rine environments, which is favorable for the formation
and preservation of organic matter. Similar to rift basins,
this can provide good petroleum conditions, such as the
 DOU Lirong et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(6): 1271–1288
Tarala Basin on the coast of Peru[46]. (2) A trench basin is
filled with deep-water debris during the later stage and
becomes part of the forearc basin, with a shallow geo-
thermal gradient but large sedimentary thickness. Under
these conditions, in addition to shallow biogenic gas
source layer systems, deep layers around the sedimentary
center may also produce thermogenic gas. Reservoirs are
mostly deep-water gravity flow channel -submarine fan.
Trap types change from compressional anticline traps in
shallow water areas on continental shelf into low ampli-
tude anticline and lithologic traps[45] in deep water. If
regional high-quality cap rocks are well developed,
conventional large oil and gas fields may form. However,
the geological environments have determined that the
forearc basins have limited unconventional oil and gas
exploration value.
2.2.1.2. Back-arc systems and prototype basins
Back-arc rift basins are primary prototype basins,
produced by extension of deep lava thermal convection
on back-arc surfaces[41] (Fig. 5a, 5b). A typical example is
the Malay Basin (Fig. 1). This type of basin differs from
the intracontinental growth rift basins in four as-
pects[4748]: (1) The plate tectonic position is different.
Back-arc rift basins are only found on continental crust
on the back-arc side of the edges of oceanic-continental
convergent plates, while intracontinental growth rift ba-
sins are generally located on divergent plates. (2) The
former is created by magma upwelling caused by oceanic
crust subduction, while the latter is generally located on
fixed hot spots caused by mantle plumes. (3) The geo-
thermal gradients of the former are higher, generally
(50–60) C/km, which may be related to thinner conti-
nental crust. (4) Inversion structures are generally de-
veloped in back-arc rift basins. Temporary obstruction of
subduction caused horizontal compression, producing
positive inversion structures. However, Such structures
are developed only in a few basins adjacent to orogenic
belts, Back-arc rift basins and intracontinental growth
rift basins have similar petroleum conditions. The dif-
ference is that inversion structural belts tend to form
large oil and gas fields[4748]. However, despite the pres-
ence of heavy oil reservoirs and oil sand deposits, the
exploration potential of unconventional exploration re-
sources in such basins is currently generally limited by
their geographical environments.
Back-arc depression basins are created by continuing
development and evolution of back-arc rift basins. The
basal continental crust became thin, permitting frequent
volcanic intrusions, forming a transitional crust with
high heat flow (Fig. 5a, 5b)[41]. Back-arc rift basins are
primary prototype basins. These basins are located at the
edge of thin continental crust, so they can enter the de-
pression stage, with transitional crust, after a relatively
 1280 
short rifting period. Typical examples are the South,
Middle, and North Sumatra basins[43]. Back-arc depres-
sion basins have three major characteristics[43, 4849]: (1)
Obvious two-stage sedimentary formation. The lower
section is developed during the rifting stage, generally as
a faulted lake basin, and the upper section is developed
during the depression stage, with various sedimentary
systems such as delta, littoral-neritic sea, bathyal-abyssal
facies clastic rocks, and carbonate rocks. (2) Thinning of
the crust and intrusion of large amounts of magma form
a transition crust. Heat flow was extremely high. There-
fore, these are thermal basins with geothermal gradients
generally in the range of 40–60 C/km, and the maximum
value is as high as 110 C/km. (3) Inversion structures are
common, for similar reasons of their occurrence in
back-arc rift basins. Back-arc depression basins are simi-
lar to intracontinental aborted rift basins and have fa-
vorable hydrocarbon accumulation conditions[43, 4849].
However, there are three differences: (1) Back-arc de-
pression basins have relatively closed bay environments
developed by island arcs. The combination of lacustrine
facies during the lower rifting stage, middle transitional
marine-continental facies and upper marine facies during
the depression stage is favorable for the occurrence of
organic matter. (2) The extremely high geothermal gra-
dients are beneficial for the transformation of large
amounts of organic matter into hydrocarbons. There tend
to be plenty of oil-bearing strata with good vertical mi-
gration properties, which are also relatively enriched in
natural gas. (3) Widespread inversion structures offer
highly favorable conditions for hydrocarbon enrichment
and the formation of large oil and gas fields. The uncon-
ventional hydrocarbon exploration potential of back-arc
depression basins is similar to that of back-arc rift basins.
