TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

• Length, mass , Time are fundamental quantities.

• Temperature is related to ( by statistical mechanism) to
kinetic energies of molecules. (kinetic energy)
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• For two bodies to be said to have the same temperature,
they must be in thermal equilibrium.
• When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with the third
body, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
• If we can setup a reproducible means of establishing a
range of temperature, unknown temperature can be
compared
• Combination of two bodies with same temperature will not
produce the double temperature.
• It is not possible to establish a standard temperature and
then divide or multiply indefinitely to generate any arbitrary
magnitude.
• Let length of copper bar in ice water ( call it as 00) be 1m.
• Let 0.01mm expansion decided per degree rise, If thermal
expansion phenomenon is reproducible we have
established a scale.
• Is each degree of temperature equal to any other degree
of temperature?
• In terms of expansion – Yes
• In terms of other physical phenomenon -- ?
• If material is different then is it necessary that for its
expansion due to 1 degree (Cu. scale) from -6 degree to
-5 degree and from 100 degree – 101 degree is same ?
• What is the range of temperature in which such a scale
can be used ?
• Arbitrary defined scale, in principle, can be used easily.
These scales will be based on material properties.
• These scales will not have any particular significance with
regard to physical laws other than the one used in
definition.
• Such a scale will give a simple relationship for phenomenon
used.
• For all the physical phenomenon the relation may become
complex.
• Defining temperature scale which is independent of
material property and which has same physical significance
is necessary.
• Such a scale is called as Thermodynamic Temperature
Scale.
Thermodynamic temperature scale proposed by Lord
Kelvin in 1848
• Carnot’s cycle
• Perfectly reversible engine transfers heat from reservoir of
infinite capacity to another similar reservoir
• Heat taken from first reservoir at temp T2 is Q2 and
transferred to other at T1 and heat received is Q1
𝑄 𝑇
• Then by Carnot’s cycle: 2 = 2
𝑄1 𝑇1
• If we define a point (temp.) by triple point of water as 0
degree, full scale can be defined.( triple point – where
water , ice and vapor are present)
• Same point can also be defined as 273.15 K
• This scale is ideal , but Carnot's cycle is not physically
realizable
• Scale identical to thermodynamic temperature scale can be
given by constant volume or constant pressure gas
thermometer using ideal gas.
𝑝1𝑉1 𝑝2𝑉2
• =
𝑇1 𝑇2
• Defining one temperature (using triple point of water) will
set the scale.
• Ideal gas does not exist. Real gases will introduce errors.
Correction can improve the accuracy.
• However Gas thermometer itself is not very accurate.
• Steam point is reproduced with accuracy of .0005 degree
with platinum resistance thermometer and 0.02 with gas
thermometer.
UNIFORM VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER
• Use of Constant Volume or Constant Temperature
Thermometer is not practical due to
• lower precision
• tedious and time consuming procedures.
• International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) is
set up
• It is as close to thermodynamic scale as practical
• Error is Zero at t = 00 C & t = 1000 C
• Error is maximum 0.14 at t = 4000 C
There are some fixed points : PRIMARY

Sr. No Degree K Degree C

1 Triple point of equilibrium of hydrogen 13.81 -259.34
2 Boiling point of equilibrium of 20.28 -252.87
hydrogen
3 Boiling point of oxygen 90.188 -182.962
4 Triple point of water 273.16 0.01
5 Boiling point of water 373.15 100.0
6 Freezing point of zinc 692.73 419.58
7 Freezing point of silver 1235.08 961.93
8 Freezing point of gold 1337.58 1064.43
There are some fixed points :- SECONDARY

