The opposition to the flow of electron Is

called an electrical resistance, R. It may be

defined also as the property of electrical
circuit which opposes the flow of current.

Resistance is measured in ohms Ω

Factors influencing Resistance:






 𝒍
The resistance of a conductor, such as wire, of uniform 𝑹= 𝝆 → 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑨
cross-section depends on the following factors:
𝜌 − 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 Ω − 𝑚
(a)Length: varies directly as its length 𝑅 − 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 Ω
𝐴 − 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚2
(b)Cross-section: varies inversely as the cross-section, A 𝑙 − 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚
(c) Nature of material, resistivity of specific resistance, 𝜌
(d)Temperature of conductor: It almost varies directly with
the temperature

𝝆 Ohm-m Ohm-cm Ohm-CM/ft 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒔

L 𝑚 𝑐𝑚 𝑓𝑡
𝑪𝑴 = 𝒅𝟐
A 𝑚2 𝑐𝑚2 𝐶𝑀
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠

1 𝑚𝑖𝑙 = 0.001 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ

 Element Resistivity at 20°C in Ω − 𝑚
Silver 1.59 𝑥 10−8
Copper 1.7 𝑥 10−8
property of material which resist the flow of Gold 2.44 𝑥 10−8
electric current through material. Aluminum 2.82 𝑥 10−8
Tungsten 5.6 𝑥 10−8
Iron 1.0 𝑥 10−7
𝑨 Platinum 1.1 𝑥 10−7
𝝆=𝑹 Lead 2.2 𝑥 10−7
𝒍 Manganin 4.82 𝑥 10−7
Constantan 4.9 𝑥 10−7
Mercury 9.8 𝑥 10−7
𝜌 − 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 Ω − 𝑚
𝑅 − 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 Ω Carbon (Graphite) 3.5 𝑥 10−5
𝐴 − 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚2 Germanium 4.6 𝑥 10−1
𝑙 − 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚
Silicon 6.4 𝑥 102
Glass 1010 𝑡𝑜 1014
𝒍 Quartz (fused) 7.5 𝑥 1017
𝑹= 𝝆 → 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑨
The temperature coefficient of resistance of a material
indicates the change in resistance of material with change
in temperature. Resistance of conductor changes with
change of temperature
𝑹𝟏 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟏 𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 𝟏 + 𝜶𝟏 𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏
=
𝑹𝟐 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟐 𝛼1 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡1

𝑅1 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡1
𝑅2 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡2 𝑹𝟏 𝟏 + 𝜶𝟎 𝒕𝟏
=
𝑇 = 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑹𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜶𝟎 𝒕𝟐
𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Temperature-Resistance Coefficients at 20°C°C
Element 𝛼20°
Nickel 0.006
Iron, commercial 0.0055
Tungsten 0.0045
Copper, annealed 0.00393
Aluminum 0.0039
Lead 0.0039
Copper, hard-drawn 0.00382
Silver 0.0038
Zinc 0.0037
Gold, pure 0.0034
Platinum 0.003
Brass 0.002
Nichrome 0.00044
German Silver 0.0004
Nichrome II 0.00016
Manganin 0.00003
Advance 0.000018
Constantan 0.000008
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON
RESISTANCE
(a) The resistance of metal conductors ‘increases’ ( 𝛼 ,i.e.,
temperature coefficient of resistance being positive)with
rise of temperature;

(b) The resistance of semiconductors such as carbon, and all

electrolytes ‘decreases’ as the temperature rises (𝛼 , being
negative).
property of material which allow the flow of
electric current through material. It is a
parameter which indicates how easily
electric current can flow through the
material 𝟏
𝑮 = → 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑹
𝟏 𝒍
𝝈= =
𝝆 𝑹𝑨 Unit is MHO or siemens
𝜎 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛 1/Ω − 𝑚 or ℧/m
𝜌 − 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 Ω − 𝑚
𝑅 − 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 Ω
𝐴 − 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚2
𝑙 − 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚
Determine the resistance of a copper tube having external
diameter 8 cm; thickness 5 mm and length 5 meters. It is given
that specific resistance of copper is 1.7 𝑥 10−8 Ω − 𝑚

Determine the conductivity and conductance of 1,000-meter

cable. The cross-sectional area of the cable core is 0.125 𝑐𝑚2
and resistivity of copper is 1.7 𝑥 10−8 Ω − 𝑚

The resistance of a given electric device is 46 ohms at 25°C. If

the temperature coefficient of resistance of the material is
0.004545 at 20°C. What is the temperature of the device when
its resistance is 92 ohms?

It is found that the armature of a coil of wire increases from 50

ohms at 20°C to 60 ohms at 56°C. What is the temperature
coefficient of resistance of the conductor material at 0°C?