MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND METROLOGY

Course code: 15ME1142

Unit 2 : Temperature Measurements

 Temperature

• Expansion Type

• Electrical resistance (RTD & Thermistors)

• Thermocouple

• Pyrometers
 Temperature Measurement
• Change in dimension : Bi-metallic thermometers
• Change in electrical properties : Resistance thermometers, thermistors
• Creation of an emf: Thermocouples
• A change in the intensity and color of radiation: Pyrometer

1. Bi-metallic thermometers
 Cantilever type
 Helix bimetallic thermometers
 Spiral bimetallic thermometers
2. Resistance thermometer (RTD)
3. Thermistors
4. Thermocouples
5. Pyrometers
 Total Radiation Pyrometer
 Optical Pyrometer (Disappearing Filament type)
 Temperature Measurement
Bi-metallic Thermometer
• Basic principle of working
1. All metals change in dimension i.e., expand or contract when there is a change in temperature
2. The rate at which this expansion or contraction takes place depend on the temperature coefficient of the metal

• The difference in thermal expansion rates is used to produce deflections which is proportional to temperature changes.
• The bi-metallic thermometer consists of a bimetallic strip
• It is made up of two thin strips of metal having different coefficients of expansion
• They are joined together by brazing, welding or riveting so that the relative motion between them is arrested.
• The bimetallic strip is in the form of a cantilever beam
• An increase in temperature will result in the deflection of the free end of the strip
• This deflection is linear and can be related to the temperature change.
• Metals used in bimetallic strip:
 High expansion: brass, Ni-Fe alloy with Cr and Mn
 Low expansion: Invar (Alloy of 36Ni-64Fe)
 Temperature Measurement
Bi-metallic Thermometer

• When the temperature increases, the strip will bend towards the metal with
a low-temperature coefficient and vice-versa
• The range of deflection depends on the type of metals used

Where, t - Total thickness of the strip

n – Ratio of modulii of elasticity
m – Ratio of thickness
 Temperature Measurement
Bi-metallic Thermometer Helix Bi-metallic strip thermometer

• A bimetallic helix fixed at one end to the body of the instrument and the free at other end attached to a shaft
• One end of the shaft is mounted in a frictionless arrangement
• The other end of the shaft connected to a pointer
• The pointer sweeps over a temperature calibrated circular dial graduated in degrees of temperature
• When the temperature of the medium is to be measured, the bimetallic thermometer is introduced into the medium for a
certain portion of length
• The bimetallic helix senses the temperature and expands resulting in deflection at its free end
• This deflection at the free end rotates the shaft connected to it
• The rotation of the shaft results in rotation of the pointer
 Temperature Measurement
Bi-metallic Thermometer Spiral Bi-metallic strip thermometer
• A bimetallic spiral fixed at one end to the body of the instrument and the free at other end attached to a floating shaft
• One end of the shaft is mounted in a frictionless arrangement
• The other end of the shaft connected to a pointer
• The pointer sweeps over a temperature calibrated circular dial graduated in degrees of temperature
• When the temperature of the medium is to be measured, the bimetallic thermometer is introduced into the medium for a
certain portion of length
• The bimetallic helix senses the temperature and expands resulting in deflection at its free end
• This deflection at the free end rotated the shaft connected to it
• The rotation of the shaft results in rotation of the pointer
 Temperature Measurement
Bi-metallic Thermometer

Applications
• Bimetallic strip is used in control devices
• Spiral strip is used in air conditioning thermostats
• Helix strip is used for processs application such as refineries, oil burners etc.

