E.

The Self in Western and

Oriental/Eastern Thought

East West

At the end of this learning module, the student is expected to:

distinguish the eastern from the western constructs of the self;
a)

b) differentiate the individualistic self from the collective self;

c) explain the spirituality and philosophy of Confucius.

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 CION/READINGS
DISCUSSION

INTRODUCTION

at the flea market of Nairobi,

Few years ago caught myself shopping for souvenirs exclaimed, "What
when one vendor
Kenya. was engrossed picking African key chains Kenya!" "No no no, my
country are you from, my friend?" lied and said: "I am from
the sun." That was the
friend" he protested, "You are not African because you are afraid of
of bush at the
only time when I became conscious that Iwas hiding below the shadow
middle of the market. Then just smiled noticing all the other
Africans basking under the
heat of the sun

the prejudice of
That was Africa... and Africa was different. All the while I have
the poor, superstitious, and corrupt Eastemers as compared to the rich, technologically
idea that in
advanced, sophisticated Westerners. always hear and observe this colonial
western lifestyle. Isn't it
order to be "developed" we, Asians, must be able to adapt to the
from hairstyle,
that upon close examination, for example, the Filipino ways of doing things:
education,
dress codes, language, expressions, music genre, art to mentality, philosophy,
are all
technology, socio-political systems, economic enterprise, and religious practices
patterned from the American-European or Westem concepts? Are you still surprised when
you see flat-nosed. brown skinned, blond-haired individual walking along the corridor?

When we visit,however, some American metropolis, Chicago, for instance, we will

be surprised to see school children dancing the tinikling and speaking common Tagalog
expressions! We will get to know some Americans who are interested about Buddhist Yoga
or Hindu food or Chinese martial arts or Japanese gardens. Therefore it is not only
the

Easterners who imitate the Western ways, but also there are movements by which the West
had allowed the influence of the East in their lifestyle.

Then started to reflect again on the richness of Asia.-This is not only the largest
continent in the world but also the source of many global influences. The major religions of
the World are from the east. Jesus, Mohammad, Buddha are all Asians. The billions of
believers of Hinduism and Traditional Chinese Religions bring with them the Asian
influences around the globe. The easterners were among the first thinkers and philosophers
and inventors long before the development of western thought.

Currently, the educational systems in most eastern countries patterned and

are

widely influenced by the west. The books, curricula, authors, systems, science and
technology, social sciences, and even socio-political patterns are extensively shaped by
western influence. One possible reason for being inferior is the lack of recognition of the
new emerging bold thinkers from the east. Intellectual eastern scholars will only be

recognized when they align their thoughts to western traditions. The celebrated Emerita
Quito, who was said to be the first female philosopher of the Philippines, will have to
initially content herself by looking at Filipino philosophy according to some German
metaphysics. Eastern thought may have diminished its realistic and rich identity in favor of
the dominant west

52
 Conversely, eastern traditions are not totally lost. We can observe how Asians resort
to their traditional wayswhen western concepts no longer have the solution. To illustrate
this, no matter how technologically scientific a Filipino student is trained in school, when
taking the board exam, they will surely resort to some divine interventions and have their
pencils blessed by seeming deities before they take the exam. The science part is from
western education, but the intuition remains to be dependent mostly upon eastern traditions.

Perhaps this is now a postmodern trend. All these convergent education,

interdisciplinarity, mix marriages, multi-racial communities, globalized information, and
even international space exploration are all blended in westem and eastern traditions. Big
universities invite exchange scholars from other countries to learn from one another and to
pul variety in academic discussions. Courses are becoming more open to interdisciplinary
models, just like our course Understanding the Self, instead of being exclusive to
on

scientific domain. Societies are becoming more receptive to interracial, interreligious

friendships, marriages and leaderships. The power of information and technology becomes
even more compelling when it has the grasp of multifarious traditions,

It is therefore important In our understanding of the self that we realize the blending
of the eastern or oriental traditions of Asia and the pacific, and the westem traditions of

Europe and North America. Moreover, we also have to comprehend the intermingling of
the North which IS commonly referred to as developed countries, and the South referring to
the developing countries of Asia, Africa and some parts of South America. The concepts we
have of ourselves are actual appreciation of the unity between the East-West and the North-
South. In this last section of Chapter 1, we will discuss the (a) distinction between
the

individualistic self and the collective self, we will clarify the (b) social construction of the

self in western thought; and finally, we will (c) recognize the self as
embedded in

relationships through spiritual development of eastern thought.

A. MOTIVATIONAL ACTIVITY

Visual Timeline

In this activity, we will classify the different eastern and western thoughts and
traditions vis-a-vis their spot in the history of humankind. In way, we will make a timeline
the Middle
of philosophical traditions of Ancient Greek and other Western civilizations,
East, India, China and Japan. The timeline will help us recognize the original influences of
our philosophical conceptions today.

