Temperature Measurement

Temperature
• Controlling temperature is one of the most
common processes in industrial electronics
and manufacturing.
• Manufacturing processes that are affected by
temperature are referred to as thermal
systems.
 Temperature
• Temperature is a measure of the average
kinetic energy of the particles that make up a
body.
– The greater the kinetic energy of the particles is,
the higher the temperature of the body will be.
• Temperature is the ability of one body to
transfer thermal energy to another body.
– If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium and no
thermal energy is exchanged, the bodies are at
the same temperature.
 Temperature
• Molecular motion creates heat known as
thermal energy
• Thermal movement from hot to cold is called
thermodynamics
• Absolute zero (no molecular motion) means
no heat is produced
 Temperature Scales & Units
There are 4 scales that can be used to measure
temperature.
• Celsius / Fahrenheit units are used in the
common every day scales
• Kelvin / Rankine are used when working with
the Absolute Temperature Scale. (These are
typically used in engineering and research
calculations)
 Imperial Metric
Fahrenheit (⁰F) / Rankine (⁰R)
+/- 460 Celsius (⁰C) / Kelvin (⁰K)
+/- 273

212⁰F 672⁰R 373⁰K

100⁰C
Fahrenheit
[°F] = [°C] · 9/5 + 32
32⁰F 492⁰R
0⁰C 273⁰K Celsius
0⁰F 460⁰R
-18⁰C 255⁰K [°C] = ([°F] − 32) · 5/9
Kelvin
[K] = [°C] + 273.15
Rankine
[°R] = [°F] + 459.67
 
-273⁰C 0⁰K
-460⁰F 0⁰R
Temperature devices are specified according to
their construction and are classified as follows:

• Liquid Expansion Devices

• Bimetallic Elements
• Electrical Sensors
– Thermistors
– Resistive Temperature Detectors(RTDs)
– Thermocouples
– Semi Conductor
• Optical Pyrometers
• Change-of-state Devices
 Liquid Expansion Devices
This type of temperature measurement is based
on the theory that when a liquid is heated its
volume or pressure will change in proportion
to the applied temperature.
There are 2 types:
• Liquid in Glass Thermometers
• Filled Thermal Systems
 Liquid in Glass Thermometers
Liquid-in-glass or "bulb" thermometers are a
common type of temperature indicator in use
today.
 Advantages