Small back-arc ocean basins are the results of con-
tinuous evolution of back-arc depression basins and the
emergence of ocean crust (Fig. 5b, 5c). It should be noted
that the descriptions in this paper of back-arc rift,
back-arc depression, and back-arc small ocean basins are
in line with the formation mechanism of back-arc series
basins proposed by Karig[41], which is based on plate tec-
tonics theory. However, not all back-arc depression basins
develop into small back-arc ocean basins before the
back-arc seas close. These form a type of secondary pro-
totype basin. An example is the Japan Sea Basin[50] (Fig. 1).
Like intercontinental rift basins, these basins are char-
acterized by thermal uplifts and inversions, strong block
faulting, volcanic rock development, and high geothermal
gradients (higher than 40 C/km)[50]. Due to extensive
development of new oceanic crust, sedimentary filling on
the oceanic crust is thin, so the sedimentary strata de-
posited in the early back-arc rift and back-arc depression
stages are seriously damaged by inversion, resulting in
poor oil and gas accumulation conditions.
 DOU Lirong et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(6): 1271–1288
2.2.2. Remnant stage and terminal Stage
The remnant stage occurred during transition between
the decline stage and terminal stage (Fig. 5c, 5d). Com-
pared with the decline stage, the only change in the pro-
totype basin during the first half of the remnant period is
that the trench basin evolves into the forearc basin. The
prototype basin in the second half is consistent with that
of the Terminal Stage. In the unilateral declining type,
when subduction is blocked after a certain degree of de-
cline, the plates form a horizontal compression environ-
ment in island arcs and trenches[9]. Ocean basins con-
tinue to shrink, and back-arc basins/ocean basins begin
to close, forming back-arc foreland basins (Fig. 5d). A
unilateral-type basin that disappeared in the Bay of Ben-
gal is an example. The Paleocene-Miocene back-arc de-
pression basin in the central basin of eastern Myanmar
was uplifted under compression at the end of Miocene,
with sea water withdrawing southward. The back-arc
depression basin then evolved into a back-arc foreland
basin[51]. Intensifying compression transmitted pressure
to the central forearc and the trench, so the pre-existing
forearc basin gradually evolved into a compressive thrust
belt. The trench became shallow and narrow, filled with
large amounts of debris from the thrust belt, and eventu-
ally disappeared. The resulting huge, thick sedimentary
body gradually merged with the compressive thrust belt
of the forearc basin, resulting in expansion of the forearc
basin, creating the present Myanmar offshore basin[45]
(Fig. 5d). With continuous compression and contraction,
the oceanic crust between the western passive continen-
tal margin and the central forearc basin eventually dis-
appeared completely, marking the terminal stage. The
western passive continental margin collided with the
continental island arc accretion, and the island arc (in-
cluding various strata on both sides) underwent regional
high-pressure metamorphism to form an orogenic belt,
the west side of which evolved into a peripheral foreland
basin (Fig. 5e). A similar process created the present-day
Zagros and Arabian basins[52]. Finally, with strengthening
compressive uplift, the middle island arc, the associated
back-arc foreland basins on both sides, and the periph-
eral foreland basins, were all extruded and uplifted to-
gether to create a huge orogenic belt, the Himalayas[9],
marking the end of a complete Wilson Cycle.
2.2.2.1. Peripheral foreland basins
Peripheral foreland basins are the main prototype ba-
sins. They are orogenic foredeep basins, developed by the
collision of passive continental margins with island
arc-type active continental margins following the disap-
pearance of the oceanic crust of unilateral residual basins
(Fig. 5e). Bally referred to this type as foredeep basins[8].
Basins of this type often extend parallel to an orogenic
belt, consistent with previous concepts. A representative
 1281 
example is the Arabian/Zagros Basin[52]. This is a me-
dium-hot basin with a geothermal gradient of (14–32)
C/km[9, 2526, 5253]. Collision between continents is not an
instantaneous process[1]. In the case of the Arabian/Zagros
Basin, subduction of the original oceanic crust caused
bending of the extensional parts of the continental crust.
Owing to early collision, the extensional parts of the crust
experienced inversion and thrusting as they continued to
advance in the continental direction. During this process,
the sedimentary environment gradually transitioned
from marine facies to continental facies, with neritic and
marine-continental transitional fluvial-delta sediments
being deposited over submarine fans in remnant ocean
basins. During the late period, under the continuous ac-
tion of lateral compression stress from the ongoing colli-
sion, an orogenic belt developed and rose upon the side
of the abducted continental crust due to superimposed
thrusting. As a result, the crust thickened and was up-
lifted as a whole, ending neritic sedimentation. Terri-
genous debris from the young mountain system then
developed a huge, thick molasse formation[9], leading to
apparent asymmetry in the structure of the basin. On the
side closest to the orogenic belt, structural deformation
was strong. The sedimentary cover developed thrust fold
fault zones, and structural deformation gradually weak-
ened towards the direction of the continent. The struc-
tures in peripheral foreland basins, from near the oro-
genic belt to the slope, are generally a succession of
thrust nappe belts, thrust fold belts, and fold belts[9, 5455].