On the board, the teacher plots the timeline format.

1000 2000
3000 BC 2000 BC 1000 BC
AD AD

West
Middle East
India
China

Japan

53
 Q_ understanding The Sel/
indicated below.
Each student will then be assigned to a particular box The
is
the data
student will decide to fall, and plot On the
which area or country will the item
timeline

1500 BC Other
2000 BC Rig Veda 2698 BC Huang
2050 BC Code of 2205 BC Yu Vedas

1033 Anselm 1050 Ramanuja

470 Boethius 573 Shotoku
354 St. Augustine

1620 Classical 1724 Kant

1711 Hune 1596 Descartes 1473 Copernicus Confucianism

700 BC
1105 BC Duke of 900 BC Hebrew 719 BC Tchun Isen
1000 BC Homer Bible
Chandogys

600 BC First
c600 BC Lao Tm 600 BC Zoroaster
800 BC First
660 BC Jimu Sophists
Prophets of Israel

600 BC c560 BC The

5$7 DC Cunfucius 611 BC
640 BC Thales Buddha
Anaximander

1150 Ramanup 980 Avicenna 1191 Yeisai

1126 Averoes 1224 St. Thomas
introduces Zen

500 BC Ramayana 558 BC Cyrus King 569 BC

500 BC Yang Chu
of Persia 500 BC Heraclitus

384 BC Aristotle 4 Century Mo Tzu 495 BC Zeno of

372 BC Mencius
469 BC Socrates
Elea

30 Philo of 206 BC Han 200 BC

200 BC The 184 Taoist
Dynasty Mahabharata/
Theraveda School Movement
Mahayana Schools

Students are given time to plot the timeline on the board (or on the screen if you are
using projectors). The class will have to note that the entries provided here are only
representatives of the many other philosophical works done by peoples in many ages. After
the plotting has been completed, the teacher examines the timeline as to he correct positions
of the entries in each area
and timeframe. Then the class may proceed in answering the
processing questions.

B. PROCESSING QUESTIONS
1. Which area or country possessed the earliest record
of philosophical document?
2. In which era were the most number of
philosophical
records
produced? From what
country? How about the least?
area or
3. Compare and contrast the contribution of each area or country in the
formulation of
philosophical thoughts.
4. What are your insights about the
plotted timeline of philosophical thoughts?

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 C. DISCUSSION

The completed timeline will reveal some

important facts about the history of thought. Philosophy
started from the east. One of the earliest Chinese rulers,
Huang-Ti. meaning the "Yellow Emperor" was credited
for his introduction of wooden houses in villages, carts,
boats and the clever design of the bow and arrow. This
wise emperor also introduced and systematized Chinese
writing and literature. He is
the champion of Chinese
culture. He organized government institutions and
pioneered the use of coin in commerce. It was also
during his reign when the Chinese people perfected the
craft of silk production by breeding silkworms. Most
importantly, the Yellow Emperor was credited for his
leadership style. He led his people with virtues
comparable to the teachings of early Daoism, and with
highest accord to
natural law. He ensured order and
prosperity among the inhabitants

Almost 2000 years before the first western text was introduced, the eastern
civilization was already so advanced that it had accounts of the virtuous philosophies of
China, the famous civil codes like the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi, and the earliest
religious texts of India like the Rigveda. Noticeably the eastern thoughts are concerned

about the collective life in the community. This is very much in contrast with the
individualistic concepts of the west.

1. Individualistic vs. Collective Self

The concept of the psyche is a western model of the soul. Western traditions are
always preoccupied by the duality of the body and soul. Plato started with the idea that the
soul inhabited the world of ideas, while the body descended to the world of the sensible.
The ideal self is there up above the heavens while the bodily self, or the soul imprisoned in
finite material body, by which we know today is only thrown into the oblivion of
remembering what the soul used to know while still living in the world of ideas.

Even Aristotle did not solve this problem of duality. He proposed the hylemorphic
form or the
theory, meaning that the human person is composed of matter or the body and
soul.Matter is changeable while the form remains. This means that the body will grow and
The form
eventually die and decompose and will be transformed into something else.
however remains unchanged. But unlike Plato, Aristotle asserted that the body is equally
it ought to have
important as the soul, because the former will give the latter the knowledge
through senses.

is very much similar to the duality of body and soul of Descartes. The body is
This
he never always trusted the
the one gathering information through the senses, although
information coming from the senses. It is the reason that processes all information and
makes sense with experiences of the body. In an attempt to solve the issue of duality,

55
 Descartes proposed that the body and the soul fused in one very important part of the brain
the pincal gland.

Still, the western concept of the self is very much anchored on the individuality of
the psyche. The individual self is
always In a struggle reconcile the connection
to between
drives
perfect soul and the limited self or sinful body. This dichotomy
the ideal self or
the understanding of the self as lifetime toil for self-perfection. What is important in this
concept of the self is the development of the self from conception to death.

