FUNDAMENTALS of

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
(PART 2)
Resistance of Electrical Conductors
• Resistance
• The property of a material or circuit elements to oppose the flow of
electrons.
Factors affecting the resistance of a conductor:
1. Length
2. Cross-sectional area
3. Nature of the material
4. Temperature
Conductor

where:
𝐿 R=L
R  = resistivity or specific resistance
𝐴 A of a given material at a certain
temperature. (Ω-m)
but V = A L
L = length (m)
R =  V =  L2
𝑉 𝑉 A = cross-sectional area (m2)
L= ; A= A2 V
V = volume (m3)
𝐴 𝐿
Resistivity of Copper at 200C

• Standard Annealed Copper

 = 1.7241 x 10-8 Ω – m
= 1.7241 x 10-6 Ω - cm
= 10.37 Ω - cmil / ft
• Hard - Drawn Copper
 = 1.77 x 10-8 Ω – m
= 1.77 x 10-6 Ω - cm
= 10.65 Ω - cmil / ft
Conductance
-The property of the material that allows easily the flow of
current.

1 𝐴 𝐴
G= = = 𝜎
𝑅 𝜌𝐿 𝐿

where:
G = Conductance in Siemens (S)
 = conductivity constant in S / m
Percent Conductivity
• % conductivity =  material x 100%
 annealed Cu

• % conductivity =  annealed Cu x 100%

 material
 Effect of Temperature on resistance
R2
𝑇𝑥 + 𝑡2
𝑅2 = 𝑅1
𝑇𝑥 + 𝑡1 R1

• where:
R1 = Resistance at temperature T1
R2 = Resistance at temperature T2 TX t1 t2
T1 = Initial Temperature
T2 = Final Temperature
Tx = Inferred zero resistance temperature
= Inferred absolute zero temperature
= the temperature in which the material inhibits zero resistance or
super conductivity.
Also,
R2 = R1 (1 + 1 t)

where:
1 = temperature coefficient of resistance in / ºC
1
𝛼1 =
𝑇𝑥 + 𝑡1

t = t2 - t1 Change in temperature
Resistivity Constant, Inferred zero resistance temperature and
Temperature Coefficient of resistance of some common electrical
material
Material  at 20 ºC 𝑻𝒙  at 20 ºC
(Ω - m)
Silver 1.64 x 10-8 243 0.0038
Copper 1.72 x 10-8 234.5 0.00393
Aluminum 2.83 x 10-8 236 0.0039
Tungsten 5.50 x 10-8 202 0.0045
Nickel 7.80 x 10-8 147 0.006
Factors affecting the resistance of a
conductor:
1. Length
2. Cross-sectional area
3. Nature of the material
4. Temperature
Resistor Color Coding

Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance
Black 0 x 100 -
Brown 1 x 101 -
Red 2 x 102 -
Orange 3 x 103 -
Yellow 4 x 104 -
Green 5 x 105 -
Blue 6 x 106 -
Violet 7 x 107 -
Gray 8 x 108 -
White 9 x 109 -
Gold - x 0.1 +/- 5%
Silver - x 0.01 +/- 10%
No color - -- +/- 20%
Sample Problems:
1. What are the Values of the following resistors? Tolerances?
a) Brown Red Brown Silver
• (Ans. R = 120 Ω, T = 108 Ω – 132 Ω)
b) Green Blue Black
• (Ans. R = 56 Ω, T = 44.8 Ω – 67.2 Ω)
c) Brown Gray Yellow Gold
• (Ans. R = 180,000 Ω, T = 171,000 Ω – 189,000 Ω)
d) Yellow Violet Silver Silver
• (Ans. R = 0.47 Ω, T = 0.42 Ω – 0.52 Ω)
2. A certain resistance was measured to be 30 Ω at 20 °C and 40 Ω at 95 ºC. Find
the temperature coefficient at 0 °C and 25 °C, and the inferred zero resistance
temperature.
SOLUTION
1
𝛼1 = 1
𝑇𝑥 + 𝑡1
𝛼0𝜊 𝐶 = = 0.00488 / °C
205 + 0
𝑅1 𝑅2
=
𝑇𝑥 + 𝑡1 𝑇𝑥 + 𝑡2

30 40
1
= 𝛼25𝜊 𝐶 = = 0.00435 / °C
𝑇𝑥 + 20 𝑇𝑥 + 95 205 + 25

𝑇𝑥 = 205𝜊 𝐶
3. What is the resistance at normal room temperature of a 60 m
copper wire having a diameter of 0.64 mm? 𝜌copper = 1.7241 x 10-8 Ω-m at 20 °C.

SOLUTION

𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋(0.000642 )
𝐴= = = 3.217𝑥10−7 𝑚2
4 4
60
𝑅= 1.7241𝑥10−8 −7
= 3.22 Ω
3.217𝑥10