The underlying prototype basins of peripheral foreland
basins are intracontinental growth rift basins and passive
continental margin basins, both rich in oil and gas. In the
late period, large-scale and zonally distributed structural
reservoirs form due to compression and reformation of
the forelands. The Zagros/Arabian Basin, which has the
highest degree of oil and gas enrichment in the world[5253],
experienced a rifting stage in the Cambrian and a passive
continental marginal environment from the Early Paleo-
zoic to the Eocene epoch of the Paleogene, when it lay at
the southern margin of the Paleo-New Tethys Ocean.
There are five major confirmed hydrocarbon-generat-
ing horizons in the basin in the Cambrian, Silurian, Ju-
rassic, Cretaceous, and Paleogene, dominated by type II
organic matter with TOC values generally of 1%–12% and
up to 25%. High-quality carbonate reservoirs are exten-
sively developed, with large thickness, favorable physical
properties, and multiple sets of high-quality regional cap
rocks (predominantly evaporative salt strata). Numerous
large-scale anticlines developed during the foreland
compression period. So far, 213 large oil and gas fields
have been discovered in these traps, making the basin the
most hydrocarbon-rich sedimentary basin in the
world[5253]. It is expected that, with the current trend
towards unconventional oil and gas exploration and de-
 DOU Lirong et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(6): 1271–1288
velopment, more tight oil and gas and shale oil and gas
strata will be discovered in the near future[5657].
2.2.2.2. Back-arc foreland basins
Back-arc foreland (or retroarc) basins[5], are main pro-
totype basins. These are sedimentary basins developed by
the closure of back-arc sea basins/oceanic basins (rifts,
depressions, or small ocean basins) (Fig. 5c–5f ), where
one side of the unilateral type of basins, or both sides of
the “bilateral” type, converge after compression and colli-
sion between island arcs and the adjacent continents.
This accords with previous concepts, and examples in-
clude the Volga-Ural Basin[58], the Timan-Pechora Basin[59],
the Western Canada Basin[53], and the Burma Central
Basin[51] (Fig. 1). Structurally, back-arc foreland basins are
located at the edge of abducted plates, with the entire
basins being subjected to compression stress. Back-arc
foreland basins have obvious asymmetry in structural
deformation and sedimentary filling. The side of the ba-
sins closest to the island arcs is subjected to strong lateral
compression, forming thrust fold belts. Near the thrust
zone, there is wide-ranging subsidence. Deposition thick-
ness is great, and coarse clastics are developed. Deforma-
tion of strata on the continental side is weakened, and
deposition becomes thin[1, 9, 50]. The basins are moderately
hot, with a geothermal gradient of (19–33) C/km[25, 5359].
It should be added that although the passive continental
margin and intercontinental continental rift are absent in
the lower part of most back-arc rifts/depressions/small
ocean basins at present, these two sets of strata are de-
veloped in the lower part of most back-arc foreland ba-
sins, which are also favorable strata for the development
of hydrocarbon source rocks[5355]. This also proves to
some extent that there are great differences in vertical
superposition and overlap degree of prototype basins
Hydrocarbon accumulation conditions in this type of
basins are excellent, principally because both the under-
lying passive continental margins and the central
back-arc series basins themselves have satisfactory hy-
drocarbon-bearing conditions. Large-scale traps form in
the foreland stage under compression and inversion, and
multiple large oil and gas fields often form[5359]. In the
Western Canada back-arc foreland basin, for example,
there are depositional strata of four prototype stages:
passive continental margin, back-arc rift, back-arc de-
pression, and back-arc foreland (from bottom to top). The
first three of these stages are mainly dominated by ma-
rine deposits, with five sets of high-quality source rocks,
mainly consisting of type II organic matter with TOC
values of 3%–33%. In the early period of compression and
inversion of the foreland structures, coal-measure strata
were developed following seawater withdrawal and they
were dominated by type II organic matter with TOC val-
ues up to 13%. Several types of clastic and carbonate res-
ervoirs developed. The regional cap rocks are shales and
 1282 
tight carbonate rocks. Faults, sand bodies, and multi-
stage unconformities provide a network of migration path-
ways. During later compression and inversion, a hydro-
carbon accumulation model consisting of piedmont thrust
fold belt–foredeep wide and gentle fold belt–slope strati-
graphic trap belt (bearing heavy oil and oil sand) devel-
oped from the orogenic belt to the continent. Conven-
tional oil and gas resources are plentiful, with a wealth of
unconventional resources (heavy oil, oil sand, tight gas,
shale oil and gas, and coalbed methane) also present[53].