Sr. Secondary Degree K Degree C

No.
1 Sublimation point of CO2 194.674 -74.476
2 Freezing points of Mercury 234.288 -38.862
3 Equilibrium between ice and water 273.15 0.00
4 Melting points of bismuth 544.592 271.442
5 Melting points of lead 600.652 327.502
6 Melting points of antimony 903.87 630.74
7 Melting points of aluminum 933.52 660.37
8 Melting points of copper 1357.6 1084.5
9 Melting points of platinum 2045 1772
10 Melting points of tungsten 3660 3387
• Interpolation between fixed points is done using measuring
devices as defined.
• From -259.34 to 630.74 0C, Platinum Resistance
Thermometer
• From 630.74 to 1064.43 0C Platinum / 10 % Rhodium
and Platinum Thermocouple
• Radiation Pyrometer is used above gold point 1064.43 0C
• Readings of these instrument are taken at fixed primary
points.
• Equations are evolved for different sub ranges .
• This allows calculation of temperature at intermediate
temperatures.
 SOLID ROD THERMOMETER
• Inexpensive
• Slow Response
• ∆l = lo  ∆T
 BIMETALLIC THERMOMETER
• Normally used for on / off control, Thermal / overload cut-outs
• Inexpensive, Inaccuracy ± 10C, Range -100 to 10000C
• Due to differential expansion

1
𝑡{3 1+𝑚 2+ 1+𝑚𝑛 𝑚2+𝑚𝑛 }
• =
𝐴−𝐵 (𝑇2−𝑇1)(1+𝑚2)
6
• n = E B / EA m = tB / tA
• Normal Practice – 0.0125< t < 3.1 mm

• If tB / tA = 1 i.e. M = 1
• and n +(1/n) ≈ 1
2𝑡
• =
3 𝐴−𝐵 (𝑇2−𝑇1)
LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETER
• Accurate over small range
• Inexpensive but fragile
• Large thermal mass, slow
• Range is limited by liquids
• Mercury -> - 380 F – 10000 F (inert gas filled)
• Alcohol -> - 800 F
• Toluol -> -1300 F
• Pentane -> -3300 F
• Full Immersion Thermometer
• It is immersed in fluid up to just below the column.
• Partial Immersion Thermometer
• It is immersed in fluid up specific mark
• It is less accurate, needs correction
Correction = 0.00009 n (tcal- tact) 0 F where n is degrees not immersed /
difference in temperature of calibration
Correction = 0.00016 n (tcal- tact) 0 C

MM/Temp/17
PRESSURE THERMOMETER
• - 150 to 7500 F (Xylene), -38 to 11000 F (Mercury)
• Liquid is incompressible hence change in volume is measured
• Capillary can be upto 200 feet long, capillary compensation needed
Compensation
VAPOR PRESSURE
THERMOMETER
• Pressure change is measured
• No compensation needed
• Ethane: -100 to 800F
• Ethyl chloride: +40 to 3500F
• Chloro-benzene: +275 to
4990F
• Best Accuracy ± 0.5%
ELECTRICAL METHODS
• Variable Control Parameter / Variable Resistance
Transducer
– RTD
• Resistance Temperature Detector / Resistance
Thermometer
• Nickel, Copper, Platinum, Silver
– Thermistor
• Thermal Resistor / Semiconductor Resistance
Sensors
• Self Generating Transducers
– Thermoelectric Transducers / Thermocouples
COMPARISON OF RTD & THERMISTER
Sr. RTD Thermister
No.
1 Metal Semiconductor
Combination of metallic oxides of
Cobalt, Manganese, Nickel

2 Resistance increases Resistance decreases with

with increase in increase in temperature
temperature
3 Change in resistance Change in resistance is large(10
is small times greater than RTD)

4 Linear relationship Non linear relationship

Sr. RTD Thermister
No.
5 Range -250 – 10000C Range -100 to 2750C
6 It is more stable, better -
resistance to corrosion,
have better reproducibility
and lower hysteresis
7 Long thin wire, delicate , Larger resistance , any
costly shape simple cheaper
MM/Temp/23
MM/Temp/23
METALLIC RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
▪Platinum is commonly used, Nickel and Copper for low temperature
▪For most of Industrial, Lab applications
▪ Wire in coil form
▪ Protective cement for insulation and strength
▪ Direct wire in medium gives faster response
Platinum has stable and well defined temperature resistance
characteristic
Resistance to chemical attack and contamination
Stable, most reproducible, high degree of accuracy
Ease in Manufacture
R = R0 (1 + aT + bT 2 )
Where
R = resistance at Temp T (abs)
For values around 00C Ro= resistance at 0 deg C