• easy portability,
• independence of auxiliary equipment,
• low cost,
• compatibility with most environments,
• moderate ruggedness, and
• wide range (it has been used to measure
temperatures as low as 70 K and as high as 1000
°C, but its most frequent use is within the range -
40 °C to 250 °C).
 Disadvantages
• a large sensing element,
• impossibility for continuous or automatic
readout,
• long time constant,
• awkward dimensions, and hysteresis (except
for special types),
• breakage (Mercury contamination)
Industrial Grade Thermometers
 Bimetallic Thermometers
• Based on the principle that different metals
expand at different rates as they warm up.
• By bonding two different metals together, you
can make a simple electric controller that can
withstand fairly high temperatures.
• This sort of temperature element is found in
many mechanical temperature switches as
well as indicators.
• Strips of metals with different
thermal expansion coefficients are
bonded together at the same
temperature.
• When the temperature increases,
the assembly bends.
• When this happens, the metal strip
with the larger temperature
coefficient of expansion expands
more than the other strip.
• The angular position-versus-
temperature relation is established
by calibration so you can use the
device as a thermometer.
Bimetallic strip used as a switch
 Radiation Temperature Sensors
Optical Pyrometers
• In general terms these devices measure the
amount of radiation emitted by a surface.
Electromagnetic energy radiates from all
matter regardless of its temperature. In many
process situations, the energy is in the
infrared region. The intensity of an object's
emitted IR energy increases in proportion to
its temperature and measured as the target's
emissivity, that indicates an object's
temperature.
Non Contact Measurement
 Used in High Temperature
Applications
• Radiation Temperature sensors can be used as
hand-held local temperature devices or can be
installed to provide a continuous signal. They
are used in many industries where extremely
high temperatures and/or non-contact
measurements are required. (Extrusion
presses, rolling mills, strip annealing, Tank
refractory’s, mold temperatures, bottle
machines, Kiln shell, and many more)
 Electrical Temperature Sensors
• Resistance
–Thermistors
–Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTD’s)
• Thermo-electric
–Thermocouples
 Thermistors
• Are thermally sensitive resistors that change
resistance with changes in temperature (in a
predictable manner)
• They are highly-sensitive and have very
reproducible resistance Vs. temperature
properties.
• Typically used over a small temperature range,
(compared to other temperature sensors)
because of their non-linear characteristics
• Manufactured from oxides of nickel,
manganese, iron, cobalt, magnesium, titanium
and other metals.
• They are epoxy or glass encapsulated, or bare
bead, many of the standardized types are
colour coded.
Temperature Vs Resistance
Characteristics
• Most
thermistors
exhibit a
negative
temperature
coefficient
(NTC)
• Non-linear T
vs R
 General Specifications (NTC’s)
• Usually specified by their resistance at room
temperature
– For example a NTC Thermistor T25 could have a
resistance of 3.0 KΩ, 5.0 KΩ, 10.0 KΩ at 25℃
• Accuracy is very good to average
• Response time is fast to moderate
• Typically used over small temperature ranges
Thermistor Bridge Circuit
Resistance Temperature Detectors
RTD’s
• RTD’s change resistance in a “linear”
relationship to the applied heat.
• Very accurate temperature vs resistance
characteristics & reproducible
• Excellent interchangeability & stability
• Can be used as a temperature standard
 RTD Materials
• Platinum
• Nickel
• Copper
Temperature – Resistance Characteristics
RTD’s are specified by their resistance value at
zero deg C and the material they are made of

Platinum (Pt)
– Pt100 (100 Ω @ 0 ⁰ C) 0.4 ohms/C
– Pt1000 (1000 Ω @ 0⁰ C) 4 ohms/C

– Nickel Ni120 (120 Ω @ 0⁰ C)

– Copper Cu10 (10 Ω @ 0⁰ C)
RTD Temperature vs Resistance
 Temperature Coefficient
• Temperature coefficient or alpha ά is used by the
manufacturers to “standardize” the RTD’s (slope
of T-R curve)
• The alpha describes the average resistance
change per unit temperature from the ice point
to the boiling point of water.
• A Pt100 & Pt1000 have an ά = 0.00385
 RTD Resistance vs Temperature Table
(alpha = 0.00385)

Alpha is a “linear” coefficient that is used when manufacturing RTD’s.

0 degrees = 100 ohms 100 degrees= 138.51 ohms Alpha=0.00385 ohms/ohm/⁰C
For every 1⁰ change in temperature the resistance will increase by 0.385 ohms
 Wiring Configuration
• RTD’s typically use with a bridge circuit
Thermistor / RTD Comparison
 Thermocouples (TC’s)
• A thermocouple consists of two pieces of
dissimilar metals with their ends joined
together (by twisting, soldering or welding)
• Based on the Seebeck Effect which simply
states that an electromotive force (emf) is
created at the junction of 2 dissimilar metals
when heated.
 Seebeck Effect produces a mV
• When heat is applied
+
to the junction of 2
dissimilar metals, a
V
voltage, in the range
(mV) -
of millivolts (mV), is
generated at the
open leads.

The mV per degree will depend on the combinations of metals used.

Manufacturers produce a variety of combinations specified as “types”
example - Type T, J, K, E
 Thermocouple Types
• Manufacturers have perfected a variety of metal
combinations and specify them as “types”
 example - Type T, J, K, E …..