2.3. Shear stress environment
Strike-slip faults can be developed by sliding action
along plate boundaries or by faulted blocks in shear
stress environments. They are also known as wrench
faults[1]. The nomenclature varies according to the posi-
tion of the faults in the plate structure. In general,
strike-slip faults intersecting the lithosphere or crust at
plate boundaries are called transform faults. Strike-slip
faults in plates developed in the crust are called
strike-shift faults. Transverse strike-slip faults connecting
main basement faults in continental thrust nappe struc-
tural zones are called transfer faults, and strike-slip faults
in shallow adjustment zones are called tear faults[1, 60].
There are four principal characteristics of strike-slip
faults and their associated sedimentary basins[1, 12, 6064]. (1)
Strike-slip faults develop in structural zones in diverse
plate structural positions (intraplate and plate margin)
and regional stress environments (extensional and com-
pressive) as consequences of the different balancing and
adjustment roles played by shear stress. (2) The sizes of
sedimentary basins associated with strike-slip faults vary
enormously, from tens of square kilometers to a maxi-
mum of 290 thousand square kilometers. Since the basins
can only be developed by strike-slip faults associated with
certain dip-slip components, differences in component
size produce basins on quite different scales. (3)
Strike-slip pull-apart basins on a scale of over ten thou-
sand square kilometers can only form on large-scale
strike-slip faults in regional extensional environments
(equivalent to the first half of the Wilson Cycle). The
main reason for this may be that the activity scale of
strike-slip faults is constrained by the regional compres-
sive environment. (4) Strike-slip flexural basins can be
developed by directional variations in strike-slip move-
ments produced by the reversal and compression of re-
gional stress fields in later-stage strike-slip pull-apart
basins (equivalent to the second half of the Wilson Cycle).
2.3.1. Strike-slip pull-apart basins
Strike-slip pull-apart basins are sedimentary basins
developed by strike-slip faulting in local extensional en-
vironments (Fig. 6a). They are also known as transten-
sional basins [1] . They are primary prototype basins
developed in shear stress environments, and the
 DOU Lirong et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(6): 1271–1288
Fig. 6. Basin formation patterns in shear stress environments.
description here is consistent with previous studies. Ex-
amples are the continental Bongo Basin in Africa[61] and
the Ridge Basin on the American west coast[62]. The ba-
sins generally have geometric shapes (fusiform, rhombus,
wedge, etc.), enormous variations in scale (although they
are mostly small), and high depositional rates. They often
contain gigantic, thick sediments with many different
sedimentary types from sea to land. They are “cold” basins,
with geothermal gradients in the range of 23–26 C/km.
Negative flower structures and twist-compression rever-
sal structures (mainly positive faults) develop widely[6163].
The larger the scale of the basin, the better the hydro-
carbon accumulation conditions. The Bongo strike-slip
pull-apart basin in Africa is an example. The basin area is
23.6 thousand square kilometers. Development of major
source rocks was controlled by intensive faulting in the
depression stage, producing a set of 500–1000 m thick
dark lacustrine mudstone. Organic matter type is mainly
Type II1, with average TOC of 3.5%. Numerous sets of
reservoirs developed, with medium-high porosity and
permeability. These reservoirs occurred in sand bodies of
the offshore subaqueous fans in steep slopes and the fan
deltas in gentle slopes. Shale in the transgression stage
developed effective seals. Traps are mostly found in
faulted anticlines and faulted blocks, in which large oil
and gas fields developed in the negative flower structures
in transpressional reverse fault anticlines[63]. Due to the
generally high organic matter abundance in lacustrine
shale, there is still considerable shale oil potential far
from fault zones.
2.3.2. Strike-slip flexural basin
Strike-slip flexural basins, also known as transpres-
sional basins[1], are the sedimentary basins found in
strike-slip structural zones and developed in local com-
pressive environments (Fig. 6b). Consistent with previous
descriptions, they are primary prototype basins devel-
 1283 
oped in shear stress environments. An example is the San
Joaquin Basin in central California, United States[64]. This
basin was a forearc basin in the Mesozoic. In the Ceno-
zoic, positive flower structures were developed by dextral
strike-slip at the western margin of the San Andreas Fault
due to transformation from a forearc extensional envi-
ronment to a compressive environment. From the Oligo-
cene to the Early Miocene, the basin subsided rapidly due
to flexural depression caused by structural loading, and
then it was filled with marine sediments. Then there was a
gradual transition to continental sediments, accompanied
by compression and uplifting in the periphery. The geo-
thermal gradient is inferred to be lower than 25 C/km.