Advantages
1. They are robust, simpe and inexpensive
2. Their accuracy is between ±2% to ±5% of the scale
3. They can be used whereever a Hg-in-glass thermometers are used

Limitations
4. They are not recommended for temperatures above 4000C
5. When regularly used, the bimetal strip may permanently deform resulting in errors.
 Temperature Measurement
Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

• Two simple series-parallel arrangement of resistances

• They are connected between a voltage supply terminal and ground producing zero
voltage difference between the two parallel branches when balanced
• It has two input terminals and two output terminals consisting of 4 resistors
configured in diamond like arrangement

• The resistance R4 is replaced with an unknown resistance, Rx

• By adjusting the opposite resistor R3 (Rheostat) to balance the bridge network to
result in zero output voltage, Rx can be found
• The balance occurs when:
 Temperature Measurement
Resistance Thermometer

• When an electric conductor is subjected to a temperature change, the resistance of the conductor changes
• The change in the resistance is due to
 change in the dimension of the conductor i.e., expansion or contraction
 When the metal’s temperature increases, the resistance to the electron’s flow increases
• This change in resistance becomes a measure of change in temperature
• An approximation of the resistance – temperature relation is given by:

where, Rt – Resistance at any temperature T 0C

R0 – Resistance at Zero 0C
α, β – Material constants determined at Ice, steam and Sulphur points respectively
• Over a limited temperature range around zero 0C, the following relation is valid

• For a change in temperature from T1 to T2, we have

;

• The change in the resistance is directly proportional to the change in temperature

 Temperature Measurement
Resistance Thermometer

• The thermometer consists of a resistance element, suitable electrical leads and

an indicating or recording device
• The resistance element is usually in the form of a coil of very fine Pt, Ni or
Cu wound on non-conducting ceramic former
• It is protected externally by a metallic sheath
• The housing may be evacuated or filled with inert gas to protect the metal wire
• The resistance wire has to be free from mechanical stresses
• Leads are taken out of the thermometer for the measurement of changes in
resistance

A metal used for fabrication of sensing element is should satisfy the following characteristics:
• Linearity of Resistance – Temperature relation
• Relatively large change in resistance with temperature in order to produce a resistance thermometer with good
sensitivity
• No change of phase or state within a reasonable temperature change
• Availability in a reproducible condition i.e., consistent resistance-temperature relation
• High resistivity so that the unit can be fabricated in a compact and convenient size
 Temperature Measurement
Resistance Thermometer Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

• The resistance of the RTD changes constantly w.r.t. applied temperature

• The main parts of RTD are:

 A glass or metal tube that houses a ceramic mandrel

 A resistance wire is wound on this mandrel
 The lead wires of the resistance wire project out of the ceramic
mandrel
 The leads are connected a Wheatstone bridge
 The glass or metal tube is evacuated to filled with inert gas to protect
the resistance wire (sensing element)
 Temperature Measurement
Resistance Thermometer Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

• A known current is passed through the resistance wire

• Initial resistance of the wire is measured using the Wheatstone bridge
• The thermometer is introduced into the medium whose temperature is to
be measured
• Due to a change in temperature, the wire gets heated / cooled
• The resistance of the wire changes
• The change in resistance of the wire is measured
• This change in resistance becomes a measure of temperature when
calibrated.
• The balance bridge is used to measure the resistance
• Null balance bridge is used to measure the resistance change.
• Resistance ‘B’ represents the unknown value
• When the resistance of sensing element ‘B’ changes, the resistance ‘C’ is
adjusted to have no current flowing through galvanometer
• The condition of balance occurs when,
• Since, is known, ‘C’ becomes a measure of ‘B’
 Temperature Measurement
Resistance Thermometer Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Applications
• It is usually used when temperature measurement is to be done from a distance
• Used in continuous monitoring situations

Advantages
1. They are simple in construction
2. Accurate in measurement
3. Very easy to install and replace the thermometer
4. The accuracy of the measuring circuit can be checked easily by replacing the
thermometer with a standard resistance

Limitations
5. Slow in response as the sensing wire is covered by protecting class
6. Current leakage might take place between the thermometer and the ground
7. Lead resistance compensation become essential
 Temperature Measurement
Resistance Thermometer Thermistors / Thermal Resistor

• They are semi-conductors which behave as resistors with a high negative temperature coefficient.
• As the temperature increases, the resistance goes down and vice-versa
• They are very sensitive to temperature changes – decrease in 6% for every 1 0C rise in temperature
• They are useful for precision measurement, control and compensation in the temperature range of -100 0C to 3000C
• They are composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as Mn, Ni, Co, Cu, Fe and Uranium.
• They are milled, mixed in apt proportions and pressed into desired shape with apt binders and finally sintered
• The electrical terminals are either embedded before sintering or baked afterwards
• The electrical characteristics of thermistors are controlled by varying the type of oxide used and physical size
• They may be shaped in the form of beads, disks, washers, rods etc.
 Temperature Measurement
Resistance Thermometer Thermistors / Thermal Resistor