(
R = R0 1 +  T 2 )
 = Temperature Coefficient of Resistance (Ω/Ω)/deg C
Cu - 0.0043 deg C -1 Ni - 0.0068 deg C -1
Pt - 0.0039 deg C -1
▪Bridge circuit is used
▪Lead compensation is required
 THERMISTERS
• Resistance decreases with temperature rise
• Ceramic – like semiconductors
• Variety of shapes and sizes – bed, thin disc, chip, wafer etc
• Resistance value 1 Ω to M Ω
• Fabricated form semiconducting material like oxides of copper,
nickel, manganese, cobalt, lithium and titanium
• Bonded in suitable proportion and compressed in desired
shape
• Heated to recrystallize, pressed and cured under load
• Large temperature coefficients
• Hence sensitive and accurate ( +/- 0.01 0C) with proper
calibration
• It withstands electrical & mechanical shocks/ stress
• Good operating range (-100 to 300 0C)
• Small hence fast response
• Low cost
• Non-linear, self heating effect → lower current level
 Bead
1 mm thickness

I.C. Chip Rod - 1 mm

1.25 x 100 x 0.3 mm thickness Dia.

Wafer
Washer
1.25 to 150 x 0.3 mm thickness
1.25 to 150 dia. x 0.3 mm
thickness
 ( 1 1
− 𝑇 )
• R = R0 𝑒 𝑇 0

• Where
• R0 = Resistance at reference temperature,
• R = Resistance at measured Temperature,
• β = Constant for Thermister material, experimentally
determined (3000- 4400 K)
• To = reference temperature, 0K
• T = measured temperature, 0K
𝐷𝑅/𝐷𝑇 
• =- 2
𝑅 𝑇
• If  = 4000 K & K = 298 K
𝐷𝑅/𝐷𝑇
• = - 0.045 K-1
𝑅
𝐷𝑅/𝐷𝑇
• Platinum = 0.0039 K-1
𝑅
THERMOCOUPLE
Insulators:
Magnesium oxide – Normal duty,
Ceramic– Heavy duty
SEEBEC EFFECT

• Voltmeter resistance is  or Ammeter resistance is zero

• J1 and J2 are joints of dissimilar materials
• As per Seebec Effect, E or I depends upon materials of J1 &
J2 and T1 & T2
• Relationship between E and T1 & T2 is the basis of
temperature measurement
• T2 is kept at Ice Point or Atmospheric Temperature as
reference for standardisation
• Peltier Effect
– When current flows through a circuit heat is generated
at cold junction and absorbed at hot junction.
– Cold Junction – Temperature Rises
– Hot Junction – Temperature Decreases
– If no current flows , there is no effect
– In practice emf generated is in mV and temperature
change depends upon current hence this effect is
negligible.
• Thomson Effect
– Junction emf is altered due to temperature gradient
along a conductor.
– This effect can be neglected.
LAW OF INTERMEDIATE METAL
• Insertion of intermediate metal in thermocouple circuit will
not affect the net emf provided the two junctions introduced
by the third metal are at identical temperature.
LAW OF INTERMEDIATE TEMPERATURE
• If a simple thermocouple develops an emf, E1 when its
junctions are at temperatures T1 and T2; and an emf E2 when
its junctions are at temperatures T2 and T3, it will develop an
emf E1+E2 when its junctions are at temperatures T1 and T3.
Relationship between E and T is a polynomial. Can be
approximated to a parabola.
E = a T + b T2
Thermocouple is extremely insensitive at neutral temp.

