HMATE 315: METAL CASTING AND PROCESSES

TUTORIAL NUMBER ONE

QUESTION ONE

Solidification is pure metals occurs at a constant temperature. Liquid to Solid transformation

occurs at the freezing point . In a pure metal at its freezing point where both the liquid and
solid states are at the same temperature. The kinetic energy of the atoms in the liquid and the
solid must be the same, but there is a significant difference in potential energy.

The atoms in the solid are much closer together, so that solidification occurs with a release of
energy. This difference in potential energy between the liquid and solid states is known as the
latent heat of fusion. In metal casting, because of thermal expansion , when a metal cools it
contracts and this leads to shrinkage ∆𝑇 = 0

Solidification in alloys now occurs over a temperature range. In this case we note the
importance of the Solidus and liquidus lines. Below is an example of the solidification of Cu-
Ni alloy

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 HMATE 315: METAL CASTING AND PROCESSES

QUESTION TWO

When the temperature of the liquid metal has dropped sufficiently below its freezing point,
stable aggregates or nuclei appear spontaneously at various points in the liquid. These nuclei,
which have now solidified, act as centres for further crystallization. As cooling continues,
more atoms tend to freeze, and they may attach themselves to already existing nuclei or form
new nuclei of their own. Each nucleus grows by the attraction of atoms from the liquid into
its space lattice. Crystal growth continues in three dimensions, the atoms attaching
themselves in certain preferred directions, usually along the axes of the crystal this gives rise
to a characteristic treelike structure which is called a dendrite. Solidification tends to occur
from the mold wall towards the centre , with the heat gradient heading in the opposite
direction. The dendrites tend to form themselves by opposing this temperature gradient.

QUESTION THREE

Porosity
This is due to the existence of trapped air in
the molten metal during solidification.
Usually it is caused by the metal shrinking
away from thick sections and towards thin
sections, leaving voids in the center.
Shrinkage
Because of thermal expansion, during
solidification, the metal contracts and this
leads to shrinkage.
Contraction of the metal during phase
change from liquid to solid (latent heat of
fusion). Contraction of the solidified metal
(the casting) as its temperature drops to
ambient temperature.

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 HMATE 315: METAL CASTING AND PROCESSES

QUESTION FOUR

The simplest method is observing them under a microscope. Air bubbles will have sufficient
surface tension while the metal is liquid to form a spherical cavity, whereas the shrinkage
pores will be far more jagged because they are formed by localized fracture of the solidified
metal. There are other tests that can be performed as well, for example, shrinkage cavities
will theoretically be under a vacuum, whereas an air bubble will be filled with the gas.
Therefore casting can be performed in the presence of a gas that can be traced, such as argon
or helium. The casting can be remelted in vacuum and outgassing of argon or helium can be
measured.

QUESTION FIVE

Heat treatments are there to improve the grain structure of metal castings. In cases where the
grain structure is fine, less dislocations tend to appear and this leads to less dislocation-
dislocation interaction(impedes movement) which in-turn makes the casting ductile and vice
versa. This improvement in the grain structure in a nutshell, ameliorates the mechanical
properties of the castings. On the other hand, castings are known to be weak due to micro-
porosity so heat treatments are there to aid in eliminating this factor as it affects material
behaviour.

QUESTION SIX

Pores are, in effect, internal discontinuities that are prone to propagate under external
stresses. Thus, the toughness of a material, for example, will decrease as a result of porosity.
Furthermore, the presence of pores in a metal part under tension requires that the material
around the pores support a greater load than if no pores were present; thus the strength and
elastic modulus are also lowered. Considering thermal and electrical conductivity, porosity
decreases both the thermal and electrical conductivity because of the presence of a vacuum.

QUESTION SEVEN

Using Bernoulli’s Equation and assuming that the pressure is constant.

𝑣'* 𝑣**
ℎ' + = ℎ* +
2𝑔 2𝑔

Solving this equation for velocity we obtain ,

𝑣* = -2𝑔(ℎ' − ℎ* )

The rate of flow is obtained using mass continuity where ;

𝑄 = 𝐴* 𝑉*

To understand whether flow is turbulent or laminar , Reynolds formula is applied

𝑣𝐷𝜌
𝑅5 =
𝜂

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 HMATE 315: METAL CASTING AND PROCESSES

In gating systems, Re typically ranges from 2000 to 20,000, where a value of up to 2000
represents laminar flow. Between 2000 and 20,000, it represents a mixture of laminar and
turbulent flow.However, Re values in excess of 20,000 represent severe turbulence.

QUESTION EIGHT

Applying Chvorinov’s rule

𝑉 *
𝑡: = 𝐶 < =
𝐴
𝐴 *
𝐶 = 𝑡: < =
𝑉
*
𝑑*
2𝜋 4 + 𝜋𝑑ℎ
𝐶 = 3 ? C … … … … … … … … . (𝑖)
𝜋𝑑 *
4 ℎ

Substitute the data in (i) to obtain C in mins/mm2

Use Chvorinov’s to obtain ts for h = 160mm and for d = 80mm

ts increases with increase in d and h.

QUESTION NINE

The plastic deformations, if tensile or flexural, need to be applied with great care on castings.
The main reason is that castings are typically weak in tension, due to micropores which act
as stress risers. While the intent may be to relieve residual stresses, the result may be metal
failure.