• Each type produces its own specific mV per degree,

these values are published in the TC tables

• Each type has a different temperature range (Type T

can only measure up to 400 ‘ C, Type K 1300 ‘C)

• The Types are colour coded to make it easy to

identify them in the field.
 Thermocouple Types
TC Colour Range C Conductors – Positive Conductors – Negative
Type
K Yellow/Red -270 to1372 Chromel Alumel

N Orange/Red -270 to 1300 Nicrosil Nisil

J White/Red -210 to 1200 Iron Constantan

E Purple/Red -270 to1000 Chromel Constantan

T Blue/Red 0 to 400 Copper Constantan

C White-Red/Red 0 to 2320 Tungsten/5% rhenium Tungsten 26% rhenium

R Black/Red -50 to 1768 Platinum-13% rhodium Platinum

S Black/Red -50 to 1768 Platinum-10% rhodium Platinum

B Grey/Red 0 to 1700 Platinum-30% rhodium Platinum-6% rhodium

TC - C/mV Comparison
 TC Pro’s & Con’s
Advantages of the thermocouple included
• a wide temperature from –300 to 2300 F,
• fast response time (under a second in some cases),
• low initial cost and durability,
• thermocouples are able to withstand rugged applications.
Disadvantages for thermocouples are their
• wide accuracy range, especially at elevated temperatures,
• difficult to recalibrate seeing as though they are dependant
upon the environment, and
• installation can be very expensive if long lengths of
thermocouple wire are needed.
RTD vs TC vs Thermistor
RTD vs TC vs Thermistor
Response Time – Time Constant
Flow Measurement
Anil Markana
PDPU
 Overview
Flow can be measured in terms of
Quantity – how many liters of gas did I use and how much
will it cost me?
Rate – you must keep the water flowing at 10 gallons per
minute to fill up the pool by lunch time.

• Flow can be difficult to control and measure

accurately.
 Reasons for Control
• To ensure the correct proportions of raw
materials are combined during the manufacturing
process
• To ensure that ingredients are supplied at the
proper rate during the mixing and blending of the
materials
• To prevent a high flow rate than might cause
pressure or temperatures to become dangerous,
overspills to occur, or machines to overspeed
 Methods to Measure Flow
Flow can be measured directly or indirectly using one of
the following methods.
– Headmeters
– Variable Area Flowmeters
– Volumetric/Displacement Flowmeters
– Mass Flowmeters
– Coriolis
– Velocity , Vortex Flowmeters
– Magnetic Flowmeters
– Ultrasonic
 Flow Units
When measuring the flow Quantity of fluids we can use
units of volume or mass:
• Liquid – gallons, barrels or liters
• Gas – cubic feet (ft3), cubic meters (m3)
• Vapour (steam) – lbs, kg
When measuring the flow Rate we use units of volume or
mass over time:
• Liquid – gallons per minute (gpm) or liters per min.
• Gas – cubic feet/hr (ft3/hr), cubic meters/hr (m3/hr)
• Vapour (steam) – lbs/hr, kg/hr
 Headmeters
Headmeters infer flow rate by measuring the
differential pressure “head” developed across
a restriction in the flow line.
Types of Headmeters:
– Orifice Plate
– Venturi
– Flow Nozzle
– Annubar
– Pitot tube
Principle of Head flow meters
Bernoulli's Principle
2 2
1 va 1v
Pa   Pb  b
2  2 
Pa ,Pb:liquid pressure at point P and point Q
va ,vb:liquid velocity at point P and point Q
 : liquid gravity

Q  va Aa  vb Ab
Ab  Aa
Aa , Ab : pipe area at section A and B

2
Q  va Aa  Aa Pb  Pa
1   Aa / Ab 
2

 K Pb  Pa
 Cd K Pb  Pa
 General Theory of Headmeters
• Based on Bernoulli's Principle
• Upstream pressure increases, velocity decreases
• Downstream pressure decreases, velocity increases
• Flowrate “Q” is a function of the differential pressure
developed across the restriction.