Thermistors differ from metal resistors in the following aspects:

• Resistance change in metals is positive. Thermistors have large negative resistance change
• Metals have approximately linear temperature – resistance relation. For thermistor it is exponential

• Practical operating range of thermistors lies within -100 0C to 3000C. For resistance thermometers: -1600C to 6000C
• Thermistors have high sensitivity and available in small sizes, fast thermal response, low cost.
 Temperature Measurement
Resistance Thermometer Thermistors / Thermal Resistor
Applications
• Due to their high sensitivity, they are used for measuring varying temperatures
• Used for temperature compensation in electrical circuits
• Used in time delay circuits
• Used to measure thermal conductivity
• Used in precision temperature measurement (1000C to 3000C)

Advantages
1. Low cost, very small size
2. High accuracy (measurement upto 0.010C is attainable)
3. Can measure high temperatures (8000C to 11000C)
4. Ability to withstand mechanical and electrical stresses
5. Simple electrical circuits can be used to measure change in resistance

Limitations
6. They have a non-linear scale over its range of operation
7. The resistance of the thermistor increases when time lapses (Aging Effect)
8. When current passes through the thermistor, it gets heated (Self heating Effect)
 Temperature Measurement
Thermocouples

• When two conductors of dissimilar metals M1 and M2 are joined together to

form a loop and two unequal temperatures T1 and T2 are imposed at the two
interface connections (Junctions), an electric current flows through the loop.
• The magnitude of the current is directly related to the two materials M 1 and M2
and temperature difference.
• A suitable device is incorporated in the circuit to indicate the electromotive
force or flow of current.
• For convenience, one of the junctions is maintained at some constant known
temperature.
• The output voltage of the circuit then indicates the temperature difference
relative to the reference temperature
• therm-o-electric effect arise in two ways:
 Peltier Effect: A Potential difference always exists between two dissimilar
metals in contact with each other
 Thomson Effect: A potential difference exists even in a single conductor
having a temperature gradients
 Temperature Measurement
Thermocouples

Laws of thermocouples:

1. Law of thermo-electricity or successive or intermediate temperatures: The sum of the emf developed by a
thermocouple with its junctions at temperatures T 1 and T2, and another thermocouple with its junctions at temperatures
T2 and T3, will be the same as the emf developed if the thermocouple junctions are at temperatures T 1 and T3.

• This law is used to make corrections to the thermocouple reading when the cold or reference junction temperature is
different from the temperature at which it was calibrated
 Temperature Measurement
Thermocouples

Laws of thermocouples:

Law of intermediate metals: A third metal may be inserted inti a thermocouple system without affecting the emf generated,
iff, the junctions with the third metal are kept at the same temperature.

• This law makes it possible to use extension wires of a metal different from the thermocouple material
• It enables an instrument to be introduced into the circuit to measure the emf produced
 Temperature Measurement
Thermocouples

Laws of thermocouples:

Law of homogenous circuits: If two thermocouple junctions are at T1 and T2, then the thermal emf generated is
independent and unaffected by any temperature distribution along the ires
 Temperature Measurement
Thermocouples

Thermocouple materials
• The emf produced per degree of temperature change must be
sufficient to facilitate detection and measurement. The larger Thermocouple Temperature Range (0C)
the value of potential produced, the greater will be the Chromel-Alumel -200 to 1100
sensitivity and higher the accuracy
Iron-Constantan -200 to 850
• The temperature-emf relation must be linear
• The thermocouple must maintain its calibration without drift Chromel-Constantan -200 to 850
over a long period of time Rhodium-Iridium 0 to 2100
• The thermocouple should have long life so that the cost of
Rhodium-Platinum 0 to 1400
measurement is not increased. It should be highly resistant to
oxidation, corrosion and contamination. Tungsten-Rhenium 0 to 2600
• The material should physically be able to withstand high and Copper-Constantan -250 to 400
rapidly fluctuating temperatures. Any phase change or other
internal phenomena will give rise to discontinuity in the
temperature-emf relationship
 Temperature Measurement
Thermocouples

General considerations
• The sensitivity and the maximum operating temperature of a thermocouple are affected by the wire size. For high
temperature measurements, heavier thermocouple wires are suggested. However, with increase in size, the response time
increases.