In other words, from the moment of conception, the self ismoulded and prepared to
the best possible
live a good and
happy life A daughter, for example will be provided with
upbringing by the parents. She will be sent to the best school m town in view of bestowing
and successful professional
in
on
her the necessary knowledge and skills to be independent
adult years. She is expected to compete with other professionals in her field and become the
best in her line of work. She will eventually find a partner and raise children the way she
of the soul
was raised. This is such an
example of an ideal selfthat manifests the perfection

When, on the contrary, the self did not have the opportunity to be raised, and to

grow, and to die a good and happy life, the self becomes a waste as it did not live the ideals
of
the soul. The lone purpose of the self, therefore IS to live according to the ideals of the
soul. The Greeks call this arere - the ultimate goodness, perfection, excellence. All of life's
directions, inasmuch as the western individualistic-self is concerned, are geared towards
self-perfection.

Although the self in the eastern perspective also wants to attain perfection In
meditation and enlightenment, there has never been an issue of dualism. Eastemers do not
have the notion of the separation of the body and soul. It IS always one self. The Atman, for
example in Indian philosophy is considered to be the seat of consciousness. The atman may
have different levels of consciousness but there is always one self. Even death is considered
to bejust another level of consciousness but the atman continues to exist because it is not
dependent on the body. This in fact is also the concept of the non-self in Buddhism. In this
concept the self is considered as nothing but an evolution and transformation of inner
consciousness.

Further. the Confucian philosophy from China emphasized the relational self and
the social understanding of the self. Scholars read Confucius' philosophy in two ways. One
interpretation says that the ideal thus moral self is always able to forego individual
interest in view of prioritizing the social interest In a way, the self is the ideal of selfless
person who is willing to forget about his self-interest in favor of the interest of the
community. In this conception, there is still the individual self and the self is mutually
exclusive as the social self, However the individual self is subsumed in the interest of the
social self.

The second interpretation of Confucian thought asserts that the individual self and
the social self are not mutually exclusive but are metaphysically and profoundly related. The
individual character of the ideal self cannot be separated from the social character of the
self It means that the self is constructively connected with the pursuit of the social self. Let
us take as an example many family dynamics in which, when in dire poverty one or the
other sibling will be asked to stop going to school so that the family will be able 10 send the
56
 CQ_ Understanding The Self O)O
rest of the children to school to continue with their education. Here, the self is willing to
sacrifice and may forget to assert self-interest in order to pursue the resolve of the whole
family. The same self-sacrifice may be manifested in groups, communities and nation.

The Middle
Eastern traditions are also very much associated with communal self.
One example is the Judaeo-Christian philosophies which put emphasis on the unity of a
the chosen people
nation of God (Exodus 19:5). The biblical prophets would always find
themselves reminding the people, as community of believers, to be faithful to the loving
compassion of God, Even prophet Mohammad of Islamic traditions highlights the oneness
of Allah and the inclusivity of Islam as a
religion. Islamic ethics, in the words of
Mohammad asserts that "Imly community will never
agree to an error" (Esposito, 2005).
Both traditions stress the importance of the community over the self. The eastern
philosophy therefore, is more attuned to the collective dimension of the self as opposed to
the western individualistic ideals of the self.

Features of Individualism Features of Collectivism

"I" identity Each person IS encouraged to be an

Promotes individual goals, initiative and active player in society, to do what is best
achievement. for society as a whole rather than
Individual rights seen as being the themselves.
are

most important. Rules attempt to ensure The rights of families, communities, and
self-importance and individualism. the collective supersede those of the
Independence is valued; there is much individual.
less of a drive to help other citizens or Rules promote unity, brotherhood, and
communities than in collectivism. selflessness.
Relying or being dependent on others IS Working with others and cooperating is
frequently seen as shameful. the norm: everyone supports each other.
People are encouraged to do things on a community, family
as or nation more
their own: to rely on themselves than as an individual

people strive for their own successes

2. The Social Construction of the Self in Western Thought

Social construction
IS shared assumption or perception of the people in society.
The western social construct of the self can be characterized in three ways. First is the
individualistic self. At a very young age, the child is already taught to pursue what is best
for self. Thus later in adult life, the measure of a successful life is when the self is able to
fulfil the life-goals set for and by the self. The individualistic self is always conceived as
the autonomous bounded entity. For one to be autonomous, one must be able to show

independence

Relevant to independence brings about the second western social construct of the
self which is self-sufficiency. This construct presumes that a successful self must be able to
supply one's needs without external assistance. Being self-sufficient also implies
confidence in one's capacity to provide what the self needs from one's own resources and
authority. Therefore it is important for the self to establish one's power and accumulate the
needed knowledge and resources so that one will be able to provide one's needs.

