Temperature

Measurement
Mark Murphy, PE
Technical Director, Fluor Corp.
2#
Types of Temperature Instrument

 Thermocouple (T/C)
 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
 Thermowell
 Thermistor
 Bi-metallic Thermometers
 Filled Thermal Systems

3#
Various Units of Temperature Measurement

• °C – degrees Celsius (or Centigrade)

• °F – degrees Fahrenheit
• K – Kelvin
• R – Rankine

Relationship between different units

• °C = (°F - 32)/1.8
• °F = 1.8 x °C + 32
• K = °C + 273.15
• R = °F + 459.67

Conversion tables or software can be utilized to facilitate

with converting between these units.

4#
 Thermocouples (TC’s)

Basic Theory
• In 1821 a German physicist named Seebeck discovered the thermoelectric effect which forms
the basis of modern thermocouple technology. He observed that an electric current flows in a
closed circuit of two dissimilar metals if their two junctions are at different temperatures.
• The thermoelectric voltage produced depends on the metals used and on the temperature
relationship between the junctions.
• If the same temperature exists at the two junctions, the voltage produced at each junction
cancel each other out and no current flows in the circuit.
• With different temperatures at each junction, different voltages are produced and current flows
in the circuit.
• A thermocouple can therefore only measure temperature differences between the two
junctions, a fact which dictates how a practical thermocouple can be utilized.

Iron (Fe)

100ºC 0ºC

Constantan (CuNi)
Thermocouple Circuit
5#
 Thermocouples (TC’s)

Thermocouple measuring circuit

Equivalent to
80ºC reading
Iron (Fe)
Copper (Cu)

100ºC 20ºC 0 10
mV
Hot Junction: Constantan (CuNi)
Copper (Cu)

In Process
Cold Junction:
Needs to be held constant to give a
fixed reference. ( early methods
held cold junction at 0ºC using ice
or refrigeration unit).

6#
Thermocouples (TC’s)
• Standard Thermocouple Alloy Conductor Combinations
CODE CONDUCTOR COMBINATION TYPICAL OPERATING
RANGE ºF
B Platinum-30% Rhodium / Platinum-6% Rhodium +2500 to +3100
C Tungsten-5% Rhenium / Tungsten-26% Rhenium +3000 to +4200
D Tungsten-3% Rhenium / Tungsten-25% Rhenium +2800 to +3800
E Nickel Chromium / Constantan 0 to +1650
J Iron / Constantan +0 to +1400
K Nickel Chromium / Nickel Aluminium 0 to +2300
N Nickel-Chromium-Silicon / Nickel-Silicon- 1200 to +2300
Magnesium
R Platinum-13% Rhodium / Platinum 1600 to +2600
S Platinum-10% Rhodium / Platinum 1800 to +2600
T Copper / Constantan -300 to +650

7#
Thermocouples (TC’s)

A graph of
temperature vs.
voltage shows
thermocouple
characteristics
are not
perfectly linear.

8#
Thermocouple Resolution

Temperature Change From 500 deg F to 510 deg F

TYPE 500 OF 510 OF DIFF

C 4.140 4.248 0.108
E 17.945 18.371 0.426
J 14.110 14.418 0.308
K 10.561 10.789 0.228
R 2.017 2.070 0.053
S 1.962 2.012 0.050
T 12.574 12.887 0.313

9#
 Thermocouples (TC’s)

• Thermocouple Construction
Sheath (normally stainless steel)

• Normally element is in a thermowell

Arc Welded Junction
(some are earthed at tip For
Magnesium Oxide
improved response time)
Conductors • Commonly element is 1/4” outside
insulated by
Diameter
Powder • Sheath material, normally Stainless
steel but can be special material such
as Inconel, Incoloy, Hastelloy etc.
• Duplex thermocouples have 2 elements
inside one sheath.

10#
 Thermocouples (TC’s)

Thermocouple Tip Types

Ungrounded – For Grounded – For use in Exposed – For use in

use in corrosive and corrosive and dry, non-corrosive, non-
pressurized apps. pressurized apps. pressurized apps.
Slow response time. Quicker response time Quickest response time
Offers electrical than ungrounded due to of all three.
isolation. improved heat transfer.

11#
Thermocouples (TC’s)

Response time
comparision among the
different thermocouple tip
types.

12#
RTDs

RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors) operate under the principle that

the electrical resistance of certain metals increases and decreases in a
repeatable and predictable manner with a temperature change.

13#
 RTD Elements

Wire Wound Element

Precise lengths of wire are wrapped around
a ceramic mandrel, then inserted inside a
ceramic shell which acts to support and
protect the wire windings.

Inner Coil Element

Wires are coiled then slid into the holes of a
ceramic insulator. Some manufacturers
backfill the bores with ceramic powder after
the coils are inserted. This keeps the coils
from shorting against each other.

Thin Film Element

Metallic ink is deposited onto a ceramic substrate.
Lasers then etch the ink to provide a resistance path.
The entire assembly is encapsulated in ceramic to
support and protect.

14#
RTD Leadwire Configuration

• 2-wire: Should only be used

with very short runs of
leadwire. No compensation
for leadwire resistance.

• 3-wire: Most commonly used

for industrial applications.
Leadwire compensation.

• 4-wire: Laboratory use

historically, moving more into
industrial applications. Full
compensation for leadwire
resistance.