• Thermocouples are generally prepared by joining two metals at the hot junction by brazing, soldering or preferably by
welding. Satisfactory fusion can be achieved by cleaning two wires, twisting them.

• Material of the thermocouple wire is affected by the reducing (low oxygen and presence of hydrogen and carbon
monoxide) and the oxidizing (presence of oxygen and water vapors) atmospheres. Iron corrodes in an oxidizing
atmosphere and chromel becomes contaminated in a reducing atmosphere. To safeguard against harmful affects of
corrosive environment and any mechanical damage, they are provided with protecting tube.

• Extension wires are needed when the measuring instrument is to be placed at a considerable distance from the measuring
junction. Maximum accuracy is ensured when the leads are of the same materialas that of thermocouple element.
 Temperature Measurement
Thermocouples

General considerations for thermocouple materials

• The emf produced per degree of temperature change must be sufficient to facilitate detection and measurement. The
larger the value of potential produced, the greater will be the sensitivity and more accurately the temperature can be
ascertained.
• The temperature-emf relation should be reasonable linear and reproducible
• The thermocouple should maintain its calibration without drift over a long period of time
• The thermocouple should have a long life so that the cost of measurement is not unnecessarily increased due to frequent
replacement of thermocouple. The material should physically be able to withstand high and rapidly fluctuating
temperatures. Any phase change or other internal phenomenon will result in discontinuity in temperature-emf relation
 Temperature Measurement
Thermocouples Thermocouple Circuits

Thermocouple in Series Combination (Thermopile)

• In a series arrangement, the total output from ‘n’
thermocouples is equal to the sum of the individual emfs
• For identical thermocouples, with all the measuring
junctions at one temperature, ‘n’ thermocouples give an
output ‘n’ times as large as a single thermocouple
arrangement.
• The series arrangement provides considerably more
sensitivity and is frequently used where it is desired to
obtain a substantially large emf for measurement of small
temperature differences.
Example: A Chromel-Constantan thermocouple having
14 couples gives about 1 mV/0C and achieves a sensitivity
of 0.0020C. This enables the use of relatively inexpensive
instruments for emf measurement where otherwise a
microvolt potentiometer is necessary.
 Temperature Measurement
Thermocouples Thermocouple Circuits

Thermocouple in Parallel
• When average temperature measurement of a number
of points is to be done, the thermocouples are
connected in parallel
• Average temperature of gas flowing through a large
area passage
• Each of hot junctions may be at different temperatures
and hence will generate different emf
• The total potential indicated by the potentiometer will
be an average of the junction potentials
 Temperature Measurement
Pyrometers

• All bodies above absolute zero temperature radiate heat. Of the total radiation Q 0 falling on the surface of the body, a
portion QA is absorbed, another portion QR is reflected and the remainder QT is transmitted through the material
Q0 = QA + QR + QT
dividing each term by Q0, we get :
α - Absorptivity
ρ – Reflectivity
λ – Transmittivity
• A body that absorbs all the radiations falling upon it is called a black body.
• The radiating emissive power of a body is the thermal energy radiated from a unit surface of the body in a unit time.
• Pyrometry means temperature measurement using various forms of thermal radiation measurements
• When temperature to be measured is very high and physical contact of the instrument with the medium is not possible

• There are two types of pyrometers:

 Total radiation pyrometers
 Optical pyrometer (Disappearing filament type)
 Temperature Measurement
Pyrometers Total Radiation Pyrometer

• The radiations from the radiating object whose temperature is to be measured is focused on to a radiation receiving element

• The radiation receiving element (Radiation Detector) can be a thermopile, bolometer, photo-electric transducer)

• The radiation pyrometer is used to measure the total energy of radiation from a heated body.