Neutral temp

A
E

Aprox. Linear range

285
T 0C
THERMOCOUPLE MATERIAL
• Withstand temperature
• Immunity from contamination / oxidation
• Linearity
• Base Metal Thermocouples
• Rare Metal Thermocouples
• Constantan – Copper + Nickel
• Chromel – Nickel + Chromium
• Alumel – Nickel + Aluminium
Copper (+) vs Constantan(-) (T)
Range 0 – 4000 C
E =(3.8470773840 x 10 x C
+ 3.32 x 10-2C2
+ 2.07 x 10-4C3
- 2.19 x -6C4
+ 1.10 x 10-8C5
– 3.09 x 10-11C6
+ 4.56 x 10-14C7
- 2.76 x 10-17C8) x 10-3
With respect to 00C reference junction temperature
C is 0C E is mV
Fe(+) vs constantan(-) (J)
Range – 2100 to 7600C

E =(5.04 x 10 x C + 3.04 x 10-2C2

– 8.57 x 10-5C3
+ 1.33 x 10-7C4
- 1.70 x 10-10C5
+1.94 x 10-13C6
- 9.64 x 10-17C7) x 10-3
CIRCUITS WITH OR WITHOUT LEAD AND 0 0 C
REFERENCE
CIRCUITS WITH AND WITHOUT LEAD AND
ROOM TEMPERATURE AS REFERENCE
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT USING
ROOM TEMPERATURE AS REFERENCE
• EX,O = EX,R + ERO
• EX,O → emf generated w.r.t 00C
• EX,R → emf generated w.r.t reference temperature
• ERO → emf generated for reference temperature w.r.t 00C
• ERO is calculated using standard tables or standard equations
• Example: Calculate for Cu-Constantan Thermocouple EMF at 800C with
reference temperature of 240C.
THERMOPILE
• Larger Signal
PARALLEL CONNECTION
• Average Signal
PYROMETERS
• Used to measure temperature above 6500C.
• All bodies above 00 K radiate energy.
• Pyrometry implies to thermal radiation measurement of
temperature.
• Non contact type.
• Electromagnetic radiations extend over wide range of the
wavelengths.
• At given wavelength, emitted energy is proportional to body
temperature.
STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW
• E a/b = C ϵ σ (Ta4-Tb4)
• Where,
• E (a/b) = Energy received in W/m2
• C = Geometric factor
• ϵ = Emissivity of body 0.05 – 1.00
• σ = Stefan - Boltzmann Constant, 56.7 x 10-12 kW/(m2k4)
• T = Abs temp
• Useful for Total Radiation Pyrometer
TOTAL RADIATION PYROMETER
• Special Optical Elements. Do not absorb any emission including Infrared
• Detector (Blackened Platinum Foil or Sheet) is adjusted such that
radiation is focused on it.
• Radiation increases the temperature of detector which is measured by
thermocouple.
OPTICAL PYROMETER
• Errors in Total Radiation Pyrometer
– Smoke, Dust, Gases, Window
– Emissivity of object
• As temperature increases wavelength becomes shorter
• Intensity spectrum for an ideal radiator (Black Body)
𝐶1
E,b = 𝐶2
𝜆5(𝑒 𝜆𝑇 −1)

• Wavelength of the peak intensity

max T = 2897.8 m.K
• E,b = Energy emitted by a black body at wavelength , in W/m2. m
•  = Wave length, m
• C1 = 374.18 MW. m4/m2
• C2 = 14388 m.K
• T = Absolute Temperature, K
• Contact less
• Not suitable for dynamic measurement
• Temperature distribution over a surface
• Optical pyrometer is accurate
± 50 850 to 12000 C
± 100 1100 to 19500 C
INFRARED PYROMETER
• In place of thermal detector, photocell is used to detect
proton flux
• Bandwidths are controlled by selection of photocell or
by optical filters
• Faster
• Range: - 400 C to 46000 C
• Otherwise similar to Total Radiation Pyrometer