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 C_ Understanding The SelfE
The third social construct is the self being rational. In the western practice, there Is
no time for the self to be weak and emotional. The self must not waste resources on
meditation and other metaphysical cognitions but to be constantly rational and reasonable
The self masters the causal relationships of things. Everything must be explained by logie
and reason.
Phenomenon outside the logical realm are simply discredited and rejected.
This explains the western logical positivist movement. It contends that what is rational and
reasonable are only those which
can be logically viable. The successful self therefore, is
grounded on one's investment on reason and logical thinking.
It also necessarily follows that when the self adapts the rational-logical conception
of things, one must be scientific. The self marvels at the safety measures of scientific
procedures. Scientific researches ascertain the cause and effect relationship of things and
phenamena. Safetyis derivedfrom the mastery of the phenomena concerning the self. This
brings about the ideals of
self-efficacy in which everything can be explained by science,
and everything can be provided for by science. The successful self embraces the scientific
conception of things that affect one's growth. psycho-physical development, intellectual
capacity, interaction with others andinvolvement in societal institutions and infrastructures.
3.The Self as Embedded in Relationships and Through Spiritual Development in
Confucian Thought - Eastern Construct

Eastern social infrastructures are mostly seen as contrary to the western

individualistic construct. The eastern social construct IS primarily viewed as collectivistic
and is always grounded on nature. There
were many eastern traditions that flourished in the
history of thought that were firmly based on how the self relates to others, to the Divine
Being and to nature,

We have learned in the

previous discussions that the eastern traditions are primarily
composed of the ancient Asian philosophies from India, China, Japan and the Middle East.
The Hindu and Buddhist traditions sprang from India. The Confucian and Daoist traditions
originated from China. Japan also developed the Shinto traditions. The Judaeo-Christian
foundations in the Middle East. However, in this particular
and Islamic traditions laid their

section we shall focus on the Confucian spirituality and philosophy.

Confucius or Kung Fu Zi ascertained the ancient Chinese civilization
by
establishing social order. The society will be led by wise leaders who guaranteed peace,
prosperity and harmony. Here in the Confucian system we can immediately notice the
primacy of the society over the individual person. In fact Confucius believed that the threat
to social order IS only caused by the unchecked selfish desires of individuals. The self
therefore in the Confucian system is a person within the society who exhibits refinement and
compassion.

The refined and compassionate person was what Confucius envisioned as junci. It
is the new self formed in the right education under the virtuous teacher as the role model.
Central in the educational formation of junzi are humanistic learning, refined personal
manners and the capacity to govern the community wisely and with compassion. In
principle, the new self of junzi - the sage king - brings to life the virtues of the ancestors 10
the new order of society. The self therefore is the transmitter of the ancient virtues to the
new world.

58
 C_ Understandng The Self_
To carry out the transmission, one must have the correct procedures and protocol.
In Chinese philosophy. religious rituals are of great importance. The word li originally
of
means sacrifice. In time, the principle of li is better undersfood as refined manner
spiritual rituals and sacrifices, and protocols in honoring the ancestors. Li is both the
restraining and the refinement of the self. The Virtuous self must be able to practice the
correct customary procedures and protocols governing all of life.

Another concept in Confucian philosophy iS the principle of ren. Ren is the

character of the self that sincerely shows compassion for others. The self must embody
human-heartedness by priontizing the self-interest of others. The sage king jenzi
characterized by his practice of ren in putting others first before the self.

Although Confucius was not given the opportunity to become the leader of China,
his principles of jenzi, li and ren became influential all throughout China even unto many
other modern civilizations of the world.

To conclude, we commonly hear the dichotomy between the east and the west. The
eastern traditions are known for their communal and spiritual constructs. On the other hand,
the western traditions developed a construct of being individualistic, self-reliant, rational
and scientific. In this chapter we were able to distinguish between the individualistic and
collective self. We clarified the many western constructs of the self vis-a-vis the relational
and spiritual construct of the east.

In this section we also discovered that there are still many other traditions by which
we can derive the conception
of the self. We have initially identified the African traditions

and conceptions of the self. We also have noted the distinction between the traditions of the
Our understanding of the self therefore, must not only be limited
to
north versus the south.
the dividing differences between east and west.

We continue unify different traditions and philosophies about the self

to as we

explore the different aspects of the self and identity in the next chapter.

59