Due to limited compressive deformation in strike-slip
flexural basins, they are of small scales with limited sedi-
mentation so hydrocarbon bearing conditions are gener-
ally poor. However, if a basin is located in a large-scale
transfer fault zone, like the San Joaquin Basin, prototype
basins with underlying forearc marine sediments can be
reconstructed by fault activities to provide good hydro-
carbon accumulation conditions[64]. Hydrocarbon accumula-
tion conditions for unconventional resources are poor.
3. Superimposition development process of
prototype basins and basin classification
3.1. Superimposition development process of
prototype basins
Through the analysis of the formation and evolution
process of the primary and secondary prototype basins, it
is found that the formation and superposition evolution
of the prototype basins have fixed trajectories under dif-
ferent plate tectonic positions and different stress envi-
ronments. The plate edge is mainly stressed by tension
and compression, and the superposition evolution of the
prototype basin takes the Wilson cycle as the cycle and
repeats in a fixed track. Specific prototype basin can be
developed in each stage of the cycle. For example, the
peripheral foreland basin must follow the fixed develop-
ment track of intracontinental rift, intercontinental rift,
passive continental margin and peripheral foreland. After
experiencing brief stretch tension in the early stage, the
interior of ancient plate (craton) enters into long-term,
stable and slow depression evolutionary stages due to the
thermal subsidence. Sedimentary cyclicity is shown
within a Wilson cycle, and there are gaps between dif-
ferent cycles. Apart from basins on small cratons being
transformed into foreland basins during the terminal
stage, the basins always stay in craton kind of prototype.
Strike-slip pull-apart and strike-slip flexural basins may
be developed in both plates and plate margins under
shear stress. The former usually occurs in the first half of
the Wilson cycle, and the latter generally develops from
the former due to regional stress inversion, which is
equivalent to the second half of the Wilson cycle.
 DOU Lirong et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(6): 1271–1288

3.2. Principles and meanings of basin classification
Based on this study and the previous classifications,
483 major sedimentary basins around the world have
been classified into 14 types of prototype basins (Table 1),
taking the basin prototype developed by the most recent
plate tectonic activities in each basin as the current basin
type. The types of basins are: intracontinental growth rift,
intercontinental rift, intracontinental aborted rift, pas-
sive continental margin, interior craton, back-arc rift,
back-arc depression, small back-arc oceanic basin, forearc,
trench, back-arc foreland, periphery foreland, strike-slip

Table 1. Types and fundamental attributes of global sedimentary basins.

Conditions
Conditions
Current of large
Stage of of uncon-
Type of Primary Basement geothermal Basin conven- Typical
Wilson Sedimentary system ventional
basin stress property gradient/ structure tional oil basin
cycle 1 oil and gas
(Cꞏkm ) and gas
fields
fields
Intraconti- Graben, Fluvial/alluvial fan-
Embryonic Continental Albert
nental 3845 half delta/fan delta-lacustrine/ Good Poor
stage crust Rift
growth rift graben marine sediments
Igneous rocks, carbonate rocks and
Continental evaporate rocks/shore and shallow
Interconti- Juvenile
crust, oceanic >50 Graben marine sandstone in upper part, Fair Poor Rea Sea
nental rift stage
crust equivalent to intracontinental rifting
growth stage in lower part
Intraconti- Graben, Besides red bed on the top, equiva- Marine
Juvenile Continental West
nental 3140 half lent to intracontinental rifting growth Excellent better than
stage crust Siberia
aborted rift graben stage in middle and lower parts lacustrine
Extensional Carbonate platform/shore and shallow
Passive Continental Lower marine sandstone, fluvial- delta-deep
conti- Mature crust, transi- faulted water gravity flow in upper part, equi-
2738 Excellent Fair Santos
nental stage tional crust, and upper valent to intercontinental and intra-
margin oceanic crust depression continental rifting stages in middle
and lower parts, respectively
Possible development similar as
intracontinental rifting growth
sedimentary system in lower part,
Intra- Continental
Full cycle 1930 Depression in ascending order, shore and shal- Fair Good Williston
craton crust
low marine clastic rocks/carbonate