Upstream pressure Downstream pressure h

Inches
H2O

Flow Rate
Q Q= 2gh

Restriction in the
flow line reduces
the area
A headmeter produces
an non-linear signal
(Square Root Output)
 Orifice Plates
• Most common and simplest element used to produce a
differential pressure
• Steel plate with hole machined in it
• Taps are installed on the flange to sense differential pressure

Pressure Taps

orifice
 Differential Pressure drop across the orifice

• “Beta ratio” – ratio of orifice diameter to

inside pipe diameter
• “Vena Contracta” – fluid is at it’s lowest
pressure
Permanent
pressure loss
reduces the
efficiency.
 Types of Orifice Plates
There are 3 general types of orifice plates that are used to meter gas, vapour,
or liquids with some degree of accurately

A
(A) Concentric bore design
– Used for most clean fluids
– May clog if fluid contains solids
(B) Eccentric bore design
– Hole is off-center
– Used for liquids that contain some solids
(C) Segmental plate
– Used for thin slurries but less accurate

A B
C
Orifice Plates often have
small holes at either the top
or bottom of the plate to
allow condensate or gas to
pass through
 Typical Installation
• Orifice plate is the
primary element
• d/p cell is the
secondary element
(some models have
square root
compensation)
• RTD or TC temperature
transmitter and
pressure transmitter
are used to measure
process fluid for
compensation.
4-20 mA HART,
Modbus
 Lab Results – d/p cell flow transmitter

d/p Cell Calibration

ORIFICE
Rotameter FT Output
Q (LPM) (mA)

Q 0 4
2
4
4 – 20 mA
6
8 20

Q
 Square Root Extractors
• The non-linear output can make it difficult for
controlling flows,
• A square root extractor converts the output of
the d/p cell into a linear signal.
• Some d/p cells have this function built in
• Most DCS/PLC systems can also do the
conversion.
 Venturi Tube
• Produces a ∆P signal just
like the orifice but lower
• The flow restriction occurs
gradually therefore it is
more efficient than the
orifice.
• More expensive
• Doesn’t clog
 Flow Nozzle
• Half orifice - Half venturi
• Permanent pressure loss is
better than orifice - less
than venturi
• Ideal for steam flow
• ∆P is lower than orifice -
higher than venturi
 Pitot Tube
• Simple and inexpensive
• Very small pressure loss but low ∆P
• Only good with high velocity fluids

L
H
Summary of Headmeters - ∆P
• Orifice plate
• Venturi tube
• Flow Nozzle
• Pitot tube
• Others
– Dall tube
– Elbow taps
 Variable Area Flow Meters
Rotameters are the most common type of VA
flow meters.

• The force of the flowing fluid (Q) causes

the float to rise.
• The height of the float against a calibrated
scale determines the flow rate.
• Scale calibration is marked as
• Liquids - gpm, (gallons per minute)
• Gas - scfm (standard cubic ft. minute)
 Rotameter - How it works
The weight and shape of the float
are designed to match the fluid
properties.
• As the flow increases the area
between the float and tube
increase.
• The float finds a height where the
pressure of the fluid and weight
of the float are equal.
 Rotameter Summary
• no output for data transmission
• sensitive to differing gas types and
changes in Temperature and pressure
• Inexpensive
• somewhat self-cleaning
• no power required
• available in different materials for
chemical compatibility
 Electro-Magnetic Flowmeters
Electromagnetic Induction principle
Mag meters can handle most liquids and
slurries
There are no moving parts nor do they obstruct
the flow
Flowing medium must be conductive, not
suitable for gas or steam flow.
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The operation of a magnetic flowmeter is based upon Faraday's
Law, which states that the voltage induced across any
conductor as it moves at right angles through a magnetic field
is proportional to the velocity of that conductor.
Faraday's Formula:
E is proportional to V x B x D where:
E = The voltage generated in a conductor
V = The velocity of the conductor
B = The magnetic field strength
D = The length of the conductor
Electromagnetic flowmeter