• The energy is given by “Stefan-Boltzmann law” – the total emissive power of a black surface is directly proportional to the

fourth power of the temperature of the surface.

where, σ is Stefan-Boltzmann constant (4.876x10-8 Kcal/hr-m2-K)

 Temperature Measurement
Pyrometers Total Radiation Pyrometer

The main parts of a total radiation pyrometer are:

1. A housing tube. One end of this housing tube has a sighting hole which is adjustable with an eye piece
2. The other end of the tube is opened to receive radiations from the radiating object whose temperature is to be measured
3. Inside the tube, there is a concave mirror whose position can be adjusted with the help of a rack and pinion
4. A radiation detector is provided at a suitable place
5. A protecting shield is provided to see that the incoming radiations do not fall directly on the radiation detector
6. The radiation detector is connected to a suitable instrument to indicate the temperature directly
 Temperature Measurement
Pyrometers Total Radiation Pyrometer

Operation:
• To measure the temperature of the radiating object, the open end of the housing tube is focused on to the radiating object
so that thermal radiations enter the tube
• By looking through the sighting hole, the position of the concave mirror is adjusted so that the incoming radiation fall on
the concave mirror
• The radiations falling on the concave mirror are reflected onto the hot junction of the thermocouple.
 Temperature Measurement
Pyrometers Total Radiation Pyrometer

Application
• Used to measure temperatures ranging from 12000C to 35000C

Advantages
• They can measure the temperature of a radiating object without any physical contact
• High speed of response
• Used measure temperatures of stationary and moving objects
• High accuracy of ±2% of scale range
• Temperature measurement is independent of the distance of the radiating object

Limitations
• The presence of dust, smoke and gases between the radiating object and concave mirror will make the pyrometer read low
• The presence of hot gases in the middle, will make the pyrometer read high
• Low sensitivity in low temperature ranges
• Cannot be used for temperatures lower than 6000C
• Cooling is reauired to protect the instrument from over heating
 Temperature Measurement
Pyrometers Optical Pyrometer

• Disappearing Filament Type or Monochromatic Brightness Radiation Thermometer

• The temperature measurement is done by brightness comparison

• A color variation with growth in temperature is taken as an index of temperature

• The optical pyrometer compares the brightness of the image produced by the temperature source with that of a reference
temperature lamp

• The current in the lamp is adjusted until the brightness of the lamp is equal to the brightness of the image produced by the
temperature source

• Since the intensity of the light of any wavelength depends on the temperature of the radiating object, the current passing
through the lamp becomes a measure of the temperature of the source when calibrated.
 Temperature Measurement
Pyrometers Optical Pyrometer

The main parts of an optical pyrometer are:

1. An eye piece at one end and an objective
lens at other end

2. A power source (battery), rheostat and

millivoltmeter connected to a reference
temperature bulb

3. An absorption screen placed in between

objective lens and reference lamp

4. It is used to increase the range of

temperature which an be measured by the
instrument

5. The red filter allows only a narrow band of

wavelength of around 0.65μ
 Temperature Measurement
Pyrometers Optical Pyrometer

Operation
• The radiation from the source are focused onto the filament of the reference temperature lamp using the objective lens
• The eye piece is adjusted so that the filament of the lamp is in sharp focus and the filament is seen superimposed on the
image of the source
• The filament will appear dark if it is cooler than the temperature source and it will appear bright if it is hotter than the source
• The current in the lamp should be adjusted such that the filament and source temperature will have same brightness.
• This is seen when the filament disappears
• The current flowing through the lamp is a measure of the temperature of the source
 Temperature Measurement
Pyrometers Optical Pyrometer

Application
• Used to measure temperatures of molten metals and heated materials
• Measure temperatures of furnaces

Advantages
• Physical contact is not required
• Accuracy is high ±50C
• The distance between the instrument and the source doe not matter provided a proper sized image of the source
• Easy to operate

Limitations
• Temperature of more than 7000C can only be measured since illumination of the temperature source is a must for
measurement
• Since it is manually operated, it cannot be used for continuous monitoring and controlling purposes