rocks-transitional-continental strata
as a whole
Approximate to intracontinental
Back-arc Continental Graben, Malay
4060 rifting growth stage, and tends to Good Fair
rift crust half graben Basin
be transgressive in late stage
Lower Equivalent to back-arc rift in
Continental
Back-arc faulted and lower part, fluvial-delta-gravity
crust, transi- 5060 Excellent Fair Sumatra
depression upper de- flow, carbonate platform
tional crust
Declining Extensional pression in upper part
Small and termi- and com- Continental
Japan
back-arc nal stages pressive crust, transi- Deep water gravity
>40 Depression Fair Poor Sea
oceanic tional crust, flow sediments
Basin
basin oceanic crust
Continental
Depression/ Deep water gravity flow/
Forearc crust, oceanic
2030 faulted equivalent to transgressive Fair Poor Talara
basin crust, complex
depression intracontinental rifting stage
rock mass
Trench Declining Mainly deep water fine- Chile
Oceanic crust <20 Depression Poor Poor
basin stage granular sediments Trench
Equivalent to back-arc rifting/
Lower
depression evolution stages in
Back-arc Continental faulted and West
1933 middle and lower parts, respec- Excellent Excellent
foreland crust upper de- Canada
tively, fan delta, swamp and flu-
Compres- pression
Terminal vial-alluvial fan, etc. in upper part
sive
and sutur- Equivalent to intracontinental
ing stages Lower growth rift and passive continental
Periphery Continental faulted and margin evolution stages in middle Arab/
1432 Excellent Excellent
foreland crust upper de- and lower parts, respectively, fan Zagros
pression delta, swamp and fluvial-alluvial
fan, etc. in upper part
Deep and
Strike-slip Extensional Continental narrow Underwater fan, alluvial fan-fan
Wrench 2326 Good Fair Bongo
pull-apart stage crust graben/half delta, lacustrine/marine sediments
graben
Equivalent to strike-slip pull-apart
Strike-slip Compres- Twist-com- Continental San
<25 Depression basin in lower part, mainly Poor Poor
flexural sive stage pressive crust Joaquin
fluvial and alluvial fan

 1284 
 DOU Lirong et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(6): 1271–1288
pull-apart and strike-slip flexural basins. This classifica-
tion scheme has the following two implications. (1) More
than 85% of the 483 basins in this study were developed
by the superimposition and evolution of more than two
types of prototype basins. The application of this classi-
fication scheme guarantees the unique identification of
each type of basin, making it convenient for both general
reference and practical application. (2) Since the evolu-
tionary trajectories of the prototype basins are always
consistent, the superimposition process of prototype ba-
sins can be deduced by inversion based on the current
basin type. Underlying hydrocarbon accumulation condi-
tions and their possible variations in every prototype
stage can be analyzed scientifically. Taking the Zagros and
Arabian basins as examples, the current basin type—peri-
pheral foreland basin—is determined using this classifi-
cation principle (the basins are superimposed following
the trajectory: intracontinental growth rift–intercon-
tinental rift–passive continental margin–peripheral fore-
land). Their hydrocarbon accumulation conditions in
various sequences can be predicted by analogy; i.e. by
analysis of the hydrocarbon accumulation characteristics
of comparable rift basins and passive continental margin
basins with high degrees of exploration and development.
The method is to identify known analogues of possible
development processes of fundamental conditions—source
rocks, reservoirs, capping rocks, etc.—in early-stage rift
basins and passive continental margin basins, combined
with the influence of foreland compression and reversal,
and apply them to reconstruct the reservoir development
history. This approach will be helpful in guiding future
exploration deployment to further discover reservoirs.
3.3. Distribution and exploration prospects for dif-
ferent types of basins
According to the above classification principles, the
distribution characteristics of 14 types of sedimentary
basins in the world have been made clear. So far, except
for the three types of basins including intercontinental
rift, ocean trench and strike-slip flexural basin, 1123 huge
oil and gas fields have been discovered, with a total re-
coverable reserve of 5069 × 108 t. By analogy with the
hydrocarbon accumulation conditions of various basins
with high exploration and development degree, the fa-
vorable exploration directions in the future have basically
been defined (Table 1 and Fig. 1).