15#
 Wheatstone Bridge

• The most common method for measuring the resistance of an RTD

is to use a Wheatstone bridge circuit. In a Wheatstone bridge,
electrical excitation current is passed through the bridge, and the
bridge output current is an indication of the RTD resistance.

1 R
R 2

AMMETER

RTD
R
3

16#
17#
 RTDs

• The most common material is Platinum.

• It’s resistance is 100Ω at 0°Celsius.
– Hence the term “PT100”
• It’s resistance is 138.5Ω at 100°Celsius.
– Hence the Fundamental Interval of 38.5Ω
– Or 0.385Ω per 1°Celsius Rise in Temperature.
• There are other materials available for more unusual temperature ranges
such as Germanium (e.g.10 to 100 °Kelvin).

18#
RTDs and T/Cs

Temperature Sensor Selection Guide

RTD Thermocouple
Temperature Range -328°F to 1562°F -310°F to 3308°F

Accuracy ±0.001°F to 0.1°F ±1°F to 10°F

Response Time Moderate Fast

Stability Stable over long periods Not as stable

<0.1% error / 5 yr. 1°F error / 1yr.

Linearity Best Moderate

Sensitivity High Low

Vibration applications Poor Good

19#
RTD vs T/C Accuracy

RTD Thermocouple Type J & K

Temp.°C Grade B Grade A Standard Premium
-200 ±1.10°C ±0.47°C
-100 ±0.67°C ±0.30°C
0 ±0.25°C ±0.13°C ±2.2°C ±1.1°C
100 ±0.67°C ±0.30°C ±2.2°C ±1.1°C
200 ±1.10°C ±0.47°C ±2.2°C ±1.1°C
300 ±1.50°C ±0.64°C ±2.3°C ±1.2°C
400 ±1.90°C ±0.81°C ±3.0°C ±1.6°C
500 ±2.40°C ±0.98°C ±3.8°C ±2.0°C

20#
Temperature Element Assembly

Head Nipple-Union-Nipple Thermowell

21#
 Thermowells

Straight Shank

Flanged
Van Stone

Plug
Step Shank

Tapered Shank

Plug
with
Threaded Weld-in Chain

Accessories
22#
Thermowells

Insertion Length

Lagging
Extension

23#
Thermowell Installation

PIP Flanged Thermowell

Installation Requirements

Perpendicular
Pipe Installation

Elbow Installation
24#
Thermowell Design & Material

Considerations for Thermowell selection:

• Process temperature
• Environment / Process media
• Fluid or gas pressure
• Pipe or vessel size
• Flow velocity

25#
 Wake Frequency
• Thermowells must be carefully selected for
processes where significant velocity is
present.
• By penetrating the process flow, the
thermowell is subject to the stress and friction
of the flow. This may set up a natural
vibration that may result in the shearing off of
the thermowell into the process. This is
called the “Wake Frequency”.
• ASME PTC 19-3 – Thermowells
– This Standard establishes a mechanical
design standard for reliable service of
thermowells in a broad range of
applications. This includes an evaluation
of the forces caused by external pressure,
and the static and dynamic forces
resulting from fluid impingement.

26#
 Wake Frequency Calculation
Energy Absorbed Top View
By Thermowell

Vortices
Resonance
Condition
fWake
Side View
Wake

fWake = fNatural
Frequency
(fWake) fNatural

Thermowell Calculations
1) Ensure that: fWake
fNatural < 0.8

27#
Other TW Failure Modes:
Process-Induced Bending Stress

Velocity
Density
Diameter FDrag FDrag Flow

Area
Length

28#
Thermowell Insertion Modification

SHORTENED
TYPICAL THERMOWELL STEPPED THERMOWELL
THERMOWELL
CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION
CONSTRUCTION

29#
Transmitters

• Signal Conditioner
• Low level inputs
mV from thermocouples
 from RTD’s
• High level outputs
4-20mA current
Digital (i.e. Fieldbus)

30#
 Thermistors

• Thermistors are temperature sensing devices that are similar to RTD’s in that
their resistance changes as temperature changes.

• The major difference is that for most thermistors the resistance decreases as
temperature increases.

• Thermistors are an inexpensive alternative to RTD’s when temperature ranges

are below 150°C. Thermistors can be used from temperatures of –80°C to
300°C.

• Most thermistors have base resistances, which are much higher than RTD’s.

• One of the greatest advantages of using a thermistor sensor is the large

change in resistance to a relatively small change in temperature. This makes
them very sensitive to small changes in temperature.

31#
Bimetallic Thermometers

A Bimetallic Thermometer
consists of an indicating or
recording device, a sensing
element and a means for
connecting the two. Basic example:
Two metal strips expand at different
rates as the temperature changes.
A pointer is attached to the
rotating coil which indicates
the temperature on the dial.

Bimetal Coil
Coil rotation is caused by the
difference in thermal
expansions of the two metals.

32#
Filled Thermal Systems

33#
References
• ISA MC 96.1 – Temperature Measurement Thermocouples
• PIP PCETE001 – Temperature Measurement Guidelines
• PIP PCFTE100 – Thermowell Fabrication Details
• ASME PTC 19.3 – Temperature Measurement
• Internet websites:
– Sensorsmag.com
– Omega.com
– Isi-seal.com
– Sensortecinc.com
– Wikipedia.org
– Rosemount.com

34#
QUESTIONS

Any Questions???

35#