There are a total of twenty intracontinental growth rift
basins around the world, mostly in the continental East
Africa Rift System, the basin-ridge province in western
United States, and the Gulf of Suez. The proportions of
the number and reserves of discovered huge oil and gas
fields are 0.61% and 0.22% respectively. Risk exploration
potential is the greatest in the East Africa Rift System,
particularly in the western branch of the Albert Rift, the
 1285 
Democratic Republic of Congo (King), the Tanganyika
Rift, and the Malawi Rift. Intracontinental aborted rift
basins (a total of thirty) are mostly found in Eurasia and
Africa, including the West Siberia, Sirte, Bohai Bay,
Songliao, the North Sea, etc. The proportions of the
number and reserves of discovered huge oil and gas fields
are 19.68% and 16.23%, respectively. The exploration po-
tential of the West Siberia Basin is the greatest. The
South Kara Sea area holds particular promise, with ex-
cellent prospects for conventional hydrocarbon risk ex-
ploration and fine exploration in the northern part of the
sea, in deep strata underlying the Jurassic, and in base-
ment burial hills in the onshore, central, and southern
areas of the sea. The most promising target for uncon-
ventional hydrocarbon exploration and development is
shale oil and gas in the Jurassic Bazhenov Formation.
Conventional lithological reservoirs and unconventional
shale oil in the Sirte Rift also offer good prospects. At
present, only two intercontinental rift basins (the Red Sea
and the Gulf of Aden) can be regarded as having fair ex-
ploration potential. Passive continental margin basins are
primarily found in the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean,
Arctic Ocean, the periphery of the Gulf of Mexico and the
southeastern margin of the Caribbean, with a total of 139
basins. The proportions of the number and reserves of
discovered huge oil and gas fields are 26.09% and 19.04%
respectively. This type of basin is relatively unexplored,
but has widespread distribution and large potential. The
risk exploration potential of these basins is the greatest in
the offshore areas of East Africa, Argentina, Brazil, the
eastern coast of the United States, the eastern coast of the
Greenland Island, and on the Arctic Shelves. Ancient
cratonic basins (a total of thirty-eight) are found in the
centers of every continent, in East Siberia, Paris, Williston,
Parana and elsewhere. The proportions of the number
and reserves of discovered huge oil and gas fields are
3.65% and 1.70%, respectively. Risk exploration potential
for conventional oil and gas is the greatest in East Siberia
and the Zaire Basin. Exploration prospects for shale gas
are good in the Upper Amazon and Parnaiba basins.
Trench and forearc basins are found in the periphery of
the Pacific Ocean and the eastern margin of the Carib-
bean Sea. Only limited data are currently available, but
nine trench basins (Aleutian, Peru-Chile, Mariana, etc.)
have been preliminarily marked for exploration and de-
velopment. A total of twenty-six forearc basins (offshore
basins in Myanmar, the eastern Bay of Bengal, Santino
and Talara on the western coast of South America, etc.)
have been identified as promising targets. Hydrocarbon
bearing conditions in these forearc basins are generally
only fair but a few, like Talara, contain developed rifting
sequences in forearc slopes with good hydrocarbon ac-
cumulation conditions. The proportions of the number
and reserves of discovered huge oil and gas fields are
 DOU Lirong et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(6): 1271–1288
0.27% and 0.04%, respectively. In trench basins, there
may only be good hydrocarbon accumulation conditions
in those, like the Myanmar offshore basins, which trans-
formed into part of a forearc basin in the late stage of
evolution. A number of forearc basins along the western
coast of Central and South America are considered to be
promising targets, including the Santino, Sechura, Arauco,
and others. Back-arc rift basins (a total of sixty-three) are
mostly found on the western coast of the Pacific Ocean
and in the eastern Caribbean Sea. These two types of
basins have excellent petroleum conditions. The former
one has proportions of the number and reserves of dis-
covered huge oil and gas fields of 0.98% and 0.25%, re-
spectively, and the latter one has proportions of the
number and reserves of discovered huge oil and gas fields
of 3.29% and 1.56% respectively. Future risk exploration
targets are bedrock buried hills, deep water gravity cur-
rents, and biological reefs in a series of basins in the
western Pacific Ocean. A series of basins in the Caribbean
are also considered to have some exploration potential.
The small back-arc ocean basin mainly includes five ba-
sins in the western Pacific Ocean, namely the Sea of Ok-
hotsk, the Sea of Japan, the Andaman Sea and the South
China Sea. Large oil and gas fields were only found in the
Andaman Sea basin, accounting for 0.18% and 0.04% of
the total number and reserves, respectively, with good
exploration prospects.
Peripheral foreland basins are chiefly distributed in the
southern zone of the Tethys tectonic domain, which in-
cludes Cuba North Island, West and North Africa, Middle
East, South Asia and other areas, with a total of
twenty-five basins. This type of basin has excellent hy-
drocarbon accumulation conditions, and the proportions
of the number and reserves of discovered huge oil and
gas fields are 24.13% and 48.44% respectively. The largest
quantities of both conventional and unconventional oil
and gas resources are to be found in the huge Arabian
and Zagros basins. The most promising exploration tar-
gets are deep Paleozoic plays in the Arabian foredeep
depression and slope areas and in the Zagros fold belt,
followed by Silurian shale oil and gas in the West and
North Africa. The sea area around Cuba North Island is
also worthy of investigation. Back-arc foreland basins are
the sedimentary basins with the widest distribution on
land, primarily in the western margin of the American
Continent, the northern zone of the Tethys tectonic do-
main, and the western margin of the Ural orogenic belt.
There are 118 basins of this type. They have been proved
to have excellent geological conditions for the formation
of large oil and gas field groups, and the proportions of
the number and reserves of discovered huge oil and gas
fields are 21.02% and 21.03%, respectively. However, gen-
erally these basins have already undergone extensive
conventional oil and gas exploration. Future exploration
 1286 
targets are structural traps in thrust folding zones, subtle
traps in deep foredeep depressions, and low-amplitude
structural traps in slope zones. There are good explora-
tion prospects for heavy oil, oil sands, and shale oil and
gas.
Based on the available data, there are only 14 identified
large-scale strike-slip pull-apart basins, including Bongor
Muglad, and east of the Niger basin, which are a series of
basins located in the west African region. They have been
confirmed to have the geological conditions of forming
large oil and gas fields. The proportions of the number
and reserves of discovered huge oil and gas fields account
for 0.09% and 0.01%, respectively, the less explored ba-
sins such as Southern Chad have better risk exploration
prospects. At present, only one basin in central California,
namely The SAN Joaquin Basin, can be identified as the
strike-slip flexural basin, which confirms the poor hy-
drocarbon accumulation conditions during the strike-slip
flexural stage.
4. Conclusions
Since the Precambrian, the superimposed development
process of global prototype basins has been entirely con-
trolled by plate tectonics, and has repeated in accordance
with the Wilson Cycle. The superimposed evolution of
prototype basins in each Wilson Cycle period has a fixed
trajectory. 14 types of prototype basins can be developed
in each period. Of the 483 existing sedimentary basins in
the world, more than 85% are developed by superposition
and evolution of more than two types of prototype basins.
Every prototype basin has its own unique tectonic-sedi-
mentary system, with distinctive source rocks, reservoirs,
cap rocks, and other hydrocarbon bearing conditions.
Later superimposed prototype basins altered the hydro-
carbon accumulation conditions of earlier prototype ba-
sins, resulting in the formation of entirely new petroleum
systems.
Based on the controlling role of global plate tectonics
on prototype basins, following the principles of the Wil-
son Cycle, the prototype basin developed by the most
recent plate tectonic activity in every basin is defined as
its current type of basin. 14 types of sedimentary basin
have been distinguished, including intracontinental
growth rift, intracontinental aborted rift, intercontinental
rift, passive continental margin, interior craton, trench,
forearc rift, back-arc rift, back-arc depression, back-arc
small ocean, peripheral foreland, back-arc foreland,
strike-slip pull-apart, and strike-slip flexural. This classi-
fication scheme ensures identification of the unique
characteristics of each type of sedimentary basin and is
convenient for both general reference and for practical
application in the petroleum industry. It can also be used
to infer the superimposition process of basins through
inversion from the current type of basin, supporting sci-
 DOU Lirong et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(6): 1271–1288
entific analysis of the basic hydrocarbon accumulation
conditions of each preceding prototype basin and possi-
ble subsequent changes, thus providing a method for
evaluation of the hydrocarbon potential of any sedimen-
tary basin.
The development degree of the prototype basin during
the early stage is very important for hydrocarbon accu-
mulation in the present basin. Take the Zagros foreland
basin, which has the highest degree in global oil and gas
enrichment, as an example. It has been confirmed that a
total of 5 sets of main source rocks are developed in the
Cambrian, the Silurian, the Jurassic, the Cretaceous and
the Paleogene system. The Cambrian prototype basin was
developed during the rift stage. The other four sets of
source rocks were developed in the passive continental
margin stage, and the main carbonate reservoir and
evaporation halite cap rocks were developed in the pas-
sive continental margin stage. The greatest contribution
of the foreland stage is the formation of large number of
structural traps, with large size of individual units caused
by intense compression. Therefore, only by making clear
whether the hydrocarbon accumulation conditions such
as hydrocarbon generation, reservoir and cap are well
developed in the prototype basins at each early stage, can
we scientifically evaluate the hydrocarbon bearing pros-
pects of the basins at present.
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